World/'s Top 10 Rivers At Risk
World’s
top 10
rivers
at risk
World’s
top 10
rivers
at risk
Wong, CM, Williams, CE, Pittock, J, Collier, U and P Schelle. March 2007.
World’s top 10 rivers at risk. WWF International. Gland, Switzerland.
This report was designed by The Clarion Portfolio.
Cover image: Fisherman on Zhangdu Lake, the project area of the
WWF HSBC Yangtze Programme, Hubei Province, China.
© WWF-Canon / Yifei ZHANG
Executive Summary
Executive
Summary
“What makes a river so
restful to people is that
it doesn’t have any
doubt - it is sure to get
where it is going, and
it doesn’t want to go
anywhere else.”
Hal Boyle
Pulitzer prize-winning columnist
Perhaps there was a time when that was true, but no longer.
Even the greatest of the world’s rivers can no longer be assured
of reaching the sea unhindered. These days the Rio Grande/Rio
Bravo River, on the border of the U.S. and Mexico, often fails
to reach the Gulf of Mexico, its strength sapped by dams and
irrigation works diverting water to farmers’ fi elds and city water
supplies. The Indus, the Nile, the Murray-Darling, the Colorado,
these are but a few of the once mighty rivers that now struggle
to touch the ocean.
In fact, water extraction is only one of the daunting challenges
that a river faces as it makes its way to its terminus. Dams
and channelization destroy habitats, cut rivers off from their
fl oodplains, and alter the natural ebb and fl ow on which a river’s
plants and animals depend. Invasive species crowd rivers’
banks, drive out their native fi shes, and choke their courses.
Pollution fouls their waters, sometimes turning life-giving rivers
into threats to human health. And climate change threatens to
alter all the rules that rivers have lived by for thousands of years.
Why is this important? Because endangered rivers threaten the
livelihoods of people. Rivers basins are the way nature gathers
and delivers water for human use. These ecosystems provide
electricity generation, transport, recreation and tourism, and
valuable but often unaccounted fl ood and drought regulation,
sediment and nutrient retention, and habitat for diverse fauna
and fl ora. Freshwater biodiversity is an important source of
food, income, and livelihood, particularly to rural communities
© WWF-Canon / Claire DOOLE
in developing countries. Studies have estimated the economic
Houseboat at the banks of a heavily polluted Yangtze River, near Three
Gorges Dam. Hubei Province, China.
value of river basins in the billions of dollars (Schuyt 2005).
3
WWF has selected the “top ten” major rivers that, in our
view, either a) already suffer most grievously under the weight
of these threats or b) are bracing for the heaviest impacts.
Executive
Summary
The primary objective of this report is to illustrate the most
Summary of Threats
menacing threats to the world’s great river basins, in order to
River basin
Corresponding Threat
encourage dialogue, provoke debate, and urge governments
Salween - Nu
Infrastructure - Dams
and other stakeholders to take action before it is too late. To do
Danube
Infrastructure - Navigation
this, WWF has selected the “top ten” major rivers that, in our
La Plata
Infrastructure - Dams and Navigation
view, either a) already suffer most grievously under the weight
Rio Grande - Rio Bravo
Water Over-extraction
of these threats or b) are bracing for the heaviest impacts.
Ganges
Water Over-extraction
Thus, there are some rivers on the list that are so damaged that
Indus
Climate Change
without serious restoration efforts they could be lost, and others
Nile-Lake Victoria
Climate Change
that are relatively intact, but face massive degradation unless
Murray-Darling
Invasive Species
action is taken now to conserve them.
Mekong - Lancang
Over-fi shing
Yangtze
Pollution
Surveying the results of eight international assessments, such
as the Millennium Assessment ‘Wetlands and Water’ Synthesis
Report that compiles the work of more than 2,000 authors and
reviewers, WWF assessed the six most important threats based
on their known impact on roughly 225 river basins. These are
dams and infrastructure, excessive water extraction, climate
change, invasive species, over-fi shing, and pollution.
We provide this overview of the most serious threats to river
basins to highlight those globally important watersheds at
greatest risk, and to stress the importance of integrated river
basin management solutions. Focusing analysis on watersheds
with high ecological importance and those affecting large human
populations, with a view to continental representation, the ten
most endangered rivers emerge as: the Salween, La Plata,
Danube, Rio Grande, Ganges, Murray-Darling, Indus, Nile,
Yangtze and Mekong.
© WWF-Canon / Claire DOOLE
China Energy hydropower station Taipingyi, damming the Min River.
Sichuan Province, China.
4
Introduction
Introduction
Human civilization was born on a river bank. For thousands of
Freshwater living planet index, 1970-2003
years, the relationship was a relatively benign one. However,
1.8
in the last 50 years, we have altered ecosystems more rapidly
and extensively than in any other period in history (Millennium
1.6
Ecosystem Assessment (MA) 2005). Rapid population growth,
1.4
economic development and industrialization have led to the
Index (1970=1.0)
1.2
unprecedented transformation of freshwater ecosystems and
consequent biodiversity loss (Convention on Biological Diversity
1.0
(CBD) 2005; MA 2005). Today, 41% of the world’s population
0.8
lives in river basins under water stress (CBD 2005).
0.6
Freshwater ecosystems are the rivers, streams, lakes, ponds,
Freshwater index
0.4
groundwater, cave water, springs, floodplains, and wetlands
Living planet index
0.2
(bogs, marshes, and swamps) that provide water for drinking,
sanitation, agriculture, transport, electricity generation and
0 1970
1980
1990
2000 ’03
recreation (CBD 2005; MA 2005a). They provide valuable but
often unaccounted for flood, drought, nutrient and sediment
WWF’s Living Planet Index 2004 graph shows decline in
regulation (CBD2005; MA 2005a). Freshwater systems are also
freshwater species’ populations
habitat for diverse fauna and flora which provide an important
source of food and fiber that sustain incomes and livelihoods,
particularly for rural communities in developing countries
Our review is not an exhaustive description of all threats to
(CBD2005; MA 2005a).
freshwater systems, nor, in light of insufficient data, does it
provide a fully quantitative analysis to mount a purely objective
The threats to freshwater ecosystems are immense. More
case for the most threatened rivers. Instead, it captures the
than 20% of the world’s 10,000 freshwater species have
diverse social, hydrological, climatic and biological factors
become extinct, threatened or endangered in recent decades
which threaten the integrity of major watersheds. Drawing from
(CBD2005). Freshwater environments tend to have the highest
published literature and field expertise, this report offers WWF’s
proportion of species threatened with extinction (MA 2005).
view in 2007 of the most severe threats to the world’s rivers,
Now, the use of capture fisheries and freshwater is well
and based on this information, our judgment on the top ten
beyond levels that can be sustained at current, much less
endangered rivers.
future demands (MA 2005). Physical alteration, habitat loss
and degradation, water extraction, over-exploitation, pollution
We asked three questions: a) what are the key pressures on
and the introduction of invasive species threaten the planet’s
and drivers of change in freshwater ecosystems, b) what
freshwater ecosystems and their associated biological resources
are the most illustrative examples of these threats, and
(MA 2005; CBD 2005). Although there is increasing concern
c) what recommendations or solutions can we pose to
for the maintenance of freshwater biodiversity and the goods
address these threats?
and services it provides, the demand for water itself is rapidly
increasing as well (United Nations Educational Scientific and
In answering the first question, we summarized the findings of
Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 2003, CBD 2005). Thus there is
eight wide-ranging and authoritative global assessments1 and
an ever increasing need and urgency for improved management
identified the threats mentioned with the greatest frequency.
of freshwater ecosystems.
The six threats that stood out are: water infrastructure (including
dams), over-extraction of water, climate change, invasive
species, over-fishing and pollution.
1 CBD 2001; CBD 2003; Loh et al. 1998; Loh (ed) 2000; Loh (ed) 2002; MA 2005a;
MA 2005b; Oki et al. 2004; Postel & Richter 2003; Vorosmarty et al. 2004; UN 2002;
WWF 2005j.
Presently, 41% of the world’s population
lives in river basins under water stress
(CBD 2005).
Introduction
In answering the second question, we looked for ten river basins
which best illustrate these threats. We focused on permanent
rivers in primary watersheds, as defi ned in the “Watersheds
of the World” publication (Revenga et al. 1998). We selected
watersheds which:
1) Are in or contain regions of high ecological importance, as
identifi ed in WWF’s Global 200 ecoregion analysis, based
on the literature on freshwater fi sh species richness and
endemism, endangered charismatic species, and migratory
bird areas.
2) Face a high degree of threat from (and are depended on by)
large human populations.
3) Provide continental representation, and depict the nuances of
these threats to ecosystems.
We considered threats to biodiversity and services which intact
ecosystems provide to people according to the Millennium
Ecosystem Assessment, using the links provided by Alcamo et
al. 2003, Duraiappah 2002, and Daily 1997. We selected rivers
suffering from existing threats and those which are relatively
intact but under imminent danger from emerging threats. It is
important to note that most river basins suffer from multiple
threats (for example, almost all river basins are threatened or will
be threatened by over-extraction) that often compound each
other, but in this report we concentrate on ten basins which are
the best example of each threat.
Finally, we suggest some key solutions for better management
in these basins. We end by summarizing the six threats and the
ten basins representing these threats, and provide take-home
recommendations under the framework of integrated river basin
management.
© WWF-Canon / Michel GUNTHER
Lock gates at Gabcikovo Dam on the Danube River, Slovakia.
6
Infrastructure
Infrastructure
1 The Salween (Asia), the Danube (Europe)
and the La Plata (South America)
© WWF-Canon / Anton VORAUER
Old ship wreck and fi shermen on the Danube at Giurgiu, Romania.
The Salween faces
Globally, free-fl owing rivers, particularly
as electricity, income and water, out
heavy threat from
those moving over a distance of more
of the basin2 (Nilsson et al. 2005) and
damming, the Danube
than 1,000 Km are increasingly rare.
have displaced an estimated 40-80
from navigation
Only 21 (12%) of the world’s 177 longest
million people worldwide (WCD 2000).
infrastructure, and
rivers run freely from source to sea, and
Dam construction often prevents
La Plata from both.
the Salween is the last large free-fl owing
many migratory fi sh (an important
river in SE Asia (Goichot 2006). We know
food resource in many parts of the
that free-fl owing rivers provide water
world) from reaching spawning and
purifi cation, sediment fl ux transportation
feeding grounds, changes the seasonal
and deposition, coastal and coral reef
fl ow patterns afterward, and traps
support, and cultural and aesthetic
sediment in reservoirs to the detriment
services which benefi t people (Syvitsky,
of downstream habitat, delta lands and
Vorosmarty, Kettner and Green 2005
nutrient regimes3 (WWF 2004).
in Goichot 2006; WWF 2006). Still, our
understanding of nutrient and sediment
Considering development alternatives
services from free-fl owing rivers over
to damming and water navigation
long distances and the contributions they
infrastructure such as ecotourism and
make to the global ecosystem is limited.
rail transport is the fi rst step.
Free fl owing rivers have immense value
Implementing the recommendations
scientifi cally and are a phenomenon that
of the World Commission on Dams will
we are on the brink of losing without fully
help equitably develop the economic
understanding (Goichot 2006).
benefi ts of river basins while preserving
communities, traditional livelihoods,
Though often hailed as a key to
ecosystems, and biodiversity.
economic growth, particularly in the
developing world, the benefi ts that
2 In northern Canada, the demand for benefi ts
dams provide, such as hydropower,
transported out of basin continues to motivate dam
construction in areas already heavily affected by dams
often do not exceed the negative social
(Nilsson et al. 2005).
and environmental impacts. Dams
3 The Nu River is important habitat for aquatic
frequently transport their benefi ts, such
species that thrive in fast-fl owing water (Bravard
and Gichot 2005)
7
Infrastructure
a Salween, Nujiang or Nu River
i Basin Characteristics
Length: 2,800 Km (Searin no date)
Basin size: 271,914 Km2 (WRI 2003)
China
Population: 6 million (WRI 2003)
Salween River
Population density: 22 people/ Km2 (WRI 2003)
Bhutan
Key economic activity: fi shing and agriculture
Key threats: 16 proposed large dams, ineffective institutions and
India
governance (WWF 2004). Political instability and ongoing civil war
exacerbate key threats
Bangladesh
The Salween river basin is more than twice the size of England,
Myanmar
the second largest river basin in southeast Asia4 and one of
Laos
the last free-fl owing international rivers in Asia5 (WWF 2005b;
Goichot 2006). Shared by China, Myanmar (formally Burma)
and Thailand, 6 million people live in the Salween watershed
and depend on the river for their livelihoods, dietary protein, and
Thailand
nutrient rich food particularly during the dry season (IRN 2004).
The Salween fl ows from the Tibetan Plateau adjacent to the
Mekong and the Yangtze, in the “Three Parallel Rivers” World
Heritage area, at the epicentre of biodiversity in China6 (Kunming
Institute of Botany & University of Bern 2005; IRN 2004). In
the upper Salween’s Nujiang Prefecture in China, 92% of the
population consists of ethnic and religious minorities (Public
Open Letter 2005). Along the Thai and Myanmar border, there
are over 13 ethnic groups living in traditional communities on the
river’s banks (EarthRights International 2004). Currently, there is
also ample water per person7 (WRI 2003).
The Salween is home to 92 amphibian species, and 143 fi sh
species of which 47 are found nowhere else in the world;
3 areas support endemic birds (Revenga et al. 1998). The
Salween delta and associated wetlands support populations of
the unique Fishing Cat, the Asian Small-clawed Otter and the
© WWF / Marc Goichot
Siamese Crocodile (WWF 2005b). It has the world’s greatest
One of the fi rst bends of the Salween River as it leaves Tibet to enter Yunnan
diversity of turtles including the Giant Asian Pond Terrapin and
Province in China (PRC).
Bigheaded Turtle (Goichot 2006). On valley walls, terrestrial fl ora
and fauna are well-maintained in often pristine conditions. The
4 The Mekong is the largest river basin in southeast Asia (WWF 2005b).
Golden Eye Monkey, Small Panda, Wild Donkey of Dulong and
5 The Bramaputra is another.
Wild Ox still fl ourish in this basin (Goichot 2006).
6 Recognized by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, the Three Parallel Rivers Region
is one of the richest temperate regions in the world (IRN 2004). The area contains
over 6,000 different plant species, and approximately 50% of China’s animal species
including more than 90 amphibian species, over 140 fi sh species of which roughly
one third are endemic, and the world’s most diverse turtle community comprised of
10-25 genera (IRN 2004; WWF 2005).
7 23,796 m3/person annually (WRI 2003).
8
a Salween, Nujiang or Nu River
Infrastructure
ii
The Threat of Dams on the Salween
Dam construction poses the single
2004; Searin no date). As wel , last year,
greatest threat to the Salween River.
Thailand and Myanmar resurrected a
China plans up to 13 large hydropower
proposal to create a 62 Km tunnel along
projects in a cascade that would
the Thai-Myanmar border to divert 10%
transform the free-flowing river in upper
of the Salween’s flow in Myanmar to the
basin into a series of channels and
Bhumibol reservoir in Thailand, 300 Km
reservoirs (Public Open Letter 2005).
away (McCormack 2000).
The upper Salween is characterized by
There are serious questions as to the
high elevation and deep gorges8, which
safety and economic feasibility of the
give it great potential for hydropower
proposed dams, and risks to the social
generation9, but also eliminate
fabric of the basin residents. Although
most options for limiting the severe
the slopes surrounding the Salween are
environmental damage that would ensue
more stable than the Mekong, variations
(WWF 2004). Nine of the proposed
in water levels and landslides threaten its
dams are located on the main stem, in
banks13 and China’s proposed projects
national nature reserves, and very close
are in a mountainous area which has
to the UNESCO World Heritage site
frequent earthquakes and landslides
(IRN 2004). China’s Yunnan Provincial
(Bravard & Goichot 2005; Public Open
Government is proposing one of the
Letter 2005). China’s hydropower
highest dams in the world10 and China
cascade would also displace 50,000
appears to be progressing without
ethnic minority people (Environmental
consultation with the downstream
News Network (ENN) 2005; IRN 2005).
riparian residents in Myanmar or
In Myanmar, dam construction and water
Thailand (IRN 2005; IRN 2004).
diversion may be particularly devastating
for the indigenous communities because
Myanmar’s government is also planning
the military government is notorious
8 In this region, the ‘Three Paral el Rivers’ flow within less
than 80 Km of one another (Xinhua News Agency 2003).
or has begun several medium to large
for human rights abuses14 (Chiang Mai
9 Theoretical hydropower potential is estimated at more
dam projects along the Salween River
News 2005). Further, foreign revenue
than 100,000 MW (FAO 1999a)
(Chiang Mai News 2005). By far the
from the exported electricity15 flowing
10 Maji Dam at 300 m (IRN 2005).
11
largest and most advanced project is
into Myanmar may be expropriated by
3,300 MW capacity, in southern Shan State
(WWF 2004).
the 228m high Tasang Dam11 which
the governing junta (Chiang Mai News
12 In addition, Myanmar and Thailand have already
would create a 640 Km2 reservoir
2005)16.
agreed to export 1,500 MW to Thailand by 2010
flooding the lower sections of three
(WWF 2004).
13 In fact, there is a relatively large unstable zone in
major tributaries (Bangkok Post 2006;
Bingzhonggluo, on the left bank, in the upper basin.
WWF 2004; Searin no date). Although
Several landslides have occurred in the past already
(Bravard & Goichot 2005).
no needs assessments have been
14 In conjunction with infrastructure projects due to an
conducted, and the Environmental
ongoing civil war between Shan and Karen minority
Impact Assessments are incomplete,
and the ruling military junta. Forced labour, relocation,
rape and murder are common methods of intimidation
the detailed design study is underway
under the guise of ‘national development’ (Chiang Mai
(Bangkok Post 2006). Three quarters of
News 2005).
the electricity generated by the Tasang
15 An estimated 3,500 MW, three times what Myanmar
currently consumes, from the Tasang Dam alone
would be exported to Thailand12, and
(Chiang Mai News 2005).
this project is part of wider negotiations
16 According to the 2003 UN Human Development
for the Greater Mekong Subregion
Report, 40% of Myanmar’s budget is al ocated to military
expenditures, 1.3% on education, and 0.3% on health
Power Grid (Ruangdit 2004; WWF
(Chiang Mai News 2005).
a Salween, Nujiang or Nu River
Infrastructure
iii
Responses and WWF Role
The Salween lacks any treaty among
riparian countries and each has different
and confl icting plans for development in
the basin (Yoffe and Ward 1999).
In April 2004, China suspended plans
for the construction of 13 dams on the
Salween (IRN 2005)17. However, the
Environmental Impact Assessments for
the project have not been disclosed to
the public (Public Open Letter 2005).
Thus far, environmental groups within
China opposing dam construction
in the Salween have lobbied
authorities through the media, public
demonstrations, and the distribution
of petitions urging the provincial and
© WWF / Marc Goichot
national governments to release studies
on the dams’ environmental impact and
Crystal clear water of a tributary joins the muddy waters of the Salween,
exhibiting the high hydropower potential of one of the regions last free
al ow greater public debate (ENN 2005).
fl owing rivers.
On August 31, 2005, 61 groups and
99 individuals including Greenpeace
and Friends of Nature, China’s largest
environmental association, signed a
Some well-planned dam developments
In China, WWF is working with national
petition. This open debate over the
for water and energy supply are often
authorities to reduce environmental and
Salween River’s fate is testing the
justifi ed, but countries should take
social impacts of existing and planned
government’s approach after it released
advantage of the opportunity to consider
dams while increasing economic benefi ts.
a fi ve-year plan that commits China
all options and to only build dams that
WWF calls for further development
to halt environment degradation while
minimize environmental impacts and
of small scale hydropower along the
pursuing economic growth (ENN 2005).
maximize social benefi ts (WWF 2004).
tributaries alone, in combination with
Building dams off the mainstream,
the development of tourism. The Salween
Not-for-profi t organizations like Earth
controlling thermal pollution, and
basin has summer temperatures and rich
Rights International are also raising
mimicking natural fl ow patterns (e.g.
biota suitable for tourism and compatible
awareness of human rights and
higher fl ows during the wet season)
with local labour development within the
environmental issues (Earth Rights
can minimize the ecological impact of
natural environment. In addition, it
International 2004). In 1999, ‘Salween
dams (WWF 2004). In countries where
holds the potential for developing the
Watch’ a coalition of organizations
concentrated dam development is
rapids for high-end white water rafting
based in Chiang Mai, Thailand formed
taking place, governments should at
(Goichot 2006).
to oppose harmful development projects
least implement the guidelines of the
in this basin (Salween Watch 2006). In
World Commission on Dams, and
addition, representatives from ethnic
assess the cumulative impacts of the
groups in Myanmar have urged
dams. In addition, efforts should be
the Thai government to halt dam
made to retrofi t old dams to reduce
development along the Thai-Myanmar
environmental and social impacts while
17 In 2003, China invited a panel of
border (Shan Sapawa Environmental
increasing economic benefi ts, such as
scientifi c experts to comment on
the Salween Dam proposal and all
Organization 2006).
generating electricity.
opposed the dam (IRN 2005).
10
Infrastructure
b Danube
i Basin Characteristics
Length: 2,780 Km (ICPDR 2004)
Germany
Basin size: 801,463 Km2 (ICPDR 2004)
Slovak Republic
Austria
Population: 81 million (ICPDR 2006b)
Hungary
Romania
Population density: 102 people/ Km2 (WRI 2003)
Danube
Key economic activity: industry, navigation
Serbia
Key threats: new infrastructure for shipping, 8 proposed large dams,
Bulgaria
fl ood ‘protection’ (WWF 2004; ICPDR 2004)
Other threats: pollution, invasive species
The most multinational river basin in the world, the Danube
basin is roughly twice the size of California and its basin covers
part or all of 19 riparian countries: Albania, Austria, Bosnia and
Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Germany,
Hungary, Italy, Macedonia, Moldova, Poland, Romania, Serbia,
Montenegro, Slovakia, Slovenia, Switzerland and Ukraine, of
which eight are EU member states (in italics) and two are EU
accession countries. The river is a principle resource for industry,
agriculture, transport and power generation (Environment for
Europeans 2004). The Danube delta supports both fi shing
and tourism (FAO 2000b). Approximately 60 of its 300
tributaries are navigable including the Inn, Morava, Drava,
Tisza, Sava and Prut (ICPDR 2006a). It is home to 47 cities18,
and passes through four national capitals: Vienna (Austria),
Bratislava (Slovakia), Budapest (Hungary), and Belgrade
(Serbia) (WRI 2003).
© WWF-Canon / Michel GUNTHER
Historically, the Danube has been home to seven fi sh species
Hydro electric power station on the Danube River, Romania. The construction
found nowhere else in the world, 10 diadramous19 fi sh including
of this dam caused a 35 m rise in the water level of the river near the dam.
fi ve sturgeon species, and altogether 103 fi sh species, which
The old Orsova, the Danube island Ada Kaleh and at least fi ve other villages,
totalling a population of 17,000, had to make way. People were relocated, but
is more than half of all in Europe (WRI 2003; WWF 2004b). The
the settlements have been lost forever to the Danube.
basin has 88 freshwater mollusks (with 18 found only in this
basin) over 18 amphibian species and 65 Ramsar wetlands of
international importance (WRI 2003; WWF 2005 - ecoregion).
Today only 6.6% of the basin is protected (WRI 2003). The
Danube delta on the Black Sea is one of Europe’s most
ecologically important areas and is shared 80% by Romania
and 20% by Ukraine (UNESCO 2005)20.
18 Greater than 100,000 people (WRI 2003).
19 Fish migrating between freshwater and saltwater.
20 It is the last European refuge to many rare bird species, harbours a centuries old
Letea tropical forest, which is the only place in Europe where climbing ‘lianas’ plants
hang from trees. It is also designated a UNESCO natural World Heritage site. (WWF
2004b; Rus, 2004).
11
b Danube
Infrastructure
ii
The Threat of Navigation Infrastructure on the Danube
Inland shipping infrastructure projects
Inland Navigation 2004; Commission
Drastic changes to the Danube’s
alter natural river function and habitat
of the European Communities 2004).
natural flow and surrounding lands to
in several ways. Navigation projects
According to plans, the Danube will
control floods, generate power, facilitate
involve physical modification such as
serve as a pan-European transport route
agriculture and waterway transport
water pumping, channelizing, dredging,
linking the North Sea with the Black Sea
have already destroyed over 80% of
and gravel and sand extraction to make
(ICPDR 2006c). Against the Danube
the watershed’s valuable wetlands,
deep, straight and uniformly banked
Commission’s (1988) recommendations
floodplains and forests (ICPDR Dams
waterways that partly cut the river
that the total depth of free-flowing
2006; UNDP/GEF 1999). What remains
off from its floodplain (Revenga et al.
conditions should be a minimum of 2.5
of the basin’s integrity is under intense
2000; Baltzer 2004). Vessel operations
m during 343 days per year, dredging will
threat from shipping infrastructure
also create waves which disturb other
reach a minimum draught of 2.5 m (hence
developments.
water users. For example, young fish
a total depth of 2.7 to 2.8 m) during all
are directly affected by waves since
days along the entire length of the water
their swimming capacity is already low
course from the North Sea to the Black
(Zauner & Schiemer 1994). High traffic
Sea (European Union 2004; Baltzer
intensity leads to lowered zoobenthos
2004). Implementing this project would
(animals on the river bed) diversity
mean substantial modifications to at least
(Obrdlik 1995). Lastly, inadvertent species
1,000 Km of the Danube, more than one-
introductions, spills and ship collisions
third of its entire length, and significantly
pollute and damage aquatic habitats in
alter the last free-flowing, non-dammed
acute and chronic ways (Baltzer 2004;
stretches of the river22 (Baltzer 2004;
ICPDR 2006c). Accidental pollution
WWF 2005; WWF 2005a).
involves oil and in some cases hazardous
substances including cadmium, lead,
The Danube-Oder-Elbe-Canal Plan
mercury, DDT, lindane and atrazine
is proposed to enable ship passage
(ICPDR 2006c).
from the Baltic to the North Sea, then
southward to the Black Sea (ICPDR
Navigation infrastructure projects pose
2004; Baltzer 2004). This wil indirectly or
a serious threat to the Danube. A new
directly affect 46,000 ha of 38 protected
report by a Vienna-based consortium
areas containing two national parks, six
and 13 Danube countries21 identifies
Ramsar sites, and two biosphere reserves
navigation as one of the primary causes
in five countries Austria, Slovakia, the
of environmental degradation on the
Czech Republic, Poland and Germany
Danube, stemming from activities that
(ICPDR 2004; Baltzer 2004)23. Lastly,
deepen, dam, or straighten the river
in 2004, the Ukraine began dredging
(ICPDR 2004). The most important
the Bystroye shipping canal that cuts
21 Report is entitled Danube Basin Analysis, WFD Roof
Report 2004.
navigation threat to the Danube currently
through the heart of the Danube delta,
22 TEN-T would remove navigation ‘bottlenecks’ in
is the European Union’s plan to develop
destroying migratory bird habitat, altering
Romania and Bulgaria by 2011, complete Danube
the Trans-European Networks for
the natural water flow in the delta and
River ‘improvement’ between Vilshofen and Straubing
(in Germany) by 2013, and by 2014 and 2015
Transport (TEN-T) “Corridor VI ” along
damaging breeding areas that support
respectively affect the river from Palkovicovo to
the Danube (ICPDR 2006c). This project
local fisheries in the Black Sea24 (Baltzer
Mohacs as well as the cross-border section from
aims to ‘remove bottlenecks’ and improve
2004; Rus 2004). Already, the total length
Vienna to Bratislava (Baltzer 2004).
23 Numerous other portions of this region are included
inland navigation between eastern and
of artificial y dredged channels in the
or being nominated for protection under the EU’s Birds
western Europe through the construction
Danube delta is roughly equivalent to
and Habitats Directives in the Natura 2000 Network
of hydraulic modifications and canals
the total length of natural water courses
(Baltzer 2004).
24 The Danube is also the single largest contributor of
(European Barge Union 2005; European
(1,700 Km) (ICPDR 2006c).
pollution in the Black Sea (ICPDR 2006b).
12
b Danube
Infrastructure
iii
Responses and WWF Role
In 1994, ten basin states and the
European Union (EU), signed the Danube
River Protection Convention (DRPC)25 to
establish the International Commission
for the Protection of the Danube River
(ICPDR) (ICPDR 2006; Atlas of International
Freshwater Agreements 2003). In its fi rst
ten years of cooperation, the DRPC agreed
to implement the EU Water Framework
Directive, and established a Trans-National
Monitoring Network to monitor and
evaluate water quality (ICPDR 2004). It
made little progress, however, in stemming
the pressure to develop navigation projects.
In 2004, the European Commission’s
Director General for the Environment
© WWF-Canon / Anton VORAUER
took charge of the ICPDR. In December
Dam on the Danube River.
2004, the ICPDR produced the Danube
basin analysis which, for the fi rst time,
provided a basin-wide overview of the
Floodplain restoration, watershed
As a result of international pressure
river’s environmental condition (Environment
management and fl ood warning and
including the European Commission-led,
for Europeans 2004; ICPDR 2004) and
evacuation systems allow rivers to
fact-fi nding mission (initiated by WWF)
promises to use the report in developing
continue to provide natural benefi ts,
and the change in Ukrainian government,
a plan for its long term protection
and are much less expensive than
the construction of the Bystroye Canal
(Environment for Europeans 2004).
the physically intensive modifi cations
stopped temporarily pending further
(WWF 2005e). WWF has also begun
environmental, social and economic
In 2000 WWF facilitated a heads of state
a public consultation process for the
impact assessment. In 2005, WWF’s
summit of basin governments. They
restoration of the river beds of the
Danube-Carpathian Programme created
pledged to protect and restore 600,000
Danube tributaries in Bulgaria. Following
a “black list” of navigation projects along
ha to establish a ‘Lower Danube Green
meetings between WWF and the Odessa
the Danube proposed by the Trans-
Corridor’ of restored riparian lands
Oblast Environmental Commission, a
European Networks for Transport (TEN-
for nature conservation, water quality
Task Force for “cooperation with the
T)26. WWF is lobbying for a Strategic
improvement, better fl ood management,
Partners for Wetlands project in Ukraine”
Environmental Assessment (SEA) and
and development of sustainable livelihoods
was initiated and signed by the Odessa
coordination between the European
for local people. Progress in implementing
Oblast Governor to implement model
Commission’s Directorate of Environment
this commitment has been slow. It is likely,
wetland restoration projects. Due partly
and Directorate of Transport & Energy on
however, that had the pledged restoration
to WWF’s efforts, removal of a fl ood levee
navigation projects.
been implemented, the fl oodplains would
bank restored 750 ha of Tataru Island,
have mitigated the 2006 lower Danube
and in spring 2005 a colony of protected
fl oods by holding and safely releasing the
Pygmy Cormorants established on the
water. In 2003, WWF completed the offi cial
island. A coalition of WWF, other NGOs,
‘Danube River Basin Public Participation
Romania and other government partners
25 Formally called the ‘Convention on cooperation for
Strategy’, to contribute towards the
also secured the Austrian-Czech-Slovak
the protection and sustainable use of the Danube
implementation of the EU Water Framework
trilateral protected area which later
River’ (ICPDR 2006).
Directive in the basin (Jones et al. 2003).
received the Ramsar Convention Award
26 More information can be found in WWF’s position
paper (executive summary) on Danube navigation at:
in 2002 (Jones et al. 2003).
http://www.wwf.hu/fl etoltes.php?szam=92&tipus=1
13
Infrastructure
c La Plata
i Basin Characteristics
Length: 3,740 Km from the longest tributary of the Paraná (Comite
Intergubernamental Coordinador 2006) + 290 Km from confl uence of the
Uruguay and Paraná Rivers (Rela 2001) = 4,030 Km in total
Bolivia
Paraguay
Basin size: 3 million Km2 (Bereciartua and Novillo 2002)
Paraná
Population: > 100 million (Bereciartua and Novillo 2002)
Paraguay
Brazil
Population density: 33 people/ Km2 (Bereciartua and Novillo
2002, extrapolation)
Key economic activity: agriculture, fi shing
Argentina
Key threats: new infrastructure and hydrological alterations for shipping
Uruguay
and 27 proposed large dams (WWF 2004)
Paraná
Other threats: climate change, pollution, over-fi shing
Uruguary
The La Plata basin is the second largest river basin in South
America, crossing fi ve countries: Paraguay, Brazil, Argentina,
Uruguay, and Bolivia (Bereciartua and Novil o 2002). The Rio
de la Plata basin has three main tributaries, the Paraná, the
Paraguay and the Uruguay Rivers. The Paraná tributary river basin
supplies the Brazilian cities Sao Paolo and Brasilia (Hulme 1999).
Although the Paraná basin alone supports 19 large cities of more
than 100,000 people, the per capita water supply per person is
ample27 (WRI 2003).
Freshwater biodiversity is rich. There are over 350 fi sh species
– the third highest among medium sized basins (WRI 2003). Of
© WWF-Canon / Michel GUNTHER
these, 85 are found nowhere else in the world (Revenga et al.
Iguaçu National Park - Paraná River Atlantic Rainforest Paraná, Brazil.
2000). This basin is also home to the rare La Plata River Dolphin
(Reeves et al. 2003), and the only species of lungfi sh found in
the Neotropics, Lepidosiren paradoxa (WWF 2005d). La Plata’s
Pantanal wetlands, located mostly in southwest Brazil but also
extending to southeast Bolivia and northern Paraguay, are
the largest freshwater wetland in the world, covering 140,000
Km2, and home to a vast array of wildlife (Bennett & Thorp no
date; Living Lakes Partnership 2005). This biological diversity
encompasses 650 species of birds - including parrots, hawks,
eagles, kites, 260 species of fi sh, 90 species of reptiles, over
1,600 species of fl owering plants, and over 80 species of
mammals - including ocelots, jaguars, and tapirs (Hulme 1999;
Living Lakes Partnership 2005). Thousands of permanent and
semi-permanent lakes and ponds supporting the most diverse
fl oating aquatic plant community in the world cover the Pantanal’s
lowest areas (Por 1995 in WWF 2001a). During the wet season,
this wetland acts as a gigantic natural control mechanism for the
fl oodwaters of the Paraguay River (Hulme 1999).
27 8,025 m3/person/year (WRI 2003)
14
c La Plata
Infrastructure
ii
The Threats of Dams and Navigation Infrastructure on La Plata
The threats from dams and navigation
The hidrovia threatens to drain and
on the La Plata are intense. For example,
destroy habitat in the Pantanal by
on the Paraná River, the Itaipu Dam,
increasing the drainage capacity of the
the largest in the world,28 flooded
river outlet, affect native fish populations,
approximately 100,000 ha of land, and
and expose the river system to invasion
destroyed significant aquatic habitat
by exotic species through links to rivers
including the Guaíra Falls (WWF 2005d).
in the Amazon basin (WWF 2004).
The basin faces the second greatest
This would seriously exacerbate the
number of planned dams in the world:
impacts from loss of water inflow
27 large dams29, of which six are under
due to climate change (Hulme 1999).
construction (WWF 2004). In Brazil
According to experts, lowering the level
alone, total generating power from
of the Paraguay River by only 25 cm on
hydroelectric stations is poised to reach
average would increase the frequency
a total of 107,307 MW in the next few
of downstream flooding and increase
decades (FAO 2000). In particular, new
erosion during the rainy season, while
impoundments and water diversions
also reducing the total flooded area of the
threaten the Paraguay River’s relatively
Pantanal during the dry season by 22%30
pristine headwaters, which comprise the
(Gottgens 2000 in WWF 2004; Bennett &
central artery of the Pantanal wetlands,
Thorpe no date).
and Uruguay River (Bleier 1996; WWF
2005d). The Brazilian, Bolivian and
In addition, the hidrovia would directly
Paraguayan governments’ plan for the
affect local indigenous communities
massive navigation and hydroelectric
whose livelihoods depend on the fish
dam project, ‘hidrovia’, is proceeding
and biological resources of the Pantanal,
without an adequate Environment Impact
particularly in Brazil’s Mato Grosso State
Assessment (Bennett & Thorpe no date;
and in riverine communities in Paraguay
WWF 2001a; Istvan 2003). The hidrovia
(Bennett & Thorpe no date; WWF 2004;
would dredge and redirect the Paraguay
International Development Research
and Paraná Rivers to create a 3,442 Km
Center (IDRC) 1999). The hidrovia is
long navigation channel at least three
intended to facilitate expansion of the
meters (~ten feet) deep between
export of soybean, timber, iron ore and
Caceres, Brazil and the harbour of
other commodities during the dry season
Nueva Palmira in Uruguay. This would
at the expense of the opportunity for
provide cargo ships with access to
ecotourism, and local use of resources
the interior of Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil,
(IDRC 1999). It would also increase
Paraguay and Uruguay during the dry
access and facilitate further dam
season (Bennett & Thorpe no date;
development in the area (WWF 2004).
Istvan 2003; Wolf 2004).
28 Generating capacity of over 12,000 MW (WWF
2004). The Three Gorges Dam plans will surpass it by
2009, with a capacity of 18,200 MW.
29 Greater than 60m or 100 MW capacity (WWF 2004).
30 Increased variability in river flows due to changes in
climate has caused long periods of drought which has
hurt agriculture and hydroelectric energy production in
Brazil (American Association for the Advancement of
Science 2002).
1
c La Plata
Infrastructure
iii
Responses and WWF Role
In 1969, all the riparian countries signed
multiple use of the basin, while protecting
conducted collaborative research which
a treaty agreeing to the joint management
its aquatic biodiversity and water
led to a joint conservation strategy for
of the La Plata basin and requiring open
resources (WWF 2006c). WWF also
over 1 million ha of contiguous Atlantic
transportation and communication
supported socio-economic and biological
forest, and is an important step towards
along the river and its tributaries (Wolf
studies and a consensus meeting32
cooperative management of the region’s
2004). The hidrovia project is the largest
which developed the framework for
Iguazu National Parks. Finally, WWF
development proposed to date, both in
conservation and development in the
is seeking to develop representative
size and scale of possible impacts on the
Bolivian Pantanal over the next ten years.
protected areas in the Brazilian Pantanal,
economy and environment (Wolf 2004).
This process led to the creation of two
through the use of innovative incentives
The proposal is straining the cooperative
protected areas33 encompassing most of
and policy mechanisms34, and plans
processes for management in the La
the Bolivian Pantanal and the remaining
to investigate a range of approaches
Plata (Wolf 2004). A decade after hidrovia
Bolivian lowland dry forest. Through
to participatory involvement for local
was fi rst proposed the supporting
work with WWF, Brazil and Argentina
communities and government authorities.
governments, particularly Brazil, backed
away in 1999, but the project has shown
recent signs of revival31.
For the last decade WWF has
concentrated its conservation work in
the La Plata Basin through its Pantanal
Ecoregion Programme in Brazil and
Bolivia and its Atlantic Forests Ecoregion
Programme in Argentina, Brazil and
Paraguay. WWF has been active in the
participation in and/or preparation of
economic, engineering and feasibility
studies related to the hidrovia and
other infrastructure proposals that
would impact the Pantanal wetlands
(Huszar 1999; Halloy 2005). Also in the
© WWF-Canon / Mauri RAUTKARI
Pantanal and the Upper Paraguay river
Aerial view of the Paraná River, Paraná, Brazil.
basin, in both Brazil and Bolivia, WWF
has worked with local stakeholders on
improving protected areas management,
31 Argentina and Bolivia are selectively dredging the
the formation and strengthening of local
Paraguay River, Paraguay’s government maintains
organizations, institutional capacity
interest in the project, and in Brazil, suspicions abound
that large-scale soybean farmers and cattle ranchers
building, environmental education
are talking about dredging and straightening river
programmes, and the promotion of
sections behind closed doors (Istvan 2003).
sustainable productive activities like
32 Local indigenous and non-indigenous communities,
private industry (forestry and mining), large landowners
organic farming, ecotourism and
(ranchers), political authorities, international donors and
community fi sheries management. With
technical experts all contributed.
help from WWF since 2002, last summer,
33 Otuquis (1 million ha) and Sans Matmas (2.9
million ha).
the Brazilian State of Mato Grasso do Sul
34 WWF-Brazil is encouraging a practice already
and all stakeholders of the Miranda river
implemented in some Brazilian states, where tax
basin of the Pantanal created the Miranda
redistribution compensates municipalities that face
restricted land-use due to protected ecosystems and/
river basin Committee which ensures
or water supply sources.
16
Water over-
extraction
Water over-extraction
2 The Rio Grande (USA) and the Ganges (Asia)
© WWF-Canon/Michële DEPRAZ
Young boys fi shing on the Ganges River. Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India.
Although on opposite sides of the globe, the Rio
Grande and the Ganges face very similar problems
from over-extraction for increasing irrigation and
domestic consumption.
Human societies use water for domestic
The total amount of water withdrawn
and industrial consumption, however
or extracted from freshwater systems
two-thirds are appropriated for irrigation
has risen 35-fold in the past 300 years
in agriculture (Revenga et al. 1998).
(Revenga et al. 1998), and since 1960
Reducing the fl ow of river water to the
has increased by 20% per decade (MA
sea can lead to the intrusion of salt water
2005a). Agriculture accounts for 70%
into surface water and groundwater,
of human water use (MA 2005a). In
rendering them undrinkable (Revenga
addition, around the world, groundwater
et al. 1998). Experts predict that water
is also withdrawn faster than it can be
availability will be one of the major
recharged, depleting a once renewable
challenges facing human society and that
resource (Revenga et al. 1998).
the lack of water may be a key factor
limiting development (Revenga et al.
2000).
17
Water over-
extraction
a Rio Grande - Rio Bravo
i Basin Characteristics
Length: 3,033 Km (second longest river in the United States) (Horgan 1991)
Basin size: 607,965 Km2 (WRI 2003)
Population: 10 million (WRI 2003)
USA
Key economic activity: agriculture
Key threat: water extraction
Pecos River
Rio Grande/Bravo
Other threats: water infrastructure, salinisation, invasive species
Rio Conchos
The second longest river in the United States, the Rio Grande
Mexico
fl ows from the San Juan Mountains of Colorado, south through
New Mexico. Turning to the southeast, it forms the border
between the United States (Texas) and Mexico for approximately
two thirds of its course, opening into a small sandy delta at the
Gulf of Mexico (United States Geological Service (USGS) no
date; Horgan 1991; Saunders 1996). The basin is more than
30% arid and drains an area greater than the size of California
(WRI 2003; Saunders 1996; Revenga et al. 1998). Through
the stretch from Laredo/Nuevo Laredo to the mouth, the river
constitutes the primary source of drinking water for communities
in both Mexico and the United States (Saunders 1996). Despite
the rapidly growing economy, the basin is one of the poorest
regions in the US, where many live in shanties without access
to running water (WWF 2004d). The basin is facing per capita
water scarcity35 (WRI 2003), and by 2025, will likely descend into
further water scarcity36 (Revenga et al. 2000).
The Rio Grande basin is a globally important region for
freshwater biodiversity (Revega et al. 2000). The Rio Grande
supports 121 fi sh species, 69 of which are found nowhere else
on the planet. There are three areas supporting endemic bird
species as well as a very high level of mollusk diversity (Revenga
et al. 1998; WRI 2003; Grommbridge & Jenkins 1998).
© WWF-Canon/Edward PARKER
The Rio Conchos is the main source of irrigation water for crops (cotton & alfalfa)
grown in the state of Chihuahua, Chihuahuan Desert, Mexico.
35 621 m3/person/year (Revenga et al. 1998).
36 Less than 500 m3/person/year (Revenga et al. 2000).
18
a Rio Grande - Rio Bravo
Water over-
extraction
ii
Threat of Water Extraction
A high level of water extraction for
from its mouth (Brezosky 2001). In 2005,
eight of which are on the main stem of
agriculture and increasing domestic use
at the last gauge point before the sea, in
the river, and there are six very large
threatens the Rio Grande. Most of the
Brownsville Texas, however, the average
dams41 (WRI 2003). Drought has caused
major tributaries and many of the lesser
flow was 0.44 Km3/year (International
crops to wither which has led to severe
ones support substantial agricultural
Boundary & Water Commission 2005)37.
malnutrition among the Tarahumara
production (Saunders 1996). River water
Between February and June 2001, the
Indians in the highlands of the Chihuahua
is diverted for irrigation in the El Paso/
river failed to reach the Gulf of Mexico
(NPS 2006). The invasive species Salt
Ciudad Juarez area, Eagle Pass/Piedras
(Sundquist 2003; The Guardian 2006).
Cedar, has proliferated through large
Negras area, and Rio Grande/Rio Bravo
As a result of low water levels, the
portions of the Big Bend area (where the
valley downstream from International
concentration of pollutants is so high that
Rio Conchos joins the Rio Grande), and
Falcon Dam (Saunders 1996). In 2005,
fish kills have occurred, and the lower
is known to consume large quantities
451,456,974 m3 (366,000 acre feet) were
Rio Grande is suffering from salinization
of water (Dahm et al. 2000). One
diverted from the middle Rio Grande
(Contreras & Lozano 1994). In fact, some
monoculture of Salt Cedar is believed
during the irrigation season (Middle Rio
marine fish species are invading as far
to have choked 150 miles of the river
Grande Conservancy District 2006).
as 400 Km upstream, and the increasing
corridor downstream of El Paso/Ciudad
Although this is down from 1999, when
salinity of the river has already displaced
Juarez and may be the most extensive
total diversions in the middle Rio Grande
32 native freshwater fish species
infestation of this species in the world.
were 837,869,606 m3 (679,268 acre-
(Contreras & Lozano 1994).
feet), nearly all of the irrigation water
in the upper basin, is produced by
Irrigation accounts for more than
snow pack (Alliance for the Rio Grande
80% of all water taken from the river,
Heritage et al. 2000). Several years of
but municipal needs are competing
low snow pack has dramatically lowered
more and more as urban areas grow
the volume of the most important
(Cascadia Times 2005). Along the Rio
reservoir on the mainstem, Elephant
Grande mainstem, there are only four
Butte Reservoir. With current levels of
major cities38, but the urban population
extraction, this reservoir could be at its
is growing at a rapid rate of 2-4% (WRI
lowest in over 50 years, at to 43,172,115
2003; Revenga et al.1998). Water is also
m3 (35,000 acre feet).
wasted through unnecessary diversion:
the amount of water diverted and wasted
Historically, flows passing through Big
by dams for irrigation increased by over
Bend have varied considerably (NPS
123,348,900 m3 (100,000 acre feet) per
2006), but by the time the Rio Grande
year from 1979-1998 (Alliance for the Rio
leaves El Paso, a city less than one third
Grande Heritage et al. 2000).
the length of the river at this confluence
of the Rio Conchos, so much water has
Damming, high levels of evaporation39,
been diverted that the riverbed between
persistent drought and invasive species
El Paso and Presidio/Ojinaga often
have exacerbated the high level of water
lies dry (NPS 2006). The highest daily
extraction (Dahm et al. 2000; National
flow recorded above the Rio Conchos
Park Service (NPS) 2004). Extensive
37 Despite the relatively strong social stability and
confluence was 387,984 L/s (13,700
networks of water diversions and dams
institutional capacity to manage water in this basin,
basic hydrologic data including the portion of the
cubic feet per second) on June 1905
control flows in both the Rio Grande
river’s flow that reaches the sea and the portion that is
(NPS 2006). Pre-1962, the river’s average
and its key tributary, the Rio Conchos,
diverted, are not available.
flow was 2.9 Km
38
3/year (2.4 million acre-
without managing instream flow to
With a population greater than 100,000 (WRI 2003).
39 271,260,000 m3/year (Dahm et al. 2000).
feet) and ocean-going ships used to be
sustain riparian habitat (Mac et al. 1998).
40 Higher than 15 m.
able to navigate at least 16 Km (10 miles)
Currently, there are 100 large dams40,
41 Higher than 150 m.
1
a Rio Grande - Rio Bravo
Water over-
extraction
iii
Responses and Role of WWF
WWF is working to promote more
efficient irrigation practices and
restoration of environmental flows in
both the mainstem of the river and
its most important tributary, the Rio
Conchos. Our work in the Rio Conchos
begins in the headwaters, in the Sierra
Tarahumara, where we have helped
establish protected areas, implemented
community-based problem solving
workshops and processes, and funded
local water conservation projects.
Our community-based work joins WWF
with indigenous communities as well as
small, with self-governing communal
land organizations. Moving down stream,
WWF is developing a payment scheme
for downstream water users who would
pay for better upstream watershed
management. Along the mainstem, we
are working with commercial agriculture
interests to develop water conservation
techniques for cotton, pecan and chili
pepper production.
Complimentary work in the policy arena
is focused on creating institutions and
sources of funding that can acquire
water “saved” in agriculture and apply
to environmental purposes such as
wetlands or in-stream flow. In addition,
WWF is working to eradicate the water-
hogging invasive Salt Cedar and has
restored former floodplain habitat that
had been infested with this species.
20
Water over-
extraction
b Ganges
i Basin Characteristics
Length: 2,507 Km (Newby 1998)
China
Basin size: 1,016,124 Km2 (WRI 2003)
Population: roughly 200 million people (Welcomme & Petr 2004)
Nepal
Population density: average 401 people/ Km2 (WRI 2003)
Bhutan
Ganges
Key economic activity: agriculture
Key threats: water extraction, 14 proposed large dams (WWF 2004)
Other threat: climate change
India
Bangladesh
The Ganges river basin runs from the central Himalayas to the
Bay of Bengal, and covers parts of Nepal, India, China and
Bangladesh (Newby 1998; WRI 2003). The Ganges fl ows through
northeastern India to the Bangladesh border, east-southeast
212 Km to its confl uence with Brahmaputra, and continues as
the Padma River for another 100 Km to its confl uence with the
Meghna River at Chandpur (Food & Agricultural Organization
(FAO) 1997; FAO 1999). The basin occupies 30% of the land area
of India (Revenga 1998; United States Central Intel igence Agency
2006) and is heavily populated, increasing in population density
downstream to Bangladesh, the most densely populated country
in the world (WRI 2003; Rashid & Kabir 1998). Approximately
one in twelve people in the world (8%) live in its catchment area
(Newby 1998). The cultural and economic signifi cance of the
Ganges is enormous. The river is a centre of social and religious
tradition (Adel 2001) and is particularly sacred in Hinduism.
The Ganges river basin contains high biodiversity. There are
over 140 fi sh species, the richest freshwater fi sh fauna in India
(Jones et al. 2003; WRI 2003), 90 amphibian species, and fi ve
areas supporting birds found nowhere else in the world. The
basin is home to fi ve species of freshwater cetaceans including
the endangered Ganges River Dolphin which faces an annual
mortality rate of 10% (WRI 2003) and the rare freshwater shark,
Glyphis gangeticus (Martin 2003). The unique Sundarbans
delta mangroves are found where the Brahmaputra River and
Meghna River converge in the Bengal basin (Wilkie & Fortuna
2003; UNESCO 1998) and support over 289 terrestrial, 219
aquatic, 315 bird, 176 fi sh and 31 crustacean species (Ramsar
Convention on Wetlands 2001). There are also 35 reptile and
42 mammal species, including the world’s last population of
the mangrove-inhabiting tigers, Panthera tigris (WWF 2005c).
Together the Brahmaputra and Ganges watersheds span 10
biomes and contain the widest diversity of al large river systems
as classifi ed by Nilsson et al. (2005).
21
b Ganges
Water over-
extraction
ii
Threat of Water Extraction on the Ganges
Water withdrawal poses a serious threat
are heavily subsidizing electricity for tube
exposed to air, and threatens the health
to the Ganges. In India, barrages control
well pumps, plan to expand surface
of 75 million people who are likely to use
all of the tributaries to the Ganges and
water irrigation, and ban distribution of all
water contaminated with up to 2Mg/L
divert roughly 60% of river flow to large-
surface water diversion data (International
of arsenic (Adel 2001)44. Climate change
scale irrigation (Adel 2001). India controls
Water Management Institute 2002; Adel
will exacerbate the problems caused by
the flow of the Ganges into Bangladesh
2001; FAO 1999).
water extraction. The Himalayan glaciers
with over 30 upstream water diversions.
are estimated to supply 30-40% of the
The largest, the Farraka Barrage, 18 Km
Over-extraction for agriculture in the
water in the Ganges, which is particularly
from the border of Bangladesh, reduced
Ganges has caused the reduction
critical in the dry season prior to the
the average monthly discharge of the
in surface water resources. This has
monsoon rains.
Ganges from 2,213 m3/s to a low of
increased dependence on ground water,
316m3/s [14%] (Goree 2004; FAO 1999).
the loss of water-based livelihoods43,
The projected annual renewable water
The Tehri Dam, which has been under
and the destruction of habitat for 109
supply for 2025 indicates water scarcity45
construction since 1978 (IRN 2002),
fish species, and other aquatic and
(Revenga et al. 2000). Although the
became operational in 2005 and is the 5th
amphibian fauna (Adel 2001). Lowering
Ganges catchment drains virtually all of
largest dam in the world (IRN 2002; Oko
water levels have indirectly led to
the Nepal Himalayas and water supply
2004). Two hundred miles northeast of
deficiencies in soil organic content,
per person in the basin ranges from
Delhi, its reservoir completely submerged
and reduced agricultural productivity
adequate to ample46, its dry season
40 villages and the old Tehri town, (IRN
(Adel 2001, Revenga et al. 2000).
outflow (from December to February)
2002), causing the resettlement of
Lastly, over-extraction of ground water
to the sea is non-existent (FAO 1999;
100,000 people (Oko 2004). Tehri Dam
has seriously affected water quality.
Revenga et al. 2000). Overall, excessive
provides 270 million gallons of drinking
Inadequate recharging of groundwater
water diversions threaten to eliminate
water per day, irrigates thousands of
impairs the natural cleansing of arsenic
natural flows and severely damage
acres of farmland and generates 2,000
which becomes water soluble when
people’s livelihoods in the Ganges.
megawatts of electricity mainly to the
Uttar Pradesh and Delhi (Oko 2004;
Bisht, 2005). This is part of the ‘garland
of rivers’ project in which the Indian
government plans to link 37 major rivers
(including all the major rivers flowing
from the Himalayas). The rivers would
be linked through a series of dams and
canals spanning the subcontinent42 to
provide stable drinking water supplies to
urban and rural populations and harness
42 This would involve building hundreds of reservoirs on
principle tributaries to the Ganges, digging more than
some 34,000 MW of hydroelectricity (Oko
966 Km (600 miles) of canals, possibly flooding more
2004). In this US$125 billion ‘interlinking
than 7,770 Km2 (3,000 sq miles) of land, and uprooting
of rivers’ scheme, India proposes to
3 million people from their land (Indian Council of
Forestry Research & Education 2003).
divert vast quantities of water from the
43 Including those of boatmakers, fishing equipment
Ganges (and Brahmaputra) to support
makers, transportation providers, and tourist site
operators (Adel, 1999).
water and agriculture needs of the
44 Over-extraction has caused the ground water in
drought-prone states in the south and
states such as Uttar Pradesh and Haryana to have
east. This would further aggravate water
nitrate concentrations 5-16 times the safe level. In
Haryana, concentrations are 30 times the prescribed
poverty in Bangladesh (Indian Council of
limit (Revenga et al. 2000).
Forestry Research & Education 2003). In
45 Less than 1,700 m3/person/year (Revenga et al.
2000).
addition, governments along the Ganges
46 1,700-4,000 m3/person/year (Revenga et al. 2000).
22
b Ganges
Water over-
extraction
iii
Responses and Role of WWF
© WWF-Canon/Michële DEPRAZ
Typical daily scene along the Ganges River, people bathing and performing their ritual ablutions. Varanasi, India.
In 1996, a 30-year Ganges Water Sharing
To reduce the threat of excessive water
Treaty was fi nally agreed between
extraction, countries can irrigate crops
India and Bangladesh (Transboundary
more effi ciently, use local knowledge, end
Freshwater Dispute Database 2002).
perverse subsidies, cap water extraction
Its ineffectiveness however is evident,
levels, further community education
as India progresses with its river linking
and awareness, and support integrated
project (Indian Council of Forestry
river basin management (WWF 2005e).
Research & Education 2003).
WWF has instigated a new initiative
on freshwater to foster sustainable
utilization and conservation of water
for future generations. It is currently
building a network of partnerships
between government agencies, NGOs
and freshwater professionals to support
monitoring, policy work and restoration
projects at different scales. WWF aims
to achieve biodiversity conservation
within the broader context of sustainable
development and poverty reduction.
23
Climate
change
Climate change
3 The Indus (Asia) and the Nile-Lake Victoria (Africa)
© WWF / Lyn TRELOAR
Cormorants at the Lake Victoria source of the Nile.
The Indus faces threat
from climate change
because of its high
dependency on glacier
water. The Nile basin
is very sensitive to
increases in temperature
because of its high rate
of evaporation.
Freshwater systems are highly sensitive
to variations in weather and climate.
The accumulation of greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere causes global
climate change and affects patterns of
precipitation, evaporation, snowpack,
fl ood, drought and other factors
affecting freshwater supply and quality
(Kundzewicz & Mata 2003; IPCC 2001a;
Miller no date). Although there will be
certain changes in the quantity and
distribution of precipitation and runoff, the
local and regional impacts are uncertain.
Climate change should be considered in
the context of the many other stresses
to water resources (Kundzewicz & Mata
2003; IPCC 2001a; Miller).
24
Climate
change
a Indus
i Basin Characteristics
Length: 2,900 Km (Encyclopædia Britannica 2006)
Tajikistan
China
Basin size: 1,081,718 Km2 (WRI 2003)
Population: 178,483,470 people (WRI 2003)
Population density: 165 people/ Km2 (WRI 2003)
Key economic activity: agriculture
Afghanistan
Key threat: climate change
Other threats: water extraction47, agricultural pollution, water infrastructure,
6 proposed large dams (WWF 2004)
Pakistan
India
The Indus river basin spans parts of four countries (Afghanistan,
Pakistan, India and China) in an area that is more than 30% arid,
and much drier than the nearby Ganges river basin (WRI 2003).
The Indus River is critical for Pakistan’s 160 million people, and
irrigates 80% of its 21.5 million ha of agricultural land (Rizvi
2001; CIA 2006a)48.
The watershed is also an area of rich biodiversity, particularly
where it opens to the Arabian Sea. The Indus river delta is a
highly productive area for freshwater fauna and an important
region for water birds (Ramsar Convention on Wetlands 2003).
The Indus is home to 25 amphibian species and 147 fi sh
species of which 22 are found nowhere else in the world. It
harbors the endangered Indus River Dolphin, one of the world’s
rarest mammals, with a population of no more than 1,100
individuals (WRI 2003; Ramsar Convention on Wetlands 2003;
WWF 2005f). Due to reduced river infl ows, the delta has lost
signifi cant portions of its mangroves (WWF 2004).
47 Ranked most serious threat to the basin by WWF Pakistan.
48 The remaining 20% of water used for agriculture comes
from rain, especially during the monsoon season from July to
September (Rizvi 2001).
2
a Indus
Climate
change
ii
The Threat of Climate Change to the Indus
The Indus River is extremely sensitive
change will exacerbate the impact
to climate change due to the high
of deforestation on water regulation.
portion of its fl ow derived from glaciers.
Although the Indus system is currently
Temperature controls the rate of glacier
robust enough to cope with shortages
melt, which in turn, provides more water
of 10-13% in river fl ows, when the rivers
in dry, warm years and less water in cool
fl ow drops to 15-20% below the average,
years. River catchments with a large
irrigation shortages occur (Khan 1999).
portion of glacial melt water experience
Climate change will surely exacerbate the
less variability in water fl ows. With
problems of irregular and low fl ow.
climate warming, many glaciers will no
longer exist to moderate the fl ow of
these rivers. Thus communities which
depend on glacier water will face more
severe water shortages, variability and
potentially greater fl ooding too (IPCC
2001a; WWF 2005g; Rizvi 2001). The
Himalayan glaciers provide the Indus with
70-80% of its water (Kiani 2005), the
highest proportion of any river in Asia.
This is double the proportion of water
that they provide the Ganges (30%-40%).
Himalayan glaciers provide 44.8% of the
water in the Upper Indus in China alone
(Yang 1991).
The Indus basin is already suffering
from severe water scarcity due to over-
extraction for agriculture, causing salt
water intrusion in the delta (WRI 2003).
© WWF-Canon / François Xavier PELLETIER
In 1995, the Indus River already supplied
Indus River, Sukkur, Province of Sind, Pakistan, January 2005.
much less water per person than the
minimum recommended by the United
Nations (UN)49 and by 2025 is predicted
to suffer even more severe water
scarcity50 (Revenga et al. 2000).
Well-managed riparian forests are
especially important in minimizing the
impacts of climate change on river biota.
They provide shade and temperature
regulation, can moderate the effect of
frequent, short duration storm events and
can support natural water fl ow regimes.
49 In 1995, the Indus provided only 830 m3/person/
However, the Indus basin has already
year, compared to the UN minimum standard of 1,000
lost over 90% of its original forest cover
m3/person/year (Revenga et al. 2000).
50 Projected annual renewable water supply is less than
(Revenga et al. 1998; WRI 2003). Climate
500 m3/person/year (Revenga et al. 2000).
26
a Indus
Climate
change
iii
Responses and Role of WWF
In 1990, all Pakistani provinces in the
WWF is developing a long-term
basin signed a water accord, and the
conservation programme, ranging up to
Pakistani government ensured at least
50 years, focusing on freshwater scarcity
10 million acre feet (MAF) of water to be
in the coastal areas of the Indus delta
available for the delta each year, but has
(Ahmad 2004).
since not followed up on this promise
(Ahmad 2004). In fact, the Pakistani
Although both Pakistan and India are
government provides water subsidies
grappling with mitigating the effects of
for agricultural development and is
climate change, Pakistan’s contribution
proposing the construction of another
to greenhouse gas emissions are
six large dams. National Environmental
dwarfed by those of wealthier and
Quality Standards exist, but Pakistani
more industrialized nations such
environmental protection agencies do not
as Canada, the United States and
enforce them effectively (Ahmad 2004).
Australia. It is essential that the global
Coastal residents have been unable to
community work together to implement
raise the issue of water supply through
emissions reductions. WWF is working
their representatives in the national
to strengthen the ability of developing
parliament (Ahmad 2004). Currently three
countries51, such as India and Pakistan
public sector organizations manage
to effectively participate in and foster the
surface water resources and delivery:
implementation of the UN Framework
the Indus River System Authority, the
Convention on Climate Change (FCCC)
Pakistan Water and Power Development
by mobilizing relevant and influential
Authority, and the provincial irrigation
stakeholder groups in key countries.
departments in Pakistan. However
In addition, WWF is implementing a
there is no effective method to ensure
programme to ensure public and
adequate distribution (Khan 1999). In
private investments in developing
addition, although more than 30 different
countries in the Asia/Pacific region
departments, institutions, and NGOs are
to: support the objectives of the
working on different aspects of resource
FCCC, support technology transfer,
management in the Indus River and
climate change mitigation and impacts
delta, this knowledge is rarely shared or
awareness raising in Asian developing
disseminated to the relevant stakeholders
countries, and create a process of
(Ahmad 2004).
developing country participation in the
FCCC process. These efforts involve
export credit agency reform to promote
clean investment, and strengthening
the clean development mechanism to
support low-emission technologies.
51 ‘Non-annex 1’ countries. (IPCC 2001a).
27
Climate
change
b Nile-Lake Victoria
i Basin Characteristics
Length: 6,695 Km (WWF 2001)
Basin size: 3,254,853 Km2 (WRI 2003)
Population: 360 million (Rowley 2005)
Population density: 46 people/ Km2 (WRI 2003)
Egypt
Key economic activity: agriculture
Key threat: climate change
Nile River
Other threats: excessive water extraction, invasive species
The Nile River-Lake Victoria basin falls within ten countries
Sudan
(Sudan, Ethiopia, Egypt, Uganda, Tanzania, Kenya, Rwanda,
Eritrea
Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Eritrea) (WRI 2003),
and is roughly the size of India. The Nile is also the longest
Blue Nile
river on earth, and meanders through a watershed that is
more than 30% arid (Encyclopedia Britannica 2006a;
Ethiopia
Revenga et al. 1998). The longer of two branches, the
White Nile
White Nile, extends from the mountains east of Lake
Tanganyika, through Lake Victoria, to the Nile delta at the
Dem. Rep. of Kongo
Kenya
Mediterranean Sea (WWF 2001). The shorter branch, the
Blue Nile, springs from the Ethiopian Highlands, joining the
Rwanda
longer branch in central Sudan, and contributes the majority
Burundi
Tanzania
of water entering Egypt (WWF 2001)52.
People have been farming intensively in the Nile river basin for
The Nile river basin is home to a bountiful array of biodiversity
more than 5,000 years. Today, there are 25 large cities with
including 137 amphibian species, 69 wetlands that are
more than 100,000 people. The Nile delta is home to virtually
important bird areas (IBAs), and five areas supporting birds
all of Egypt’s 78 million people, where the average population
found nowhere else in the world (WRI 2003). The Nile delta is
density ranges from 1,000 person/Km2 to much higher in major
one of the world’s most important bird migration routes and
cities, such as Cairo (WRI 2003; WWF 2001; United States
is a breeding ground for two endangered marine turtles, the
Central Intelligence Agency 2005). Although the water supply
Loggerhead and the Green Turtle (Denny 1991; Schleich et
per person is currently ample53, the Nile is one of six river basins
al.1996). The Nile River alone supports 129 fish species, of
in the world with a projected population exceeding 10 million
which 26 are located only in this watershed. Lake Victoria
that is predicted to face water scarcity by 202554 (Revenga et
sustains a remarkable 343 fish species and 309 endemic fish
al. 2000).
species, which make it the highest globally in both categories55
(Revenga et al. 2000).
52 The Blue Nile contributes roughly 84% of the water
above Egypt’s Aswan High Dam (WWF 2001).
53 Per capita water supply is 2,207 m3/person/year,
1995 (WRI 2003).
54 Less than 1,000 m3/person/annually (Revenga et
al 2000).
55 For lakes with an area of less than 400,000 Km2
(Revenga et al. 2000).
28
b Nile-Lake Victoria
Climate
change
ii
Threat of Climate Change to the Nile-Lake Victoria
Due to heavy human extraction and high
less intense mixing, and changes in the
evaporation, the Nile river basin and its
nutrient dynamics which would affect
inhabitants are especially sensitive to
fisheries productivity and completely
climate change. Current water withdrawal
alter the trophic structures of fish
for irrigation is so high, that despite its
communities (O’Reilly et al., 2003;
size, in dry periods, the river does not
Verburg et al., 2003; ENSO Project 2003
reach the sea (WWF 2004c). In addition,
in Olago 2004). Sporadic upsurges of
along its 3,000 km course through arid
the ‘oxycline’ threshold in the water
northern Sudan and southern Egypt, the
column, below which waters are starved
Nile loses a huge amount of water to
of oxygen, have risen to depths as
evaporation (United Nations Environment
shallow as 10 m in Lake Victoria, and
Programme (UNEP) 1993). This makes
have already been associated with fish
water supply extremely sensitive to
kills (Ochumba 1996 in Olago 2004).
temperature and precipitation changes.
Reduced fish production could affect
Climate warming models provide
food availability, aggravate poverty and
diverging pictures of future river flows in
possibly exacerbate political instability in
the Nile from a 30% increase to a 78%
the region.
decrease (IPCC 1997; IPCC 2001; Olago
2004). In addition, saltwater intrusion
Lastly, the Nile basin traverses the
into coastal freshwater resources
largest number of countries of any
(including aquifers) is likely to increase as
basin in Africa; changes in the timing
a result of sea-level rise due to climate
and availability of water under climate
warming (IPCC 2001; Miller no date) and
change may lead to tension, insecurity
would further reduce the availability of
and management problems (IPCC
freshwater in the delta region. Climate
1997). Currently, Egypt and Sudan have
change may make Egypt drier and
full water extraction rights of the Nile57,
warmer, intensifying its dependency on
and have threatened to use force on
irrigation56 (UNEP 1993). In light of the
upstream nations that implement water
high and growing human demands for
diversions (Singh et al. 1999 in WWF
water and water-intensive agriculture
2001; IPCC 1997). A reduction over
on the banks of the Nile, reduced water
20% of Nile River flows would make this
flows under climate change would be
agreement impossible to implement and
catastrophic.
result in serious social and economic
problems (IPCC 1997). Already, more
Climate change will also have a
than half of the Nile’s basin countries
significant impact on fisheries,
receive more than 90% of their electricity
affecting both the productivity of fish
from hydropower, another three are 70%
populations and how they are distributed
dependent on hydropower (IRN 2004a)
(Environment Canada 2005). Small
and these countries have experienced
changes in temperature can dramatically
power shortages during recent droughts.
alter water levels, mixing regimes and
Further, the recent peace agreement in
fish productivity (IPCC 1997). This may
Sudan may facilitate development in that
result in increased fish productivity in
country that will require expansion of
56 The Egyptian government is already attempting to
the short term, but not indefinitely (IPCC
water use.
convert desert to agriculture; this new farmland is
2001). Higher temperatures in Lake
inefficient and water-intensive (UNEP 1993).
57 Due to a colonial era treaty (Singh et al. 1999 in
Victoria can result in slackened winds,
WWF 2001; IPCC 1997).
2
b Nile-Lake Victoria
Climate
change
iii
Responses and Role of WWF
In 1999, the basin countries established
the Nile Basin Initiative (NBI), a regional
partnership to facilitate the sustainable
development and management of Nile
resources (NBI 2005). The NBI seeks
to invest in and improve stakeholder
involvement, and power market
coordination among basin countries,
socio-economic benefi t-sharing both
today and in the future, integrated water
management training, and water use
effi ciency in agriculture (NBI 2005).
© WWF / Lyn TRELOAR
The Lake Victoria source of the Nile. The river originates from two distinct
Unfortunately, climate change
geographical zones, the basins of the White and Blue Niles.
complicates the relations between
Nile Basin Initiative states. Under the
WWF also works globally to mitigate
Shared Vision Programme, the Nile
climate change and to identify
Basin Initiative seeks to work with
sustainable energy sources. WWF is
basin countries to conduct long term
developing a small project that will
planning to protect the river, increase
examine the effects of climate change
their capacity to provide needed energy
on freshwater resources in the Mara
and water, and become more resistant to
river basin. This project will conduct an
climate change.
assessment of impacts, develop locally
acceptable adaptation mechanisms,
In the Mara river watershed in Kenya and
communicate climate testimonials and
Tanzania, which drains into Lake Victoria,
engage policy makers. WWF is also
WWF is facilitating stakeholder dialogue
implementing an environmental education
on integrated river basin management
programme in the Lake Victoria basin
for regional and district government
that aims to sensitize local communities
institutions, non-governmental
and governments on the changing
organizations and communities. This
situation of the lake and its catchment.
includes work to: protect the forest
sources of the river on the Mau
escarpment, model environmental fl ows,
and develop water sharing agreements
needed to sustain people and nature
along the river.
30
Invasive
species
Invasive species
4 The Murray-Darling (Asia-Pacifi c)
© WWF/Frèdy MERCAY
Flooded forest along Murray River near Tocumwal.
An invasive species
is a plant or animal
that is intentionally
or unintentionally
introduced to a region in
which it did not naturally
evolve, and where in
its new environment, it
grows to out-compete
native species and
communities.
Invasive species threaten the biological
fabric of river basins. A survey of 31
fi sh introductions in Europe, North
America and Australia and New Zealand
shows that in 77% of cases, native fi sh
populations were reduced or eliminated
following the introduction of non-native
fi sh (Revenga et al. 1998). Islands and
their freshwater systems are particularly
sensitive to invasive species, and
Australia’s Murray-Darling basin is
no exception.
31
Invasive
species
a Murray-Darling
i Basin Characteristics
Length: 3,370 Km (Australian Government 2005)
Basin size: 1,050,116 Km2 (WRI 2003)
Queensland
Population: 2 million (extrapolated from WRI 2003)
Population density: 2 people/ Km2 (WRI 2003)
South
Australia
Key economic activity: agriculture, grazing, tourism (Australian
Government 2003; Murray Darling Basin Commission (MDBC) 2006)
Key threat: invasive species, especially from aquarium trade
New
Other threats: river regulation & fragmentation, salinization, climate change
Darling River
South
Wales
The Murray and Darling Rivers cross four Australian states and
Murray River
one territory, draining roughly 14% of Australia’s land mass.
The source of the Murray, which contributes the majority of
the system’s total discharge, is in the Australian Alps (MDBC
Victoria
2006a). The Murray-Darling river basin is a vital source of water
for the major cities of Adelaide and Canberra, but it is more than
30% arid (WRI 2003). The Murray and Darling Rivers have great
variability in year to year fl ows, and their ecology is driven by
large fl oods covering their extensive fl oodplains and intervening
dry periods (MDBC 2006a). Compared to other major river
systems the in the world, the Murray-Darling is large in terms of
its length and catchment area, but small and erratic in terms of
discharge, and surface runoff (MDBC 2006a).
Despite these variable conditions, the Murray-Darling is home
to abundant aquatic plant and animal life. In the Murray-Darling
basin, there are around 30,000 wetlands, 12 of these are
internationally recognized Ramsar sites (Australian Government
2005a). The basin is known for its diversity of crayfi sh and
freshwater snails (Revenga et al. 2000; WRI 2003), and is
home to 16 mammal and 35 bird species that are nationally
endangered (Australian Government 2005a). Despite the
relatively low number of endemic fi sh species (seven in total), it
is home to fl agship species such as the Silver Perch, Freshwater
Catfi sh and the large Murray Cod all of which are in rapid decline
(WRI 2003; Barrett 2004).
© Andrew Storrie / NSW DPI
Flowering Lippia infestation along banks of Namoi River, near Boggabri, NSW,
February 2004.
32
a Murray-Darling
Invasive
species
ii
Threat of Invasive Species in the Murray-Darling
In the past century, native fish species in
Due to the high level of water regulation
(Barrett 2004), the last major dam built in
the Murray-Darling basin have undergone
and fragmentation in the Murray-Darling,
the basin. Removing ‘snags’ (fallen trees
a serious decline in distribution and
carp’s ability to breed in turbid water
and branches) from the watercourse also
abundance, while that of invasive species
in the absence of the natural flood
reduces the habitat quality and breeding
has significantly increased (MDBC
and drought cycle, give it a biological
success of native fish while increasing
2005). In fact, native fish populations
advantage over native fish species
the competitive advantage of invasives
are roughly 10% of their pre-European
(Sinclair 2001 in Olivier 2003). Irrigated
(Murray-Darling Basin Ministerial Council
settlement levels (Murray Darling Basin
agriculture accounts for 95% of water
2003; Barrett 2004). Carp also spawn
Ministerial Council 2003; Philips 2003
diversion in the Murray, covers almost
in the many vegetated irrigation channel
in Barrrett 2004). Nine of the 35 native
1.5 million ha in the Murray-Darling
systems in the Murray-Darling River
fish species are nationally ‘threatened’,
basin, and has severely damaged the
system (Victorian Government 2001).
two are critically endangered, and 16
rivers’ ecology (Murray Darling Basin
are threatened under state jurisdictions
Commission 2006c). Extensive dam and
The Mosquito Fish or Plague Minnow
(Barrett 2004). In contrast, both the
weir development for agriculture creates
is another serious threat to native fish
invasive European Carp and Plague
barriers to native fish migration, extracts
in the Murray-Darling. An aquarium
Minnow are now abundant (Australian
half of the annual stream flow in the
fish that was introduced in the 1920’s
Government 2004). This is likely a result
Murray59, and increases periods of low
to prey on mosquitoes as it did in the
of significant changes in water flow,
flow60. Such development also causes
Rio Grande, this species has had no
thermal (cold water) pollution, instream
permanent flooding and high water in
impact on mosquito prevalence, but
habitat degradation, and barriers to fish
some areas, increases sedimentation,
attacks, injures and preys on native fish
passage which have fostered conditions
and reverses the seasonality of natural
(Australian Government 2004). It nips
favourable to invasive species over native
flows (Murray Darling Basin Ministerial
the fins of other fish, leaving open sores
fish populations (MDBC 2005). At least
Council 2003; MDBC 2006b; Australian
which spread pathogens among fish, and
11 introduced fish species make up one
Government 2006). In addition, carp
competes with them for food and habitat
quarter of the basin’s total number of
change the natural habitat by uprooting
(Olivier 2003; Australian Government
fish species, including the Brown Trout,
the vegetation upon which native fish
2004). The Mosquito Fish also feeds
Rainbow Trout, Redfin Perch, Gambusia,
depend for habitat and food (Sinclair
on native fish fry at the water’s surface
and Goldfish (Australian Government
2001 in Olivier 2003). Carp also muddy
and preys on the eggs and attacks the
2004; Harris and Gehrke 1997 in Barrett
the water in which they feed, which
tadpoles of native frogs (Olivier 2003;
2004).
blocks the photosynthetic growth of
Australian Government 2004)61.
native aquatic plants. Unlike native fish,
In 30 years since its introduction,
these invasives have fleshy barbs which
Continued
however, the European Carp has become
are well-adapted for searching for food
the predominant biomass in the Murray-
in murky waters (Sinclair 2001 in Olivier
Darling (Australian Government 2004;
2003). Compounding this damage,
Barrett no date). At many sites, carp
periodic unnaturally cold water released
account for an estimated 60-90% of the
from dams in the headwaters of all but
total fish biomass, with densities as high
three river tributaries prevent ‘warm
as one carp per square meter (Australian
water’ native fish from breeding for
Government 2004; Harris & Gehrke 1997
around 300 Km downstream (Victorian
in Barrett 2004)58.
Government 2001; New South Wales
Government 2001). For example,
58 Originally from central Asia, the European carp grows
localized extinction of the Trout Cod,
up to 60Kg (Olivier 2003).
Murray Cod and Macquarie Perch has
59 Total of 11,000 GL of water per year (MDBC 2006).
occurred 100 Km downstream following
60 So much water has been extracted that the river
mouth has only been linked to the sea by dredging
completion of the Dartmouth Dam
(Kemp & Truss 2002).
33
a Murray-Darling
Invasive
species
ii
Threat of Invasive Species in the Murray-Darling (continued)
Speaking of aquarium fish released
These invasive species reflect an
into the Murray-Darling, this is now the
ongoing governance failure common
largest source of new feral freshwater
to most countries. While the Australian
fish in Australia (Olivier 2003; Australian
Government has long had some
Biosecurity Group 2005). Since 1990,
quarantine controls, they have not
the number of exotic fish in Australia’s
adequately excluded new introductions
waters overall jumped from 22 to 34,
of dangerous species. Most importantly,
and all except for one of these
Australian governments have failed to
introduced species originated from the
adequately screen the many exotic
aquarium trade (Australian Biosecurity
species already in the country – legally
Group 2005).
and illegally - and undertake ‘incursion
management’, to kill dangerous species
Compounding damage to the Murray-
while their populations are still low. Also
Darling, are invasive plants including
better ‘vector controls’ to manage the
water plants released from aquariums
sources of these exotic species are
and ponds, riparian trees introduced
missing, such as programmes directed at
for aesthetic purposes, and a variety
aquaculture and at the aquarium trade to
of plants introduced for agricultural
regulate and prevent release of alien fish
and ornamental purposes that are
and plants. Instead most state (provincial)
invading floodplains and other wetlands.
governments have focused on ineffective
One example is Lippia, introduced as
and expensive ‘control’ programmes,
an ornamental ‘no mow’ lawn. This
when these alien species have invaded
unpalatable herb is smothering the river
too thoroughly to be eradicated.
system’s floodplain. These plants reduce
the natural productivity of the floodplain,
river and other wetland habitats, further
depleting natural wildlife populations.
61 Incidentally, the Murray-Darling is facing a noticeable
amphibian decline with the loss of 5-8 amphibian
species from two different locations (Revenga et al.
2000). In addition to the possible role of Mosquito
Fish, this loss in amphibian diversity is in part due to
predation from introduced trout.
34
a Murray-Darling
Climate
change
iii
Responses and Role of WWF
The Australian national and provincial
The Murray Darling Basin Commission
In addition, WWF’s Water for Life
governments agreed on a Murray-Darling
has developed a Native Fish Management
campaign seeks to ensure that Australia’s
Initiative in 1992 and re-established
Strategy which responds to the key
over-allocated river and groundwater
the Murray Darling Basin Commission
threats to native fish populations in
systems receive the necessary additional
to coordinate the conservation and
the Murray-Darling basin including the
water to become ecologically healthy,
sustainable use of the natural resources
introduction of alien fish species, the
to restore environmental flows, and to
of the basin. This included measures
spread of diseases, and translocation
protect high conservation value systems
to cap water extraction at 1994 levels,
and stocking of fish (MDBC 2003).
from degradation through the National
and reduce salinity and algal blooms.
The overall goal of this Strategy is to
Water Initiative and National Water
In addition, since 1996, AUD $2 billion
rehabilitate native fish communities in
Commission, established in 2004 (WWF
(~ USD $1.5 B) has been allocated to
the basin to 60% of their estimated pre-
2004a).
recover water to increase environmental
European settlement levels, 50 years
flows and restore fish passage for the
after implementation (MDBC 2003).
The most effective invasive species
lower 1,800 Km of the Murray River
management is to prevent initial
(Australian Government 2005b; MDBC
Authorities are experimenting with
introduction. This needs to occur at
2006). Despite these worthy initiatives,
three forms of European carp control
different scales ranging from effective
the ecological health of the rivers
– including increasing the variability of
national quarantine programmes, to
continues to decline.
river flows so that native fish recruitment
activities at the national, provincial, river
increases and carp eggs are killed,
basin and site scale. WWF is working
In January 2007 the Prime Minister
harvesting carp for use as food, fertilizer
with Australian government agencies to
proposed that the Federal Government
and commercial products (including
fill gaps in the national quarantine law,
take control of the river system and
trapping carp in fish ladders), and
create a comprehensive early warning
spend A$ 10 billion over 10 years in
biological control through the use of a
surveillance programme, and develop
an effort to reverse the river’s decline.
virus known as Spring Viraemia which
contingency plans to manage new
Following lobbying by WWF, the national
exists naturally in carp populations in
incursions of aquatic pests.
government is finally developing a
Europe (MDBC no date).
‘National Framework to Prevent and
Control Invasive Species’ and has
developed a list of policy, coordination,
prevention, early warning, rapid
response, eradication and containment
and control measures that should be
implemented (Australian Biosecurity
Group 2005). Previous national policies
for weeds and feral animals focused on
ineffectual ‘control’ programmes and
ad hoc selections of species that had
already escaped.
3
Over-fi shing
Over-fi shing
The Mekong (Asia)
© WWF-Canon / Elizabeth KEMF
Aerial view of the Mekong delta. in Southern Vietnam.
In the Mekong, the
importance of fi sheries
for human subsistence
cannot be understated,
but this naturally
bountiful resource is
not being managed for
future use.
Clarifying fi shing rights and reducing
illegal fi shing practices are key to
preserving food security in the region.
© WWF-Canon / Zeb HOGAN
Mekong River’s Giant Catfi sh being tagged and released in the
Tonle Sap Lake, Cambodia.
36
Over-fishing
a Mekong
i Basin Characteristics
Length: roughly 4,600 Km (Mekong River Commission (MRC) 2003)
Basin size: 805,604 Km2 (WRI 2003)
Population: 57,197,884 people62 (WRI 2003)
Population density: 71 people/ Km2 (WRI 2003)
Key economic activity: fishing, aquaculture, agriculture and natural
Mekong
China
resource harvesting
Key threats: over-fishing, illegal fishing
Other threats: large infrastructure (hydropower dams - 58 large dams built
and another 149 planned - and roads)63, deforestation, changes in sediment
transport patterns (linked to land use changes and built structures) and
Myanmar
toxics from agriculture (MRC 2002 van Liere & McNeely 2005; Angell 1996)
Vietnam
Laos
The Mekong river basin is the largest in Southeast Asia (Milton,
2000). It is the 10th largest in the world by volume (WRI 2003),
Thailand
draining an area more than twice the size of Germany. Rising
in the mountains of China’s Qinghai province near Tibet, it
flows south. It forms the border between Laos and Myanmar
Cambodia
(Burma), most of the border between Laos and Thailand,
and moves across Cambodia and southern Vietnam into a
rich delta which opens to the South China Sea (WRI 2003;
Water Policy International Limited 2001). Unlike many major
rivers in Asia, this river and its flood regime are relatively intact
(Revenga et al. 2000). As a result, the lower Mekong basin is
the most productive river fishery in the world (MRC 2004 in
The exceptional fishery in the Mekong River is based on the
WWF 2004). Freshwater fisheries here have a commercial value
ecological boost provided by the annual wet season flood of its
exceeding US$1.7 bil ion and provide 80% of the animal protein
extensive floodplain, particularly the back flow of the river into
consumed by 55 mil ion inhabitants (Van Zalinge et al.2003).
the Tonle Sap Lake in Cambodia. The scale of this beneficial
Not surprisingly, the lower Mekong countries have some of the
flooding and consequent fish harvest is threatened by the
highest dependence on inland capture fisheries in the world64
present and potential impoundment of floodwaters behind 58
(Welcomme & Petr 2004).
existing and 149 proposed large dams, and by roads in the
floodplains.
The basin is home to an amazing 1,200-1,700 fish species, the
highest fish diversity in any basin after the Amazon and Congo
(WRI 2003). Sixty-two fish species are found nowhere else in the
world (WWF 2005i). This river harbours more species of giant fish
than any other on the Earth as wel as the largest freshwater fish
known to science, the Mekong Giant Catfish (Al an et al. 2005;
Environmental News Service 2005). There are over 160 known
62 MRC estimated the total basin population to be 73
amphibian species, and five Ramsar wetlands of international
million people in 2000 and the confirmed number for
the lower basin is over 55 million, so the current total
significance (WRI 2003). The basin is also home to the Irrawaddy
population is likely much larger than this number.
Dolphin, the Mekong population of which is critical y endangered
63 Ranked primary threat in the WWF Living Mekong
(WRI 2003).
Programme revised conservation plan.
64 Per capita fish consumption approaches 60 Kg/
person/year (Welcomme & Petr 2004).
37
a Mekong
Over-fishing
ii
Threat of Over-fishing in the Mekong
Despite the productivity of the Mekong,
ban on this species with Thai fishers
the threat of over-fishing is high because
(WWF 2006a). In Laos as early as 1890,
of the huge scale of subsistence fishing,
a large fishery developed for the Mekong
the majority of which goes unrecorded,
Giant Catfish but by 1940, declines
as well as poor fishing practices. In
were observed in northeast Thailand.
basins around the world, inland fisheries
Other large fish species including the
are “under-reported by two to three
River Catfish, the Giant Carp, and the
times”, so their contribution to direct
Giant Stingray in the Mekong are in
human consumption is likely to be at
decline, indicating possible ‘assemblage
least twice as high as the reported fish
overfishing’ (Allan et al. 2005).
catch (Revenga et al. 2000). Subsistence
fishing in the Mekong is heavy and
In the Mekong, uncertain fishing rights,
destructive, and there is evidence of
over-fishing and illegal fishing have taken
declining fish populations as a result.
a heavy toll on fish stocks. People illegally
Most important however is evidence
use small-meshed mosquito nets to
of the loss of community structure,
capture fish (which catch juveniles as well
i.e. assemblage over-fishing65, where
as adult fish), electro-shock fish with car
entire biological groups of fish, not just
batteries, and increasingly over-harvest
individual species, start to disappear.
fish with poison (FAO 2005). Inherited
from colonial times, the Cambodian
In Cambodia’s ‘great lake’, the Tonle
government has managed its fisheries
Sap, where most large-scale inland
according to a concession system that
fishing takes place, fishers report the
enables unfair access, corruption and
rampant use of illegal fishing methods
occasionally violent disputes (FAO 2005;
and declining fish catches (Allan et
van Zalinge et al. 2003).
al.2005). Several Mekong fish species
are now endangered (Allan et al.2005)
The productivity of the Mekong River
and both the number and size of fish
underscores the importance of this
caught has steadily declined (FAO
region in providing millions with food,
Newsroom September 2005). In fact,
but creates the misleading impression
recent data demonstrates a pattern of
that its resources are limitless. It is clear,
increasing catch and increasing fishing
however, that unsustainable fishing
effort followed by a declining catch
practices and levels of harvest, along
with a sustained effort, typical of an
with changes in water flows induced by
over-exploited population (Allan et al.
new dams, threaten the permanence of
2005). For instance, a century ago, the
this wealth.
Mekong Giant Catfish was found along
the entire length of the river from Vietnam
to southern China. Since then, however,
populations have dropped precipitously
(WWF 2006b). Scientists estimate that
the total number of Mekong Giant Catfish
has decreased about 90 percent in just
65 Assemblage over-fishing occurs when fishing an area
causes changes in the fish community composition,
the past two decades (WWF 2006b;
a decline in the largest-bodied species, a reduction in
Environmental News Service 2005).
the mean trophic level of the assemblage, or a change
in the temporal responsiveness of populations to
WWF recently helped broker a voluntary
environmental fluctuations (Allan et al. 2005).
38
a Mekong
Over-fi shing
iii
Responses and Role of WWF
In 1995, all basin countries except the
two upper basin states, China and
Myanmar, signed the Mekong Agreement
and revitalized the Mekong River
Commission66 to promote cooperative
management of the river (Water Policy
International Limited 2001). Though
the Commission has made progress in
its relations with China and Myanmar
in sharing information on fi sheries and
hydrological data, insuffi cient attention
has been paid to halting overfi shing
throughout the basin. Areas threatened
by overfi shing need better institutional
© WWF-Canon / Elizabeth KEMF
capacity to create and enforce legislation
Sampans meet at early morning market in the Mekong delta. Vietnam.
on fi shing methods and rights. In
addition, community-based fi shing
The Mekong River Commission was
The WWF Living Mekong Programme
cooperatives, improved communication
involved in the Mekong Wetlands
(LMP) works in Laos, Thailand, and
between stakeholders and integrated
Biodiversity programme jointly
Vietnam, and Cambodia, and with China
basin management are essential in
implemented with UNDP-IUCN,
to maintain the biological integrity and
protecting benefi cial fl ooding and the
and through the MRC Environment
sustainable management of the basin’s
Mekong River’s resources.
Programme’s work on Water Quality
terrestrial and freshwater resources
Management (MRC 2006). Oxfam is
to benefi t local communities, nations
now working with Mekong communities
and the region as a whole. It is a multi-
in Thailand to help them establish fi sh
disciplinary project aimed at coordinating
conservation zones, sound community
conservation and sustainable
fi shing, and respect for local resources
development in the river basin through
(Oxfam American 2005). Cambodian
a framework of strong international
authorities also teamed up with the FAO
and regional cooperation with a wide
and are running a participatory natural
range of key partners including the
resource management programme in
Mekong River Commission. The LMP
one of the Tonle Sap’s poorest provinces,
focuses on i) effective decision-making,
Siem Reap (FAO 2005). Currently, 5.4%
mechanisms and policies to reduce
of the basin’s area is protected (WRI
major threats, such as infrastructure ii)
2003). Freshwater protected areas
providing effective protection, restoration
serve as an important breeding and
and management of freshwater species,
fi sh recruitment grounds, and provide
habitats and ecosystem processes,
as an alternative source of income for
iii) ensuring local populations manage
communities through eco-tourism.
their aquatic resources to contribute
to sustainable regional and economic
development, iv) awareness and
capacity-building, and v) alternative and
appropriate energy development.
66 Mekong River Commission:
http://www.mrcmekong.org/about_mekong/water_work.htm
3
Pollution
Pollution
6 The Yangtze (Asia)
© WWF-Canon / Claire DOOLE
Freight ship with coal on the Yangtze River, near the Three Gorges Dam, Hubei Province, China.
Freshwater ecosystems
A number of physical, chemical, and
naturally fi lter and purify
microbial factors reduce water quality
water. However, this
including organic pollutants, nutrients,
ability is impaired by
heavy metals, salinization, acidifi cation,
excessive pollution and
suspended particles and temperature
habitat degradation
(Revenga et al. 2000). Rapid industrial
growth has lead to devastating water
(Revenga et al. 2000).
pollution problems in China.
© WWF-Canon / Claire DOOLE
Coal heaps on the banks of the Yangtze River, being loaded into freight ships.
Hubei Province, China.
40
Pollution
a Yangtze
i Basin Characteristics
Length: 6,300 Km (People’s Republic of China (PRC) 2004)
China
Basin size: 1,800,000 Km2 (Owen 2001)
Population: 430 million people by the end of 2003 (National Bureau of
Yellow River
Statistics 2004)
Population density: 238 people/ Km2(National Bureau of Statistics 2004)
Key economic activity: agriculture, industry, transportation
Key threat: pollution (sedimentation, and industrial, agricultural and
Yangtze River
domestic waste)
Other threats: 105 large dams planned or under construction, inter-basin
water transfer and other water infrastructure, over-fi shing and illegal fi shing
(WWF 2004)
The Yangtze River, also called the Chang Jiang meaning
In addition to its social and economic importance, the Yangtze
‘long river’, rises in the mountains of Qinghai Province on the
river basin is a centre of immense biological wealth. The river is
Tibetan plateau, and fl ows 6,300 Km to the East China Sea,
home to 350 fi sh species (including the giant Yangtze Sturgeon),
opening at Shanghai. Its catchment covers 1/5 of the land
of which 112 are endemic (Park et al. 2003). In the main channel
area in China (PRC 2004). For two centuries, the Yangtze has
of the upper Yangtze alone, there are 261 fi sh species, 44
served as a transportation and commercial thoroughfare, and
of which are found only in this region (Park et al. 2003). The
steamers can navigate as far as Yichang, 1,600 Km from the
Yangtze contains high crab biodiversity, and over 160 amphibian
sea (Owen 2001). The Yangtze river basin accounts for 40% of
species (Grommbridge & Jenkins 1998). This basin is the sole
China’s freshwater resources, more than 70% of the country’s
habitat of the critically endangered Chinese Paddlefi sh, the
rice production, 50% of its grain, more than 70% of fi shery
endangered Finless Porpoise, and the now believed to be
production, and 40% of the China’s GDP (National Bureau of
extinct Chinese River Dolphin, the most critically endangered
Statistics 2004).
cetacean in the world (WWF 2005h). The most threatened
crocodilian species in the world, the Chinese Alligator, is only
found in the lower reaches of the Yangtze67 (WWF 2005h).
This basin is home to other endangered charismatic species
including the Giant Panda, the largest salamander in the world,
Audrias davidianus, the once-extirpated Pere David’s Deer now
re-introduced from captive stock, and the critically endangered
Siberian Crane (WWF 2005h; WWF 2004).
67 More than 2,000 individuals exist, but most are
artifi cially bred.
41
a Yangtze
Pollution
ii
Threat of Pollution in the Yangtze
Rivaling the impact of the Three Gorges
irrigation waters at Hubei Province in the
already substantial including intestinal
Dam, this basin faces unprecedented
middle reaches of the Yangtze were 160
infectious diseases such as hepatitis A,
pol ution as a result of rapid, large-scale
times applicable water standards (Anid
and dysentery incidence rates some 50%
industrial and domestic development, and
& Tschirley 1998). Tests from the hair of
higher than the national average. E.coli
agricultural runof . According to Chinese
af ected populations revealed that the
bacteria is rampant in water sources, and
environmental activist Dai Qing, the
levels of cadmium are five times higher
as high as 15,000 E.coli/L in some parts
Yangtze used to be so clear that you could
than background levels and only marginal y
of the city (World Bank 1998). The Three
see a pen sink to the bottom. Now it has
lower than the threshold concentration
Gorges Dam, about 660 Km downstream,
become so dirty that it is not fit for drinking
causing itai-itai disease in humans (Anid &
reduces the velocity of the Yangtze River,
(Chao 2006). Over the last 50 years, there
Tschirley 1998). Local Chinese experts are
increases its water depth, and alters the
has been a 73% increase in pol ution
now describing pol ution in the Yangtze as
natural flow regime. In the huge reservoir70
levels from hundreds of cities, in the main
‘cancerous’ (Reuters 2006).
behind the dam, eutrophication threatens
stem of the Yangtze River (WWF 2005h).
surface water quality, and near water
The annual discharge of sewage and
In addition, the Yangtze is the fourth largest
intakes (World Bank 1998; IRN 2001).
industrial waste in the river has reached
sediment carrier in the world due to the
Also, impounded water submerges
about 25 bil ion tons, which is 42% of
proportion of arable land in its catchment,
existing urban water and sanitation
the country’s total sewage discharge,
damming and erosion from land
infrastructure. In addition, construction
and 45% of its total industrial discharge
conversion (farming and forestry)68 (Higgitt
for the Three Gorges Dam never included
(WWF 2005h; Fang and Zhou 1999 in
& Lu 1999; Owen 2001; Li & Deng 2004).
a budget to clean towns of toxic waste
Pu 2003). In addition, the CCICED (China
In the first sixty years of the 20th century,
before submerging them (Chao 2006). In
Council for International Cooperation on
the Yangtze’s sediment yield increased
Wanxian, Wan County, the Three Gorges
Environment and Development) Task Force
by about 30%, which corresponds to a
Dam submerges part of the sewer system
on Reducing Non-Point Pol ution from
related increase in surface erosion area
and waste water treatment plant as well
Crop Production concluded that 92% of
in the basin (Yang et al. 2004). Since the
as dumpsites along the river (World Bank
the nitrogen discharged into the Yangtze is
1960’s, the sediment yield in many areas
1998). Garbage heaps, boat effluent, pig
from agriculture (CCICED 2004). Shipping
of the basin has increased, while the
and animal waste, factories, hospitals, and
discharges are also to blame for the river’s
suspended sediment flux has dramatical y
mines containing hazardous and possibly
declining health (Reuters 2006). As wel ,
decreased as it has been trapped in dam
radioactive waste on the bottom of the
the extensive loss of floodplain areas to
reservoirs (Yang et al. 2003).
reservoir are creating serious pol ution
agriculture has reduced the basin’s ability
(Owen 2001; China’s State Environmental
to detoxify pol utants.
Lastly, hydropower developments impound
Protection Administration (SEPA) 1997 in
reservoirs that severely af ect water quality.
Owen 2001; WWF 2005h; Chao 2006). In
The major pol utants in the Yangtze
After 13 years of construction, the Three
addition, possible riverbank col apses and
mainstem are suspended substances,
Gorges Dam is now built and wil be ful y
landslides71 as a result of damming wil add
oxidizing organic and inorganic
operational in 2008 (Chao 2006). The
even more stress to the water quality of
compounds, and ammonia nitrogen
Three Gorges Dam69 exacerbates water
the Yangtze (Jian et al. 2005).
(Pu 2003). This has severely reduced
pol ution by impounding waters, trapping
drinking water quality and contributed to
sediment and increasing eutrophication.
dramatic eutrophication (WWF 2005h).
Chongqing Municipality, at the confluence
68 Between 1950 and 1998, there was a loss of more
In addition, shal ow, slower water flowing
of the Yangtze and Jialing rivers has
than 50% of both marsh and forest area along the
in belts adjacent to the banks near urban
become the largest economic centre in
Yangtze (US Embassy to China 1999).
areas, and in smal er lakes and tributaries
southwest China, but is the largest source
69 The Three Gorges Dam plans make it wide enough
to block the Golden Gate Bridge (IRN 2001).
of the main stem, suf er even worse
of organic water pol ution in the Yangtze
70185m deep and more than 600 Km long in the main
eutrophication and higher concentrations
upstream of the Three Gorges Dam (World
channel of the Upper Yangtze (Owen 2001).
of the pol utants (Pu 2003; Anid & Tschirley
Bank 1998). Before the Three Gorges
71 Predicted destructive and disastrous over an area
less than 5% of the fore-reservoir region, 20 Km from
1998). In one study, cadmium levels in
Dam, health impacts in the area were
the Three Gorges Dam (Wu et al. 2001).
42
a Yangtze
Pollution
iii
Responses and Role of WWF
Efforts to reduce pollution in the Yangtze
River have been slow but promising.
Community pressure has successfully
increased local enforcement activities
such as fi eld inspections and increased
pollution fees. China’s pollution fee
system was introduced in the early
1980s to control pollution and create
an incentive for corporate investment
in control projects (Pu 2003). Market
reform has been an important factor
in motivating industry environmental
performance (Dasgupta et al. 1997 in
Pu 2003). In fact, market reform and
community pressure have generated as
© WWF-Canon / Yifei ZHANG
great an impact on industrial pollution as
Fishing is a main livelihood on Zhangdu, site of consevation work supported by
direct regulation and the charge-subsidy
the WWF HSBC Yangtze Programme, Hubei Province, China.
system (Pu 2003).
In the past year, Chinese government
Conceived by WWF with the Chinese
Restoration of fl oodplain wetlands in the
authorities, with support from WWF,
government, the Yangtze Forum was
central Yangtze region has been a focus
have taken steps toward developing
held in Wuhan from April 16-17, 2005
of WWF’s fi eld work to restore wildlife
an integrated basin management plan
and marked the fi rst time that so many
habitats, reduce fl ood risks, and improve
which would help stem the threat of
major stakeholders convened to discuss
livelihoods of local people (Schuyt 2005).
pollution in the Yangtze. Integrated river
a blueprint for the Yangtze basin’s
Since 2002, the connections between
basin management (IRBM) is vital to
development and conservation crossing
11 lakes (including Hong Lake, Zhangdu
enable communities to restore the natural
administrative and sectoral boundaries.
Lake, Baidang Lake, and Tian-e-zhou
capacity of their watershed to ‘treat’
Four key national government authorities,
Oxbow) and the Yangtze River, for
pollution. IRBM is a tool communities
four river basin authorities, 11 provincial
example, are being restored through
can use to balance development and
governments along the main stem,
the WWF-HSBC Yangtze Programme.
conservation needs, such as whether
three academic organizations, and 200
WWF is supporting and demonstrating
to construct dams or diversions, which
people from 14 countries participated.
new sustainable agricultural practices
severely affect quality of water in a basin.
Participants agreed on a joint statement
such as organic farming and eco-fi shery
of shared priorities and goals, the
to reduce agricultural pollution in the
Yangtze Declaration on Protection
Dongting Lake and Hubei Province.
and Development, which calls for the
revision and updating of the Master Plan
for Comprehensive Utilization of the
Yangtze river basin, and the addition of
ecosystem health as a key target.
43
Conclusion
Conclusion
There are enormous threats to the integrity of the world’s great river basins, the sources of drinking
water, the basis of our economies, and the fabric of our communities. WWF proposes the following
solutions to the six primary threats faced by the ten most endangered river basins. Given the range
of threats, there are many ways in which to protect river basins. Stakeholders in each basin can
prioritize these solutions and implement them through integrated river basin management.
Over-extraction
1
Solutions: Establishing environmental flows, improving
Over-extraction of water for agriculture and domestic
water allocations and rights, improving efficiency in water
consumption threaten to make the Rio Grande and
use, instituting payments for water services, switching to
Ganges Rivers run completely dry.
production of less thirsty crops, removing agricultural subsidies
that encourage excessive water extraction, and developing a
network of partnerships that promote sustainable development
are critical.
Dams and infrastructure
Solutions: Assessing whether new infrastructure is the best
2 Dam and infrastructure projects threaten freshwater means of delivering the required service is the first step (for
habitats in the Salween, La Plata, and Danube
example, in the Danube, rail transport may be a better option). If
basins.
infrastructure is the best option it should be planned to minimize
impacts by: siting off the river’s main stem and floodplains,
mimicking natural water flows, al owing fish passage, control ing
thermal pol ution, and maintaining sediment and nutrient flows
critical to sustaining the health of the rivers. Effective treaties
between riparian nations to support integrated river basin
management are essential for good governance.
Invasive species
Solutions: Preventing the introduction of new invasive species
3 Invasive species threaten the ecology of the Murray- through better laws and programmes for quarantine, risk
Darling basin.
assessments of ‘sleeper’ exotic species, incursion management
and vector control are essential. The aquarium and aquaculture
trades are two important vectors to focus on. Enhanced public
education and awareness can limit the spread of aquatic
invasive species. Control of escaped exotic species is a second
best option but can be partial y effective through reducing
reproduction using various methods.
Climate change
Solutions: International cooperation, technology transfer,
4 Higher temperatures associated with climate change and awareness are crucial to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
threaten to plunge the Indus basin into further water
and adapt to climate change. Improving the resilience of forest
scarcity due to its dependence on melt waters from
watersheds, rivers, lakes and other wetlands by protecting key
declining Himalayan glaciers. Higher temperatures also
latitudinal and altitudinal corridors to facilitate species migration,
have potentially devastating consequences for fishery
and boost ecosystem health may also attenuate some of the
productivity, water supply and political security in
impacts of climate change on biological diversity.
Africa’s arid Nile-Lake Victoria basin.
44
Conclusion
Over-fishing
Solutions: Clarifying fishing rights, increasing local capacity
In the Mekong, inappropriate fishing practices,
to manage aquatic resources, and stronger regulation and
inadequate distribution of fishing rights and the high
enforcement of il egal fishing practices can stem the threat
level of fish consumption have led to destructive levels
of over-fishing. Conservation and restoration of habitats.
of fishing.
Maintenance of adequate environmental flows is essential.
Overal , integrated river basin management (IRBM) with diverse
stakeholder engagement and ef ective watershed management
authorities, is essential to the sustainable use of river basin
resources. In this way, diverse interests including fishers,
farmers, government agencies, and environmental groups create
long-lasting partnerships which are essential in developing a
common vision and solutions for sustainable natural resource
use and conservation in a basin. IRBM al ows communities to
manage river basins from ‘source to sea’, in accordance with
the ‘ecosystem approach’ that member governments have
committed to through the CBD and also the Ramsar Convention
on Wetlands (Ramsar Convention on Wetlands 1999).
Pollution
Solutions:
6 In the Yangtze basin, decades of heavy
It is essential to value the cost to human and wildlife health
industrialization, damming, and huge influxes of
when calculating the economic feasibility of proposed
sediment from land conversion have made it one of
development. Protecting watersheds and wetlands from
the most polluted rivers in the world.
deforestation, conversion and damming can reduce erosion
and sedimentation, and help purify water of toxic chemicals.
Pol ution can be curbed through better management practices
for production of crops and livestock, improved enforcement
of pol ution laws, fees and tradable rights, innovative payment
for ecosystem service schemes, and the adoption of
comprehensive integrated river basin management plans.
The world’s top ten rivers at risk identified by WWF highlight the reasons for
the catastrophic loss of freshwater biodiversity, the wanton waste of freshwater
resources, poor governance, and a disregard for the needs of local people
that frequently exacerbates poverty. However, in these tales of destruction lie
indicators of the solutions that can enable the conservation and restoration of the
world’s great rivers. No solution wil be effective in any of these river basins unless
it is implemented through cooperation across social, economic, and political
boundaries. Only then can the people of the world’s great basins rest easy, when
the river again knows exactly where it is going, and it is sure to get there.
4
References
References
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