World Drug Report
Vienna International Centre, PO Box 500, 1400 Vienna, Austria
Tel: +(43) (1) 26060-0, Fax: +(43) (1) 26060-5866, www.unodc.org
WORLD
DRUG REPORT
WORLD
2009
The World Drug Report presents comprehensive
information on the il icit drug situation. It provides
detailed estimates and trends on production, traf-
WORLD
ficking and consumption in the opium/heroin,
DRUG REPORT
2009
coca/cocaine, cannabis and amphetamine-type
stimulants markets. This year, for the first time,
the World Drug Report includes special feature
DRUG
sections on the quality of drug data available to
UNODC, trends in drug use among young people
and police-recorded drug offences. It also dis-
cusses one the most formidable unintended con-
sequences of drug control - the black market for
drugs - and how the international community
REPOR
best can tackle it.
T
2009
UNITED NATIONS OFFICE ON DRUGS AND CRIME
Vienna
World Drug Report
2009
UNITED NATIONS
New York, 2009
Copyright © 2009, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC)
ISBN: 978-92-1-148240-9
United Nations Publication Sales No. E.09.XI.12
This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or non-profit
purposes without special permission from the copyright holder, provided acknowledgement of the source
is made. UNODC would appreciate receiving a copy of any publication that uses this publication as a source.
No use of this publication may be made for resale or any other commercial purpose whatsoever without prior
permission in writing from the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Applications for such permission,
with a statement of purpose and intent of the reproduction,should be addressed to UNODC,
Policy Analysis and Research Branch
DISCLAIMERS
This Report has not been formally edited.
The contents of this publication do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of UNODC or contributory
organizations and neither do they imply any endorsement.
The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression
of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNODC concerning the legal status of any country, territory or city
or its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
Photo on page 67 © Ivankmit / Dreamstime.com
Comments on the report are welcome and can be sent to:
Policy Analysis and Research Branch
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
PO Box 500
1400 Vienna
Austria
Tel: (+43) 1 26060 0
Fax: (+43) 1 26060 5827
E-mail: SASS@unodc.org
Website: www.unodc.org
Financial support for the World Drug Report 2009 was provided by the Government of Sweden.
CONTENTS
Preface
1
Introduction
5
Explanatory notes
6
Executive Summary
9
Special features: Improving the quality of drug data
21
Trends in drug use among young people: what do we know?
23
Police-recorded drug offences
29
1. TRENDS IN WORLD DRUG MARKETS
1.1 Opium / heroin market
1.1.1 Summary trend overview
33
1.1.2 Production
33
1.1.3 Trafficking
41
1.1.4 Consumption
52
1.2 Coca / cocaine market
1.2.1 Summary trend overview
63
1.2.2 Production
63
1.2.3 Trafficking
70
1.2.4 Consumption
80
1.3 Cannabis market
1.3.1 Summary trend overview
89
1.3.2 Production
89
1.3.3 Trafficking
98
1.3.4 Consumption
106
1.4 Amphetamine-type stimulants market
1.4.1 Summary trend overview
115
1.4.2 Production
115
1.4.3 Trafficking
126
1.4.4 Consumption
144
2. CONFRONTING UNINTENDED CONSEQUENCES:
DRUG CONTROL AND THE CRIMINAL BLACK MARKET
2.1 Why illicit drugs must remain illicit
163
2.2 Move beyond reactive law enforcement
166
2.3 Create flow-specific drug strategies
172
2.4 Strengthen international resistance to drug markets
179
2.5 Take the crime out of drug markets
182
CONTENTS
3.
STATISTICAL
ANNEX
3.1 Production
3.1.1 Afghanistan
187
3.1.2 Bolivia
194
3.1.3 Colombia
197
3.1.4 Lao PDR
202
3.1.5 Myanmar
204
3.1.6 Peru
208
3.2 Seizures
213
3.3 Seizures of illicit laboratories
214
3.4 Prices
3.4.1 Opiates: Wholesale, street prices and purity levels
215
3.4.2 Cocaine: Wholesale, street prices and purity levels
220
3.4.3 Cannabis: Wholesale, street prices and purity levels
224
3.4.4 Amphetamine-type stimulants: Wholesale, street prices and purity levels
230
3.5 Consumption
3.5.1 Annual prevalence
3.5.1.1 Opiates
235
3.5.1.2 Cocaine
240
3.5.1.3 Cannabis
245
3.5.1.4 Amphetamine-type stimulants (excluding ecstasy)
250
3.5.1.5 Ecstasy
255
3.5.2. Treatment demand
3.5.2.1 Primary drugs of abuse among persons treated
for drug problems in Africa
260
3.5.2.2 Primary drugs of abuse among persons treated
for drug problems in America
261
3.5.2.3 Primary drugs of abuse among persons treated
for drug problems in Asia
262
3.5.2.4 Primary drugs of abuse among persons treated
for drug problems in Europe
263
3.5.2.5 Primary drugs of abuse among persons treated
for drug problems in Oceania
264
3.6 Youth and school surveys
3.6.1 Heroin
265
3.6.2 Cocaine
269
3.6.3 Cannabis
275
3.6.4 Amphetamine-type stimulants (excluding ecstasy)
279
3.6.5 Ecstasy
283
3.7 Drug-related crime
286
4.
METHODOLOGY
293
Acknowledgements
306
PREFACE
The end of the first century of drug control (it all started
ern-day slaves (and there are millions of them) would
in Shanghai in 1909) coincided with the closing of the
surely generate good tax revenue to rescue failed banks.
UNGASS decade (launched in 1998 by a General
The economic argument is also based on poor fiscal
Assembly Special Session on Drugs). These anniversaries
logic: any reduction in the cost of drug control (due to
stimulated reflection on the effectiveness, and the limi-
lower law enforcement expenditure) will be offset by
tations, of drug policy. The review resulted in the reaf-
much higher expenditure on public health (due to the
firmation that illicit drugs continue to pose a health
surge of drug consumption). The moral of the story:
danger to humanity. That’s why drugs are, and should
don’t make wicked transactions legal just because they
remain, controlled. With this sanction in mind, Member
are hard to control.
States confirmed unequivocal support for the UN Con-
II. Others have argued that, following legalization, a
ventions that have established the world drug control
health threat (in the form of a drug epidemic) could be
system.
avoided by state regulation of the drug market. Again,
At the same time, UNODC has highlighted some nega-
this is naive and myopic. First, the tighter the controls
tive, obviously unintended effects of drug control, fore-
(on anything), the bigger and the faster a parallel (crim-
shadowing a needed debate about the ways and means
inal) market will emerge – thus invalidating the concept.
to deal with them. Of late, there has been a limited but
Second, only a few (rich) countries could afford such
growing chorus among politicians, the press, and even
elaborate controls. What about the rest (the majority) of
in public opinion saying: drug control is not working. The
humanity? Why unleash a drug epidemic in the develop-
broadcasting volume is still rising and the message
ing world for the sake of libertarian arguments made by
spreading.
a pro-drug lobby that has the luxury of access to drug
treatment? Drugs are not harmful because they are con-
Much of this public debate is characterized by sweeping
trolled – they are controlled because they are harmful;
generalizations and simplistic solutions. Yet, the very
and they do harm whether the addict is rich and beauti-
heart of the discussion underlines the need to evaluate
ful, or poor and marginalized.
the effectiveness of the current approach. Having stud-
ied the issue on the basis of our data, UNODC has
Drug statistics keep speaking loud and clear. Past run-
concluded that, while changes are needed, they should
away growth has flattened out and the drug crisis of the
be in favour of different means to protect society against
1990s seems under control. This 2009 Report provides
drugs, rather than by pursuing the different goal of
further evidence that drug cultivation (opium and coca)
abandoning such protection.
are flat or down. Most importantly, major markets for
opiates (Europe and South East Asia), cocaine (North
A. What’s the repeal debate about?
America), and cannabis (North America, Oceania and
Europe) are in decline. The increase in consumption of
Several arguments have been put forward in favour of
synthetic stimulants, particularly in East Asia and the
repealing drug controls, based on (i) economic, (ii)
Middle East, is cause for concern, although use is declin-
health, and (iii) security grounds, and a combination
ing in developed countries.
thereof.
III. The most serious issue concerns organized crime.
I. The economic argument for drug legalization says:
All market activity controlled by the authority generates
legalize drugs, and generate tax income. This argument is
parallel, illegal transactions, as stated above. Inevitably,
gaining favour, as national administrations seek new
drug controls have generated a criminal market of mac-
sources of revenue during the current economic crisis.
ro-economic dimensions that uses violence and corrup-
This legalize and tax argument is un-ethical and un-
tion to mediate between demand and supply. Legalize
economical. It proposes a perverse tax, generation upon
drugs, and organized crime will lose its most profitable line
generation, on marginalized cohorts (lost to addiction)
of activity, critics therefore say.
to stimulate economic recovery. Are the partisans of this
cause also in favour of legalizing and taxing other seem-
Not so fast. UNODC is well aware of the threats posed
ingly intractable crimes like human trafficking? Mod-
by international drug mafias. Our estimates of the value
1
PREFACE
of the drug market (in 2005) were ground-breaking.
year’s Report to examining further the issue and its
The Office was also first to ring the alarm bell on the
policy implications. Here are some of the main points.
threat of drug trafficking to countries in West and East
First, law enforcement should shift its focus from drug
Africa, the Caribbean, Central America and the Balkans.
users to drug traffickers. Drug addiction is a health con-
In doing so we have highlighted the security menace
dition: people who take drugs need medical help, not
posed by organized crime, a matter now periodically
criminal retribution. Attention must be devoted to heavy
addressed by the UN Security Council.
drug users. They consume the most drugs, cause the
Having started this drugs/crime debate, and having
greatest harm to themselves and society – and generate
pondered it extensively, we have concluded that these
the most income to drug mafias. Drug courts and med-
drug-related, organized crime arguments are valid. They
ical assistance are more likely to build healthier and safer
must be addressed. I urge governments to recalibrate the
societies than incarceration. I appeal to Member States
policy mix, without delay, in the direction of more con-
to pursue the goal of universal access to drug treatment
trols on crime, without fewer controls on drugs. In other
as a commitment to save lives and reduce drug demand:
words, while the crime argument is right, the conclu-
the fall of supply, and associated crime revenues, will
sions reached by its proponents are flawed.
follow. Let’s progress towards this goal in the years ahead,
and then assess its beneficial impact on the next occasion
Why? Because we are not counting beans here: we are
Member States will meet to review the effectiveness of
counting lives. Economic policy is the art of counting
drug policy (2015).
beans (money) and handling trade-offs: inflation vs.
employment, consumption vs. savings, internal vs. exter-
Second, we must put an end to the tragedy of cities out
of control. Drug deals, like other crimes, take place
nal balances. Lives are different. If we start trading them
mostly in urban settings controlled by criminal groups.
off, we end up violating somebody’s human rights. There
This problem will worsen in the mega-cities of the
cannot be exchanges, no quid-pro-quos, when health and
future, if governance does not keep pace with urbaniza-
security are at stake: modern society must, and can,
tion. Yet, arresting individuals and seizing drugs for their
protect both these assets with unmitigated determina-
personal use is like pulling weeds – it needs to be done
tion.
again the next day. The problem can only be solved by
I appeal to the heroic partisans of the human rights
addressing the problem of slums and dereliction in our
cause worldwide, to help UNODC promote the right to
cities, through renewal of infrastructures and investment
health of drug addicts: they must be assisted and reinte-
in people – especially by assisting the youth, who are
grated into society. Addiction is a health condition and
vulnerable to drugs and crime, with education, jobs and
those affected by it should not be imprisoned, shot-at or,
sport. Ghettos do not create junkies and the jobless: it is
as suggested by the proponent of this argument, traded-
often the other way around. And in the process mafias
off in order to reduce the security threat posed by inter-
thrive.
national mafias. Of course, the latter must be addressed,
Third, and this is the most important point, govern-
and below is our advice.
ments must make use, individually and collectively, of
B. A better policy mix
the international agreements against uncivil society. This
means to ratify and apply the UN Conventions against
The crime/drugs nexus was the subject of a Report enti-
Organized Crime (TOC) and against Corruption
tled Organized Crime and its Threat to Security: tackling
(CAC), and related protocols against the trafficking of
a disturbing consequence of drug control1 that I presented
people, arms and migrants. So far, the international
to the Commission on Narcotic Drugs and the Crime
community has not taken these international obligations
Commission in 2009. Because of the importance of this
seriously. While slum dwellers suffer, Africa is under
subject, we have devoted the thematic chapter of this
attack, drug cartels threaten Latin America, and mafias
penetrate bankrupt financial institutions, junior nego-
1 E/CN.15/2009/CRP.4 - E/CN.7/2009/CRP.4; http://www.unodc.
tiators at these Conventions’ Conferences of the Parties
org/unodc/en/commissions/CCPCJ/session/18.html
have been arguing about bureaucratic processes and
2
arcane notions of inclusiveness, ownership, comprehen-
say – should actually be enforced and extended: namely,
siveness, and non-ranking. There are large gaps in the
no to guns, yes to drugs).
implementation of the Palermo and the Merida Con-
ventions, years after their entry into force, to the point
So far the drug legalization agenda has been opposed
that a number of countries now face a crime situation
fiercely, and successfully, by the majority of our society.
largely caused by their own choice. This is bad enough.
Yet, anti-crime policy must change. It is no longer suf-
Worse is the fact that, quite often vulnerable neighbors
ficient to say: no to drugs. We have to state an equally
pay an even greater price.
vehement: no to crime.
There is much more our countries can do to face the
There is no alternative to improving both security and
brutal force of organized crime: the context within
health. The termination of drug control would be an
which mafias operate must also be addressed.
epic mistake. Equally catastrophic is the current disre-
gard of the security threat posed by organized crime.
Money-laundering is rampant and practically unop-
posed, at a time when interbank-lending has dried up.
The recommendations devised to prevent the use of fi-
nancial institutions to launder criminal money, today
are honored mostly in the breach. At a time of major
bank failures, money doesn’t smell, bankers seem to be-
lieve. Honest citizens, struggling in a time of economic
hardship, wonder why the proceeds of crime – turned
Antonio Maria Costa
into ostentatious real estate, cars, boats and planes – are
Executive Director
not seized.
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
Another context deserving attention concerns one of
humanity’s biggest assets, the internet. It has changed
our life, especially the way we conduct business, com-
munication, research and entertainment. But the web
has also been turned into a weapon of mass destruction
by criminals (and terrorists).
Surprisingly, and despite the current crime wave, calls
for new international arrangements against money-laun-
dering and cyber-crime remain un-answered. In the
process, drug policy gets the blame and is subverted.
C. A double “NO”
To conclude, transnational organized crime will never be
stopped by drug legalization. Mafias coffers are equally
nourished by the trafficking of arms, people and their
organs, by counterfeiting and smuggling, racketeering
and loan-sharking, kidnapping and piracy, and by vio-
lence against the environment (illegal logging, dumping
of toxic waste, etc). The drug/crime trade-off argument,
debated above, is no other than the pursuit of the old
drug legalization agenda, persistently advocated by the
pro-drug-lobby (Note that the partisans of this argu-
ment would not extend it to guns whose control – they
3
INTRODUCTION
Drug control has been on the global agenda for more
The World Drug Report aims to enhance Member States’
than a century. As documented in the 2008 World Drug
understanding of global illicit drug trends, and to sensi-
Report, the Chinese opium epidemic in the early twenti-
tize all Governments about the need for more systematic
eth century spurred concerted international action,
collection and reporting of data related to illicit drugs.
chiefly in the form of a series of treaties passed over
UNODC relies on Member States to provide data, pri-
several decades. These treaties, in particular the 1961
marily through the annual reports questionnaire (ARQ).
Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, the 1971 Con-
This year, out of some 200 distributed questionnaires,
vention on Psychotropic Substances, and the 1988 Con-
UNODC received 118 replies to the drug abuse section
vention against the Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and
and 116 replies to the illicit supply of drugs section. In
Psychotropic Substances, continue to define the interna-
general, the ability of Member States to provide infor-
tional drug control system. The United Nations Office
mation on illicit drug supply is significantly better than
on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) is the guardian of these
their ability to provide demand-related data. Despite
treaties and the United Nations lead agency on drug
commendable progress, for example in the area of prev-
control.
alence estimates, far more remains to be done to provide
a solid, reliable basis for trend and policy analysis.
At the twentieth special session of the General Assembly
in 1998, Member States agreed to make significant
progress towards the control of supply and demand for
illicit drugs by the year 2008. They noted that this
objective could only be achieved by means of the ‘bal-
anced approach’ (giving demand as much attention as
supply), and on the basis of regular assessments of global
drug trends. UNODC has published such assessments
annually since 1999.
Moreover, the General Assembly, in its resolution 61/183
of 13 March 2007, requested UNODC to continue to
“publish the World Drug Report with comprehensive and
balanced information about the world drug problem.”
This year, UNODC will continue to fulfil this mandate
with the publication of the 2009 World Drug Report.
5
EXPLANATORY NOTES
Types of drugs:
Regions: In various sections, this report uses a number
of regional designations. These are not official designa-
ATS – Amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) are a group
of substances comprised of synthetic stimulants includ-
tions. They are defined as follows:
ing amphetamine, methamphetamine, methcathinone
East Europe: European countries belonging to the
and ecstasy-group substances (MDMA and its ana-
Commonwealth of Independent States
logues). In cases where countries report to UNODC
without indicating the specific ATS they are referring to,
South-East Europe: Turkey and the non-European
the term non-specified amphetamines is used.
Union (EU) Balkan countries
Coca paste (or cocaine base) – An extract of the leaves of
West and Central Europe: EU 25, European Free
the coca bush. Purification of coca paste yields cocaine
Trade Association, San Marino and Andorra
(hydrochloride).
North America: Canada, Mexico and the United
Crack (cocaine) – Cocaine base obtained from cocaine
States of America (USA)
hydrochloride through conversion processes to make it
suitable for smoking.
Near and Middle East/South-West Asia: Afghani-
Heroin HCl (heroin hydrochloride) – Injectable form of
stan, Bahrain, Iran (Islamic Republic of ), Iraq, Isra-
heroin, sometimes referred to as “Heroin no. 4”
el, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, Pakistan, Qa-
tar, Palestinian Territory, Saudi Arabia, Syrian Arab
Heroin no. 3 – A less refined form of heroin suitable for
Republic, United Arab Emirates and Yemen.
smoking.
East and South-East Asia: Brunei Darussalam, Cam-
Poppy straw – All parts (except the seeds) of the opium
bodia, China (and Hong Kong, Macao, and Taiwan
poppy, after mowing.
Province of China), Indonesia, Japan, Republic of
Terms: Since there is some scientific and legal ambiguity
Korea, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Malaysia,
about the distinctions between drug 'use', 'misuse' and
Mongolia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thai-
'abuse', this report uses the neutral terms, drug 'use' or
land and Viet Nam
'consumption'.
South Asia: Bangladesh, India, Maldives, Nepal and
Annual prevalence means the number of people who
Sri Lanka
have used a given drug at least once in the past year.
Central Asia and Transcaucasia: Armenia, Azerbai-
Annual prevalence rate refers to the percentage of a pop-
ulation (for example, in one country, or globally) that
jan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan,
has used a given drug at least once in the past year.
Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan
Maps: The boundaries and names shown and the desig-
Oceania: Australia, Fiji, Kiribati, Marshall Islands,
nations used on maps do not imply official endorsement
Micronesia, Nauru, New Zealand, Palau, Papua
or acceptance by the United Nations. A dotted line rep-
New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tu-
resents approximately the line of control in Jammu and
valu, Vanuatu, and other Pacific island states and
Kashmir agreed upon by India and Pakistan. The final
territories
status of Jammu and Kashmir has not yet been agreed
upon by the parties. Disputed boundaries (China/India)
West and Central Africa: Angola, Burkina Faso,
are represented by cross hatch due to the difficulty of
Cameroon, Cape Verde, Central African Republic,
showing sufficient detail.
Chad, Congo (the Republic of ), Côte d’Ivoire, Ga-
bon, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Niger, Nigeria,
Population data: The data on population used in this
Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal, Sierra Leone and
report comes from: United Nations, Department of Eco-
Togo
nomic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2007).
World Population Prospects: The 2006 Revision.
6
The following abbreviations have been used in this Report:
AIDS Acquired Immune-Deficiency
NIDA National Institute of Drug Abuse
Syndrome
(USA)
ARQ UNODC annual reports questionnaire
OECD Organization for Economic
ATS amphetamine-type stimulants
Co-operation and Development
CICAD Inter-American Drug Abuse Control
ONDCP Office of National Drug Control Policy
Commission
(USA)
CIS Commonwealth of Independent States
P-2-P 1-phenyl-2-propanone (BMK)
COP Colombian peso
SACENDU South African Community
Epidemiology Network on Drug Use
DAINAP Drug Abuse Information Network for
Asia and the Pacific
SAMHSA Substance Abuse and Mental Health
Services Administration (USA)
DELTA UNODC Database on Estimates and
Long Term Trend Analysis
SOCA Serious Organised Crime Agency (UK)
DIRAN Colombian National Police
THC Tetrahydrocannabinol
– Antinarcotics Directorate
UAE United Arab Emirates
DUMA Drug Use Monitoring in Australia
UNAIDS Joint United Nations Programme on
EMCDDA European Monitoring Centre for
HIV/AIDS
Drugs and Drug Addiction
UNODC United Nations Office on Drugs and
ESPAD European School Survey Project
Crime
on Alcohol and other Drugs
USA United States of America
EUROPOL European Police Office
WCO World Customs Organization
F.O. UNODC Field Office
WDR World Drug Report
GAP UNODC Global Assessment
WHO World Health Organization
Programme on Drug Abuse
3,4-MDP-2-P 3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl-2-pro-
Govt. Government
panone (PMK)
HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus
HONLEA Heads of National Drug Law
Weights and measurements:
Enforcement Agencies
l litre
IDU injecting drug use
mg milligram
INCB International Narcotics Control Board
kg kilogram
INTERPOL International Criminal Police
Organization
mt metric ton
LSD lysergic acid diethylamide
MDA 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine
(tenamfetamine)
MDE 3,4-methylenedioxyethylamphetamine
MDMA 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine
NGO Non-governmental organization
7
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Overview
niques. Data are sparse, particularly in the developing
world, and the level of uncertainty in many matters is
The year 2008 saw some encouraging reductions in the
high. For the first time, this year’s World Drug Report is
production of cocaine and heroin. In cooperation with
explicit about the level of uncertainty, presenting ranges
the affected states, UNODC conducts annual crop sur-
rather than point estimates. This shift complicates com-
veys in the countries that produce the vast bulk of these
parison of this year’s estimates with estimates from pre-
drugs. These surveys show a reduction in opium poppy
vious editions of the World Drug Report, but it is an
cultivation in Afghanistan of 19% and a reduction in
essential step forward in presenting accurate estimates.1
coca cultivation in Colombia of 18%. Trends in other
production countries are mixed, but are not large enough
The level of uncertainty is smallest concerning the cul-
to offset the declines in these two major producers.
tivation of coca and opium poppy, where scientific crop
Although data are not complete enough to give a precise
surveys have been made in the handful of countries that
estimate of the global reduction in opium and coca pro-
host the bulk of production. Scientific crop yield studies
duction, there can be little doubt that it did, in fact,
have also been done, but there is less certainty around
decrease.
the production of these drugs than the cultivation of
drug crops. Since synthetic drugs and cannabis can be
Production of the other illicit drugs is more difficult to
produced almost anywhere in the world, less is known
track, and data on drug use are also limited. But surveys
about their production. Trafficking patterns are reflected
of users in the world’s biggest markets for cannabis,
by seizure data, a mixed indicator that reflects both the
cocaine and opiates suggest these markets are shrinking.
underlying flow and enforcement action against it. Data
According to recent surveys of young people in Western
on drug use comes from surveys and treatment informa-
Europe, North America and Oceania, cannabis use
tion, but a limited number of countries collect this
appears to be declining in these regions. Data from the
information. The level of uncertainty about drug use is
world’s biggest cocaine consuming region, North Amer-
not uniform, either across drug types or across regions.
ica, show a decrease, and the European market appears
For example, there is less certainty concerning estimates
to be stabilizing. Reports from traditional opium-using
of past-year ATS and cannabis users than there is around
countries in South-East Asia also suggest the use of this
users of opiates and cocaine; more is known about drug
drug may be declining there. Heroin use in Western
use in Europe and the Americas than in Africa and parts
Europe appears to be stable.
of Asia.
In contrast, there are several indications that the global
Global trends in drug production
problem with amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) is
worsening. Global seizures are increasing, and ATS are
Opiates
being made in a growing number of countries, with
diversifying locations and manufacture techniques.
The total area under opium poppy cultivation in the
Close to 30% of global seizures in 2007 were made in
major cultivating countries decreased to 189,000 hec-
the Near and Middle East, where amphetamine use may
tares (ha) in 2008. This 16% decrease over the past year
also be significant. Methamphetamine precursors are
increasingly being trafficked to Central and South
1
At the fifty-second session of the Commission on Narcotic Drugs, a
High-Level Segment issued a Political Declaration and Plan of Action
America to manufacture ATS for the North American
on International Cooperation towards an Integrated and Balanced Strat-
market, and local use also appears to be going up. The
egy to Counter the World Drug Problem, asserting that policy must be
size of the ATS market is large, and likely still growing
evidence-based, and that sound data are crucial. Altough drug data
quality has improved over the last decade, there remain large gaps
in East Asia. Data on ATS are particularly problematic,
in the data. Member States adopted a resolution on improving data
however, and UNODC is making a concerted effort to
collection, reporting and analysis and asked UNODC to review data
improve monitoring of trends in this area.
collection tools and reporting systems. This will include holding inter-
governmental expert consultations and proposing a revised set of survey
instruments for consideration by the Commission in March 2010.
Of course, all these markets are clandestine, and tracking
For more detail on this resolution, and on the importance of high
changes requires the use of a variety of estimation tech-
quality data, please see the Special Features section.
9
World Drug Report 2009
Opium poppy cultivation in the major cultivating countries (ha), 1994-2008
300,000
250,000
200,000
150,000
Hectares
100,000
50,000
0
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
Afghanistan
Myanmar
Lao PDR
was mainly due to a large decrease in Afghanistan. The
decline in opium poppy eradication, from 19,047 ha in
level of cultivation in Myanmar and Lao People’s Demo-
2007 to 5,480 ha in 2008.
cratic Republic was approximately the same as in 2007.
Total potential opium production in the major illicit
Myanmar reported opium poppy cultivation of 28,500
opium poppy cultivating countries has thus decreased
ha. As in the past, cultivation of opium poppy was
from the previous year.
heavily concentrated in the Shan State in the east of the
country. In Lao People’s Democratic Republic, a low
In Afghanistan, opium poppy cultivation continued to
level of opium poppy cultivation was found in the
be concentrated mainly in the southern provinces, while
northern provinces. In Pakistan, about 2,000 ha of
more provinces in the centre and north of the country
opium poppy were cultivated in the border area with
became poppy-free. Two thirds of the area under opium
Afghanistan, about the same level of cultivation reported
poppy cultivation in 2008 – more than 100,000 ha -
over the past five years.
were located in the southern province of Hilmand alone.
The decline in cultivation occurred despite a sharp
Opium yields in Afghanistan remained high in 2008.
Opium production in the major cultivating countries (mt), 1994-2008
9,000
8,000
7,000
6,000
5,000
4,000
Metric tons
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
Afghanistan (b)
Myanmar (e)
Lao PDR (d)
10
Executive Summary
Global coca bush cultivation (ha), 1994-2008
225,000
200,000
175,000
150,000
125,000
Hectares
100,000
75,000
50,000
25,000
0
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
Colombia
Peru
Bolivia
The potential opium production was estimated at 7,700
coca cultivation fell to 167,600 ha, close to the average
mt (range 6,330 to 9,308 mt). Some 60% of this is
level of coca cultivation between 2002 and 2008, and
believed to be converted into morphine and heroin
well below the levels reached in the 1990s. In spite of
within the country. The amount of morphine and heroin
this year’s decrease, Colombia remained the world’s
produced in Afghanistan available for export was esti-
largest cultivator of coca bush, with 81,000 ha, followed
mated at 630 mt (range 519 to 774 mt). Almost 40% of
by Peru (56,100 ha) and Bolivia (30,500 ha). Estimated
the total production was exported as opium.
global cocaine production decreased by 15% from 994
metric tons (mt) in 2007 to 845 mt in 2008. This
Cocaine
decrease is due to a strong reduction in cocaine produc-
tion in Colombia (28%), which was not offset by
Despite small increases in the Plurinational State of
increases in Bolivia and Peru.
Bolivia (6%) and Peru (4%), the total area under coca
cultivation decreased by 8% in 2008, due to a signifi-
cant decrease in Colombia (18%). The total area under
Global cocaine production (mt), 1994-2008
1,200
1,000
800
600
Metric tons
400
200
0
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
Colombia
Peru
Bolivia
11
World Drug Report 2009
Ranges of global estimates of cannabis herb production by methodology
70000
60000
50000
40000
mt
30000
metric tons
20000
10000
0
Seizure based calculation
User based calculation -
User based calculation -
All estimates
average use total
average use by user type
population
Cannabis
Global trends in drug trafficking
Estimating the global area under cannabis is considera-
Opiates
bly more complicated, given that it is grown in most
countries in the world and can be produced indoors or
In 2007, seizures of opium and heroin grew 33% and
outdoors. The total estimated area for outdoor produc-
14%, respectively. This increase reflects the sustained
tion of cannabis in 2008 ranges from 200,000 ha to
high levels of opium production in Afghanistan, and may
642,000 ha. The total cannabis herb production is esti-
also include some of the accumulated stocks from 2005,
mated to range from 13,300 mt to 66,100 mt, and for
when global opium production exceeded global con-
cannabis resin, the estimated production range is 2,200
sumption. Morphine seizures, however, declined by 41%.
mt to 9,900 mt. Due to high levels of uncertainty in
Overall opiate seizures remained stable in 2007 though
estimating cultivation, it is not possible to produce more
at a higher level, having almost doubled since 1998.
precise data, as is done for opiates and cocaine.
ATS
Global opiate seizures, expressed in heroin
Like cannabis, amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) can
equivalents*, by substance, 1998-2007
be produced virtually anywhere at relatively low cost.
* based on a conversion rate of 10 kilograms of opium for 1 kg of
Since 1990, ATS manufacture has been reported in
morphine or 1 kg of heroin.
more than 60 countries worldwide, with more being
Source: UNODC, Annual reports Questionnaire Data / DELTA.
added each year. In 2007, UNODC estimated between
230 and 640 mt of amphetamines-group2 were manufac-
150
tured; ecstasy-group3 manufacture was estimated to be
between 72 and 137 mt.
38
51
Shifts in the location of production–often from developed
21
13
34
to developing countries–illustrate the way criminal organ-
100
21
izations are able to make use of more vulnerable countries.
39
46
Additionally, as interest from transnational organized
10
44
27
32
24
27
11
crime groups grows, operations of previously unimagina-
18
11
25
ble size and sophistication continue to emerge.
50
23
24
65
54
54
57
2 The amphetamines-group substances includes predominately
49
54
61
59
methamphetamine and amphetamine, but also includes non-
32
36
metric tons of heroin equivalents
specified amphetamines-group (for example, tablets sold as Captagon,
0
methcathinone, fenetylline, methylphenidate and others), however it
excludes substances purportedly of the ecstasy-group of substances
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
3 The ecstasy-group substances include predominately MDMA, with
MDA and MDEA/MDE. However, limited forensic capacity by
Opium (in heroin equivalents*)
Member States often leads to confusion about the actual content of
Morphine
tablets believed to be “ecstasy” (MDMA).
Heroin
12
Executive Summary
Global cocaine seizures, 1987-2007
* including Caribbean and Central America.
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data / DELTA.
800
750
711
700
600
500
396
400
344
291
300
152
200
seizures in metric tons
100
0
1987
1989
1991
1993
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
2005
2007
West and Central Europe
North America
South America*
Other
Cocaine
Cannabis
Following five years of expansion, the quantity of cocaine
Total cannabis herb seizures amounted to 5,557 mt in
seized fell in 2006 and remained at the lower level in
2007, an increase of about 7% from the previous year.
2007 (5% over the 2005-07 period). This is consistent
Cannabis resin seizures increased by some 29% to 1,300
with a leveling off of production. In 2008, a significant
mt. In addition, small quantities of cannabis oil were
decline in trafficking towards North America, the world’s
seized (equivalent to 418 kg) in 2007. As in 2006, the
largest cocaine consumer market, was seen. This was
majority of cannabis herb seizures in 2007 were reported
reflected in rapidly rising prices and falling purity levels.
from Mexico (39% of the world total) and the USA
The United Kingdom also reported falling cocaine
(26%). Most of the increase in cannabis resin seizures
purity levels in 2008.
was due to a strong increase in West and Central Europe,
where seizures increased by 33% compared to 2006.
Cannabis herb and resin seizures (mt), 1985-2007
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire / DELTA
8,000
6,000
4,000
Metric tons
2,000
0
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
Cannabis herb
Cannabis resin
13
World Drug Report 2009
Global seizures of amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS), 1990 - 2007
Source: UNODC, Annual Report Questionnaire Data/DELTA; UNODC Drug Information Network for Asia and the Pacific (DAINAP);
Government reports; World Customs Organization (WCO), Customs and Drugs Report 2007 (Brussels, 2008) and previous years.
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
ATS seized (in metric tons equivalents)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Amphetamines Group
Ecstasy Group
ATS
Global trends in drug consumption
Global seizures of ATS have continued to increase, total-
UNODC estimates that between 172 and 250 million
ling nearly 52 mt in 2007, surpassing their 2000 peak
persons used illicit drugs at least once in the past year in
by more than 3 mt.4 The amphetamines-group domi-
2007.5 But these large figures include many casual con-
nates ATS seizures, accounting for 84% of all seizures by
sumers who may have tried drugs only once in the whole
volume, with methamphetamine making up the largest
year. It is important, therefore, to also have estimates of
part. The year 2007 also saw a dramatic jump in ecstasy-
the number of people who are heavy or “problematic”
group seizures (16% of all ATS seized); significant
drug users. This group consumes most of the drugs used
increases were noted in several large markets. Trafficking
each year; they are very likely to be dependent upon
in ATS substances is most commonly intraregional, thus
drugs, would benefit from treatment, and many of the
crossing fewer international borders, but precursor
impacts upon public health and public order are likely
chemicals from which ATS materials are made continue
to be affected by their levels of use. Estimates made by
to be trafficked throughout the world. They are often
UNODC suggest that there were between 18 and 38
diverted from licit manufacture in South, East and
million problem drug users aged 15-64 years in 2007.
South-East Asia.
Different drugs pose different problems for different
regions. For example, in Africa and Oceania, more
people presented for treatment due to problems with
cannabis than any other drug (63% in Africa; 47% in
Australia and New Zealand). In contrast, opiates were
the primary drug treated in Asia and Europe (65% and
60%, respectively). Cocaine was more prominent in
North America (34%) and South America (52%) than
in other regions; and ATS were more prominent in Asia
(18%), North America (18%) and Oceania (20%). Can-
nabis is playing an increasingly large role in drug treat-
ment in Europe, South America and Oceania since the
late 1990s; and ATS use now comprises a greater share
of drug treatment in North and South America than in
the past. Many Member States are working to expand
their responses to dependent drug use among their citi-
zens; UNODC and WHO have recently begun joint
4
To standardize, seizures reported in kilograms, litres and dose/units/
programmatic work to increase drug treatment quality
pills/tablets are transformed into kg equivalents: a dose of “ecstasy”
and capacity around the globe.
was assumed to contain on average 100 mg of psychoactive ingredient
(MDMA); a dose of amphetamine/methamphetamine was assumed
to contain 30 mg of active ingredient; a litre was assumed to equal a
5 For further details on the methods used to make these estimates
kilogram.
please see the Special Features and Methodology sections below.
14
Executive Summary
Illicit drug use at the global level
Number of people who inject drugs
aged 15-64 years : 11-21 million persons
Number of "problem drug users"
aged 15-64 years : 18-38 million persons
Number of people who have used drugs
at least once in the past year aged
15-64 years : 172-250 million persons
Total number of people aged 15-64 years
in 2007: 4,343 million persons
Opiates
European countries showed the first signs of a stabiliza-
tion, whereas cocaine use still appears to be increasing in
The number of people who used opiates at least once in
South America. Some African countries, notably in
2007 is estimated at between 15 and 21 million people
Western and Southern Africa, appear to show rising
at the global level.6 More than half of the world’s opiate-
levels of cocaine use, although data are sparse.
using population is thought to live in Asia. The highest
levels of use (in terms of the proportion of the popula-
Cannabis
tion aged 15-64 years) are found along the main drug
trafficking routes close to Afghanistan. Opiates remain
The global number of people who used cannabis at least
the world’s main problem drug in terms of treatment.
once in 2007 is estimated to be between 143 and 190
Europe has the largest opiates market in economic terms,
million persons. The highest levels of use remain in the
and altough use appears to be stable in many Western
established markets of North America and Western
European countries, increases have been reported in
Europe, although there are signs from recent studies that
Eastern Europe.
the levels of use are declining in developed countries,
particularly among young people.
Cocaine
ATS
The total number of people who used cocaine at least
once in 2007 is estimated to range between 16 and 21
UNODC estimates that between 16 and 51 million
million. The largest market remains North America, fol-
people aged 15-64 used amphetamines-group substances
lowed by West and Central Europe and South America.
at least once in 2007; the number who used ecstasy-
Significant declines in cocaine use were reported in
group drugs at least once is estimated at between 12 and
North America, notably from the USA, which in abso-
24 million worldwide. The width of these ranges is far
lute numbers is still the world’s largest cocaine market.
greater than for cocaine and heroin, given the high level
Cocaine was used at least once in the past year by some
of uncertainty in relation to this drug group in terms of
5.7 million people in the USA in 2007. Following strong
both use and production. Amphetamines-group users in
increases in recent years, a number of surveys in West
East and South-East Asia primarily consume metham-
phetamine. Tablets sold as Captagon often contain
amphetamine, and are used throughout the Near and
6
The lack of robust data on the levels of drug use, particularly in large
Middle East. In Europe, users primarily consume
countries such as China, is a huge impediment to an accurate under-
amphetamine, whereas about half of stimulant users in
standing of the size of the population of drug users. When direct
North America use methamphetamine.
estimates are only available for a comparatively small proportion of a
region’s population, the ranges of estimated drug users in that region
are obviously large. Subregional and regional estimates were only
made where direct estimates were published for at least two countries
covering at least 20% of the region’s or subregion’s population aged
15-64 years. In estimating ranges for countries with no published
estimate, estimates from other countries in the subregion/region were
applied. Please see the Methodology and Special Features sections
below for more detail.
15
Executive Summary
Number
(upper)
Ecstasy users
20,000 to 30,000
in the past year
30,000 to 130,000
340,000 to 1,870,000
210,000 to 400,000
510,000 to 510,000
810,000 to 880,000
3,130,000 to 3,220,000
2,560,000 to 2,560,000
3,550,000 to 13,580,000
2,250,000 to 5,950,000
3,750,000 to 3,960,000
2,110,000 to 2,120,000
1,640,000 to 1,830,000
11,580,000 to 23,510,000
Number
(lower)
estimate cannot be calculated
estimate cannot be calculated
estimate cannot be calculated
estimate cannot be calculated
estimate cannot be calculated
estimate cannot be calculated
d
oup
Number
(upper)
240,000 to 510,000
210,000 to 650,000
310,000 to 310,000
120,000 to 250,000
570,000 to 590,000
1,390,000 to 4,090,000
5,650,000 to 5,780,000
3,760,000 to 3,760,000
1,450,000 to 1,460,000
2,430,000 to 3,070,000
1,590,000 to 1,690,000
840,000 to 1,380,000
Amphetamines-gr
users in the past year
5,780,000 to 37,040,000
4,600,000 to 20,560,000
Number
(lower)
15,820,000 to 50,570,000
estimate cannot be calculate
estimate cannot be calculated
estimate cannot be calculated
estimate cannot be calculated
estimate cannot be calculated
egion: 2007
Number
(upper)
Cocaine users
30,000 to 50,000
egion and subr
in the past year
300,000 to 820,000
120,000 to 140,000
170,000 to 250,000
460,000 to 720,000
340,000 to 390,000
1,150,000 to 3,640,000
750,000 to 1,320,000
9,410,000 to 9,570,000
6,870,000 to 6,870,000
2,250,000 to 2,310,000
400,000 to 2,560,000
310,000 to 990,000
4,330,000 to 4,600,000
3,870,000 to 3,880,000
15,630,000 to 20,760,000
Number
(lower)
estimate cannot be calculated
estimate cannot be calculated
estimate cannot be calculated
estimate cannot be calculated
Number
(upper)
Opiate users
20,000 to 30,000
60,000 to 90,000
in the past year
120,000 to 490,000
550,000 to 650,000
800,000 to 840,000
340,000 to 340,000
90,000 to 90,000
1,000,000 to 2,780,000
100,000 to 1,330,000
230,000 to 310,000
2,190,000 to 2,320,000
1,310,000 to 1,360,000
8,440,000 to 11,890,000
2,800,000 to 4,970,000
3,620,000 to 3,660,000
1,680,000 to 2,910,000
3,440,000 to 4,050,000
1,230,000 to 1,520,000
2,210,000 to 2,530,000
15,160,000 to 21,130,000
Number
(lower)
Number
(upper)
Cannabis users
in the past year
580,000 to 580,000
3,670,000 to 9,320,000
4,490,000 to 9,030,000
1,110,000 to 1,730,000
8,500,000 to 8,510,000
1,890,000 to 2,020,000
8,080,000 to 8,720,000
2,460,000 to 2,570,000
28,850,000 to 56,390,000
16,110,000 to 27,080,000
4,570,000 to 10,950,000
41,450,000 to 42,080,000
31,260,000 to 31,260,000
40,930,000 to 59,570,000
4,110,000 to 19,860,000
27,490,000 to 27,490,000
7,440,000 to 10,200,000
28,890,000 to 29,660,000
20,810,000 to 20,940,000
Number
(lower)
142,580,000 to 190,270,000
Asia
ope
Africa
Africa
Africa
n
Asia
East
Eur
ope
Africa
and
n
America
America
East
Asia
Caribbean
and
Eur
TE
egion
est
est/
ope
Estimated number of illicit drug users in the past year aged 15-64 years, by r
Region/
subr
Africa
North
W
Central
Easter
Souther
Americas
North
Central
America
The
South
Asia
East/
South-
South
Central
Near
Middle
Eur
W
Central
East/South-
East
Oceania
GLOBAL
ESTIMA
17
Special
Special features
1. Improving the quality of drug data
on the source of the data and on the adjustments made
to the original data to produce the estimate.
In the last decade, there have been substantial improve-
ments in the quality and availability of illicit drug data,
Regional and global estimates of drug use, as well as the
but a number of challenges remain. The use and produc-
production of ATS and cannabis, are also presented as
tion of illicit drugs affect a population which is difficult
ranges. The level of confidence in the different ranges,
to reach. In many countries, a full account of the extent
in terms of their ‘width’, obviously reflects the level of
of use and production of illicit drugs has not yet been
uncertainty that surrounds the figures.
made. Accurately measuring the level of drug use in a
country, and monitoring trends across time, requires
1.1 Decisions at the fifty-second session of
technical and financial resources, as well as political will.
the Commission on Narcotic Drugs
In many countries, at least one of these three compo-
The fifty-second session of the Commission on Narcotic
nents is still missing. The result is that for some regions,
Drugs, held in Vienna in March 2009, included a High-
and for some types of drugs, particularly ATS, data are
Level Segment which reviewed international drug control
very scarce.
in the decade since UNGASS in 1998. The High-Level
The cultivation of opium and cocaine is concentrated in
Segment adopted a Political Declaration and Plan of
few countries. Because of remote sensing techniques,
Action on International Cooperation towards an Integrated
this cultivation can be monitored with considerable
and Balanced Strategy to Counter the World Drug Problem.
accuracy. Estimates of the production of opium and
Throughout the session, there was much discussion
cocaine, however, require information on the yield of
about the importance of evidence as a basis for drug
the cultivated crop, which is measured with less cer-
policy. The Political Declaration stated specifically that
tainty. UNODC is continuing its work to improve
policy must be evidence-based, and that sound data are
estimates of these yields, but the lack of access to some
crucial for planning and evaluating interventions.
cultivation areas and continuous meteorological and
agronomical changes, all pose considerable challenges.
States Members of the United Nations also debated the
challenges of drug data collection. Over the past decade,
There is a high degree of uncertainty in estimating cul-
there have been considerable improvements in many
tivation and production of cannabis, and manufacture
countries in the collection and analysis of drug data on
of ATS. These two drugs can be produced virtually any-
both supply and demand. In regions where concerted
where; this makes systematic and comprehensive moni-
efforts have been made to collect, synthesize and reflect
toring difficult. Considering the data currently available,
upon drug data (for example, North America, Oceania,
global estimates of cannabis cultivation and ATS manu-
Central and Western Europe, Latin America and to
facture have been made on the basis of information on
some extent East and South-East Asia), the capacity to
the number of users (and their estimated annual con-
evaluate trends has improved. In many countries, how-
sumption), and seizures.
ever, progress in developing drug information systems
Considering the level of confidence in data on the pro-
has been limited. There are also comparatively few coun-
duction and use of illicit drugs, it is not always possible
tries that conduct studies to estimate the prevalence of
to provide precise information on levels and trends. In
illicit drug use. For example, only 65 countries have an
order to produce reliable and comparable national,
estimate in the past ten years of the prevalence of ATS
regional and global estimates, a number of assumptions
use in the general population or among school/universi-
and adjustments often need to be made. This year the
ty-aged young people. UNODC has made tentative
Report explicitly addresses the question of uncertainty,
estimates from other data in 31 countries. The remain-
and an attempt has been made to make the statistics
ing Member States, including some very populous coun-
more transparent. Country-level estimates of drug use
tries such as China and India, have no direct estimates
are, for the first time in this Report, presented in ranges
of ATS use. This obviously reduces the capacity to make
where the level of confidence is not sufficient to support
evidence-based decisions about international drug
point estimates. Additional information is also provided
policy.
21
World Drug Report 2009
Acknowledging such gaps, Member States adopted a
people who leave school early are more likely to use
resolution that focused on improving data collection,
drugs than those who remain in school.
reporting and analysis. UNODC was asked to review
and improve data collection tools and reporting systems
“Indirect” methods of estimating
in order to get a more accurate picture of the world drug
drug use prevalence.
situation. This will include holding intergovernmental
These estimates do not rely on “direct” measurements,
expert consultations to review current data collection
but use different sources of data to estimate the total
tools, and proposing a revised set of survey instruments
population of drug users. One common approach is
for consideration by the Commission on Narcotic Drugs
termed multiplier methods. This involves two pieces of
in March 2010.
data: one source (for example, the number of people
The aim is to develop simpler, more integrated data col-
who receive drug treatment in a year) is considered with
lection processes, and to increase the capacity of coun-
another (for example, the proportion of a sample of
drug users who received treatment) and these two are
tries to collect and report information on their drug
multiplied to estimate the drug-using population.
situation. UNODC invites Member States to join in
this effort to improve data collection at the national
One benefit of this approach is that no expensive and
level, and reporting at the global level.
technically challenging field survey is required and it
does not require people to admit to drug use. It is prefer-
1.2 Making national estimates of the number
able, however, to make multiple indirect estimates of
of drug users
drug use to overcome statistical limitations in any one
It is challenging to measure accurately how many people
approach of this kind.
use drugs in a given country. Two broad approaches are
1.3 Making regional and global estimates
“direct” survey approaches and “indirect” estimation
of the number of drug users
approaches. No one method is perfect for all drugs or
across all countries.
Making estimates of the population who uses illicit
drugs presents many challenges. The first challenge is
“Direct” methods of estimating drug use prevalence.
that many countries have not done any studies to esti-
General population or “household” surveys. A common
mate how many people use drugs. In addition to this,
way to assess drug use is to conduct surveys of the general
although a variety of methods of estimating the preva-
population, where people are asked if they have used
lence of illicit drug use may be used, no one method is
drugs at least once in the past month, the past year or in
free of methodological or other biases, which means that
their lifetime (generally referred to as ‘monthly’, ‘annual’
country level estimates can never be 100% accurate.
and ‘lifetime’ prevalence).
To better reflect the resulting uncertainty, a conscious
The benefits of this approach include the relatively
decision was made to present ranges rather than point
straightforward calculation of prevalence estimates. The
estimates in this year’s Report. Global and regional esti-
approach would generate accurate estimates if (1) a
mates of the number of people who have used illicit
representative population sample was obtained, (2)
drugs at least once in the past year, as well as estimates
people honestly disclosed their drug use, and (3) drug
of “problem” drug users, are therefore shown as ranges.
users were spread equitably around the country.
This shift is an essential step forward in getting more
accurate estimates. It does mean, however, that the esti-
The limitations of this approach include the typical
mates for this year should not be compared to those
exclusion of marginalised groups, and the fact that drug
from previous editions of the World Drug Report. As
use is often geographically concentrated. People may
documented in the following sections of the Report,
also feel uncomfortable disclosing drug use. These limi-
there is less certainty for ATS and cannabis use estimates
tations will lead to underestimates of the actual levels of
than there is for opiate and cocaine use. The uncertainty
drug use.
for ATS is particularly marked in Asia, which contains a
significant proportion of the world’s population. In
School surveys. These take the same approach as general
contrast, in regions such as North America and Western
population surveys, whereby school-attending children/
Europe, more is known about drug use levels, and there
young people (typically in high school) are asked about
are smaller ranges in the estimated number of users.
their drug use.
Summary of new methods
The benefits and limitations of this approach are simi-
lar to those of the general population surveys, with the
The lack of robust data on the levels of drug use, par-
additional limitation that young people who have left
ticularly in large countries such as China, are huge
school are not included. This may be a large proportion
impediments to an accurate understanding of the size of
in some countries, and it is significant because young
the population of drug users. Because of these gaps,
22
Special Features
absolute numbers are not provided for regions where
in the few countries where statistics are available for
estimates of drug use prevalence are not available for
more than one year. A similar trend can be observed for
every country. Rather, ranges have been presented, which
ecstasy which is still gaining popularity among students
reflect the uncertainty that exists when data are being
in some developing countries, while showing decreasing
either extrapolated or imputed.
or stabilizing trends in the most developed countries.
Larger ranges exist for those regions where there is less
The data presented suggests that drug use patterns are
certainty about the likely level of drug use – in other
changing among young people. In the United States,
words, those regions for which direct estimates are avail-
cannabis and cocaine, long associated with alternatives
able for a comparatively smaller proportion of the
to the mainstream, now appear to be less attractive. The
region’s population. In contrast, those regions with esti-
same behaviour is gradually spreading in Europe, but
mates from most countries have much more precise
has not yet reached Eastern Europe and developing
estimates.
countries where there are still signs of increasing can-
nabis and cocaine use.
Subregional and regional estimates were only made
where direct estimates were published for at least two
The overall decline in illicit drug use among young
countries covering at least 20% of the region’s or subre-
people in the United States and in some European coun-
gion’s population aged 15-64 years.
tries is an encouraging sign. However, there are a number
of published reports, particularly in the US indicating
In estimating ranges for countries with no published
that the abuse of prescription drugs is on the rise among
estimate, estimates from other countries in the subre-
young people10. This needs more research, but these
gion/region were applied. This means that wider ranges
reports suggest that young people may be shifting from
appear in subregions/regions where there is variance in
illicit drugs to pharmaceutical drugs, which may be
the levels of drug use across the published country-level
more easily accessible and socially acceptable.
estimates. Regions with fewer data – and therefore less
certainty – also typically have greater ranges.
Data on young people can help to better understand the
different use of illicit drugs among male and female
2. Trends in drug use among young
populations. In general girls are less likely to use drugs
people: what do we know?
than boys, although the gender disparities are less pro-
nounced than among the adult population. Data for
Analysing drug use among young people matters for
European countries in 2007 show that the proportion of
several key reasons. First, most people start to use drugs
students (aged 15-16 years) who used cannabis in the
during their youth and it is among young people that
previous month has large variations between male and
drug prevention activities are best targeted. Secondly,
female. Gender disparities measured in terms of male to
trends in the use of illicit drugs among young people
female drug use ratios range from 1.1 in Spain (almost
may indicate shifts in drug markets, since young people
parity) to 3 in Poland. Despite the existence of large dif-
usually react to changes in drug availability or social
ferences between boys and girls, there are indications
perceptions about drug use more quickly than older
that the gender gap may be narrowing in a few countries
people; such use is likely to be occasional drug use.
and for some types of drugs.11
Thirdly, starting drug use at an early age has been linked
to negative health and social outcomes in later years.
Most of the data on the use of illicit drugs among young
people has been collected through school surveys. These
A review of the most recent data reported to UNODC
surveys are important tools and can be implemented in
on drug use among young people across the world found
quite marked variation across regions. Among the high-
a relatively cost-effective environment since large num-
est levels across all drug types were reported in North
bers of young people are easily accessible and usually
America, Oceania and Western Europe, although there
ready to participate in the survey. They have also been
are signs of a decreasing trend in some of the major
found to be accurate, if properly implemented. How-
drugs. Recent data suggest decreases in the level of can-
ever, they do not capture the situation among out-of-
nabis use in developed countries. Decreases have also
school youth, which may be a significant proportion of
been recorded in cocaine use among young people in
youth in less developed countries.
North America and some European countries although
increases are still visible in many other European coun-
10 Arria AM, Caldeira KM, O’Grady KE, Vincent KB, Johnson EP,
tries. There are large data gaps in regions across Asia and
Wish ED. Nonmedical use of prescription stimulants among col-
lege students: Associations with attention-deficit-hyperactivity dis-
Africa, so less is known about drug use among young
order and polydrug use. Pharmacotherapy. 2008;28(2):156–169.
people there. Where data is available it suggests that
National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), NIDA Community Drug
Alert Bulletin – Prescription Drugs, NIDA website: http://www.nida.
levels of use among young people in developing coun-
nih.gov/PrescripAlert/.
tries remain lower than the ones in developed countries.
11 EMCDDA, Annual Report 2006, selected issues: Gender differences
However the trend for cannabis and cocaine is upwards
in prevalence and patterns of drug use by type of substance, 2006.
23
Special Features
Annual prevalence of cannabis use among high school students (8th, 10th and 12th grade)
in selected South American countries, 2006
Source: UNODC, Jóvenes y drogas en países sudamericanos: un desafío para las políticas públicas, Sept. 2006.
Chile
12.7%
Uruguay
8.5%
Colombia
7.1%
Argentina
6.7%
Brazil
5.1%
Ecuador
3.6%
Paraguay
2.7%
Peru
2.6%
Bolivia
2.3%
0%
2%
4%
6%
8%
10%
12%
14%
cannabis among students in 2007 saw an increase or a
Cannabis use declined among both male and female
stabilization when compared with 2003.16 Although the
students (on average by around 3 percentage points)
decline in cannabis use among US students was stronger
over the 2003-2007 period. In 2007 male pupils still
than in Europe, cannabis use continues to be more
have, on average, higher prevalence rates of cannabis use
widespread among US students.
(22% in 2007) than female students (16%). In all coun-
tries, except Monaco and Slovenia, male cannabis use
was higher than female cannabis use among 15-16 year
old students.
Lifetime prevalence of cannabis use in Europe and the USA
* unweighted average of all participating countries
Source: Council of Europe, The 2007 ESPAD Report, Substance Use Among Students in 35 European countries, Stockholm. February 2009.
45
41
40
36
34
35
31
30
25
22
22
21 21
19
20
17
17
17
17
14
15
12
10
life-time prevalence in %
10
5
-
EUROPE *
Western Europe*
Eastern Europe*
USA
1995
1999
2003
2007
16 Similar trends have been observed in the “Health Behavior in School
Aged Children”(HBSC) studies conducted in Europe and in North
America in 2001/02 and in 2005/06 under the auspices of the
WHO.
25
World Drug Report 2009
Changes* between 2003 and 2007 in lifetime use of cannabis among students in Europe, aged 15-16
* Colour code: ‘red’ indicates clear increases (more than 3 percentage points); ‘yellow’ indicates largely stable levels and ‘blue’
indicates clear declines (more than 3 percentage points) in life-time prevalence over the 2003-07 period.
Source: Council of Europe, The 2007 ESPAD Report, Substance Use Among Students in 35 European countries, Stockholm. February
2009.
%
2007
50
Czech Republic
40
Isle of Man
Switzerland
Slovak Republic
France
30
United Kingdom
The Netherlands
Estonia
Russia (Moscow)
Italy
Belgium (Flanders)
Bulgaria
Slovenia
20
Germany (6B
Ireland
Croatia
l. )
Latvia
Lithuania
Austria
Poland
Ukraine
Malta
Hungary
Po rtugal
10
Iceland
Sweden
Finland
Greece
Faroe Island
Cyprus
Romania Norway
0
2003
01
02
03
04
05
0 %
Lifetime prevalence of cannabis use in Europe* among 15-16 year old students
– breakdown by gender, 1995-2007
* unweighted average of all participating countries (as reported). Source: Council of Europe, The 2007 ESPAD Report, Substance Use
Among Students in 35 European countries, Stockholm. February 2009.
25
25
22
20
19
20
16
15
14
15
10
10
life-time prevalence
5
0
male students
female students
1995
1999
2003
2007
26
World Drug Report 2009
Lifetime use of cocaine among European
Annual prevalence amphetamines-group drugs
students, 2003 and 2007
among secondary students in select South
American countries (rank ordered): 2004/05
* weighted by population age 16.
Sources: Council of Europe, The 2007 ESPAD Report –
Source: UNODC/CICAD/OEA (2006). Jóvenes y drogas en
Substance Use Among Students in 35 European Countries and
países sudamericanos: Un desafio par alas políticas públicas:
Council of Europe, The ESPAD Report 2003, Alcohol and
Primer estudio comparativo sobre uso de drogas en población
Other Drug Use Among Students in 35 European Countries.
escolar secundaria de Argentina, Bolivia, Brasil, Colombia,
Chile, Ecuador, Paraguay, Perú y Uruguay. Lima, Peru (Sep-
3.0
tiembre 2006).
Unweighted average
2.5
Average*
Colombia
3.5%
2.0
Brazil
3.4%
1.5
Bolivia
3.1%
1.0
Argentina
2.8%
Proportion of
Paraguay
2.2%
0.5
Chile
2.2%
0.0
students reporting lifetime use (%)
Crack-
Crack
Cocaine
Cocaine
Uruguay
1.6%
cocaine
cocaine
2003
2007
Ecuador
1.3%
2003
2007
Peru
0.7%
In Australia, lifetime prevalence of cocaine among stu-
dents 12-17 years old declined from 4% in 1999 to 3%
0%
1%
2%
3%
4%
in 2005. Data obtained in the general population survey
over the period 2004-2007 show a different trend among
Unweighted lifetime prevalence of European stu-
the young and adult population, with increases among
dents (age 15-16) ecstasy-group use: 1995-2007
adults but not young people.
Source: Hibell, B., Guttormsson, U., Ahlström, S., Balakireva,
O., Bjarnason, T., Kokkevi, A., & Kraus, L. (2009). The 2007
2.3 Amphetamine-type-stimulant use trends
ESPAD Report Substance Use Among Students in 35 European
Countries. The Swedish Council for Information on Alcohol
among young people
and other Drugs (CAN). Stockholm.
Following strong declines around the turn of the century
6.0
in relation to ecstasy use in the USA and Canada, 2008
and 2007 student survey data indicate that little has
5.0
changed since 2003. In 2008, United States students
(8-12th grades) had an annual prevalence rate of ecstasy
4.0
use of 3% while Canadian students in Ontario (7-12th
grades) had a rate of 3.5%.
3.0
In South America, there was a general increase in the use
2.0
of ecstasy among high-school students. In Argentina the
annual prevalence rate increased from 0.2% to 2.2%
1.0
and in Chile from 1.1% to 1.5%. An increase was also
Student lifetime prevalence (%)
seen in Colombia between 2001 and 2004/5 where the
0.0
annual prevalence among urban secondary students
1995
1999
2003
2007
doubled from 1.6% to 3%.
Europe Average
Eastern Europe Average
Between 1995 and 2007, European students (age 15-16)
West/ Central Europe Average
reported overall increased lifetime use of ecstasy-group
substances. However, there are diverging trends by sub-
lifetime prevalence during the same period. 22
region. Students in countries of West and Central
Europe20 reported relatively stable rates since 2003 while
No recent data is available in Oceania for ATS use from
students from Eastern Europe21 reported increasing
school surveys. However, the latest data showed a down-
ward trend among students 12-17 years old, from life
20 Students of West and Central Europe include: Austria, Belgium
(Flanders), Cyprus, Denmark, Faroe Islands, Finland, France,
Germany (6 states), Greece, Greenland, Iceland, Ireland, Isle of Man,
Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania,
Italy, Malta, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland,
Russia (Moscow), Slovak Republic, Slovenia, and the Ukraine.
and the United Kingdom.
22 Council of Europe, The 2007 ESPAD Report, Substance Use Among
21 Students of Eastern Europe include: Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech
Students in 35 European countries, Stockholm. February 2009.
28
Special Features
time prevalence of 7% in 1999 to 5% in 2005. For the
Fig. 15: Country-level trends for police-
use of ecstasy, the lifetime prevalence remained stable at
recorded drug-related crime/pos-
around 4%.
session/abuse and drug trafficking
(
Dc
r ha
ug n
-r g
ele
a o
tev
de
r
cr tiwo
me /y
p e
o ar
ssepe
ssiri
o od
n/ ,
a e
b nd
use i n
- g
3. Police-recorded drug offences
N
with most r
umbers of co ecent year available)26
untries (% change in rates per
Crime recorded by law enforcement agencies may be
1 D
0 r0u,g
0 -0re
0 la
p te
o d
p c
ul ri
a m
ti e
o /p
n oosfs ess
mo iroen /tab
haus
n e1 -
% over 2
directly or indirectly related to drugs. On the one hand,
Numbers of countries (% change
year peri in
odrates
)
per 100,000
population of more than 1% over 2 year period)
a proportion of crimes such as robbery, theft, assault or
burglary are driven by underlying factors such as drug
Increase
use. From a statistical point of view, the extent to which
6
Decrease
drug use is responsible for such crimes is not easily cap-
Stable
tured by and rarely forms part of official reports. On the
other hand, law enforcement agencies in most countries
23
produce and retain information on drug offences, which
can be broken into two broad categories: drug-related
48
crime/possession/abuse which corresponds more closely to
personal use offences and drug trafficking (sale). Many
countries report this data at the international and regional
level, including through UNODC data collection mech-
anisms.23 These data are not usually presented in their
Drug-trafficking - Numbers of countries (% change in
Drug-trafficking - Numbers of countries
raw form because they can be confusing. The number of
rates per 100,000 population of more than 1% over 2 year
(% change in rates per 100,000 population of more than
drug offences recorded is a product of both the extent of
1% over 2 year
peri period)
od)
drug activity and the extent of drug enforcement activi-
ties. As a result, it is possible that countries with rela-
Increase
tively minor drug problems can have drug offence rates
8
Decrease
higher than those with very severe ones, making com-
Stable
parison between countries a particular challenge.
This problem can be partly overcome by limiting the
26
analysis to trends within countries. For those countries
43
reporting this information to UNODC, a majority show
an increase in the number of drug crimes in recent years.
Some 62% of countries showed an increase in possession
offences24 and 56% of countries showed an increase in
drug trafficking offences.25
Still, it is difficult to say whether this trend is the result
23 The primary instrument used by UNODC for col ection of crime
and criminal justice data is the United Nations Survey of Crime
of a growing problem or increased enforcement activity.
Trends and Operations of Criminal Justice Systems (the “UN-CTS”).
Of those countries that showed an increase in drug traf-
Data from the UN-CTS may be accessed at: http://www.unodc.
ficking offences, almost 70% showed an increase in
org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/United-Nations-Surveys-on-Crime-
Trends-and-the-Operations-of-Criminal-Justice-Systems.html. Part
possession offences. This strong association suggests
III of the ARQ requests data on the number of persons arrested/total
these increases may be driven by increased drug law
recorded offences for possession/abuse of drugs and for trafficking of
enforcement, rather than changes in the drug situation
drugs.
itself. In some regions, increases in recorded drug-traf-
24 See 1988 Convention against Il icit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and
Psychotropic Substances, Article 3(2). Cross-national analysis of
ficking offences are in line with increases in total drug
trends must be carried out with a very high degree of caution. This is
seizures, including East Asia, South America, Central
due not least to differences in national definitions of crime involving
America and the Caribbean and East Europe. In West
drugs. ‘Personal use’ of drugs may be defined in national law on the
basis of the amount of drug substance involved, and/or with respect
and Central Europe, however, the increase in drug pos-
to the nature of the act, such as cultivation, production, manufacture,
session/use does correspond to an increase in the per-
preparation, offering for sale, distribution, or sale. Drug amount
ceived severity of the drug problem, as reflected in public
thresholds in criminal law can also vary between countries, as can the
nature and type of narcotic drug or psychotropic substance or pre-
surveys.27
cursor. Legal regimes sometimes create administrative drug offences,
which may or may not be recorded and reported together with
criminal offences. Final y, in addition to varying legal definitions,
26 Where possible, data for the years 2005 and 2007 is compared.
differences in capacity, criteria and approaches to case recording, as
Where data for either of these years was not available, the closest
wel as the effect of law enforcement resources and priorities, can have
available year is used instead.
a significant impact on numbers recorded and reported.
27 Criminal Victimisation in International Perspective: Key findings from
25 The UN-CTS defines ‘drug trafficking’ as meaning drug offences,
the 2004-2005 International Crime Victims Survey and European
which are not in connection with personal use.
Crime and Safety Survey. Research and Documentation Centre of the
29
World Drug Report 2009
Ratio between police-recorded drug-related crime/possession/abuse and police-recorded
drug trafficking crimes
East Asia
Central America and Caribbean
North America
West Central Europe
Oceania
Africa
South Asia
Near Middle East
South America
South East Europe
East Europe
Central Asia/Transcaucasia
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Another way to make use of these data is to compare
In contrast, subregional ratios for South-East Europe,
between the two categories of offences. The ratio of drug
East Europe and Central Asia and Transcaucasia show
possession offences to drug trafficking offences gives a
only small differences in the number of offences recorded
good indication of the enforcement approach taken in
in each category. Central Asia and Transcaucasia, in
any given country. For countries in East Asia, Central
particular, shows more recorded offences in the more
America and the Caribbean, North America, and West
serious category of drug trafficking than in the less seri-
and Central Europe, law enforcement agencies record
ous category of drug-related crime/possession/abuse.
above four times as many possession offences as they do
The underlying reasons for this may include a relatively
trafficking offences.28 Countries in these subregions, in
lower estimated prevalence of drug use, particularly can-
particular, show a significant number of offences that
nabis, cocaine, and amphetamines than for other subre-
fall within the broad ‘less serious’ category, relative to the
gions, combined with the existence of key drug transit
number of more serious offences.
routes.29 In addition, the effect of different national
drug policies, including the national legal definition of
‘drug trafficking’ may have a very significant effect on
the relative distribution of serious and less-serious
recorded offences.
Dutch Ministry of Justice (WODC) 2007. p. 97
29 Crime and its impact on the Balkans and affected countries. United
28 See Fig. 15
Nations Office on Drugs and Crime 2008. p.59.
30
1. TRENDS IN THE WORLD DRUG MARKETS
1.1 Opium / heroin market
1.1.1 Summary trend overview
1.1.2 Production
Opium poppy cultivation in Afghanistan, the source
Cultivation
country for most of the world’s opium, decreased by
The area under opium poppy cultivation in major culti-
19% in 2008. As a result, the total area under cultiva-
vating countries decreased by 16% over the past year,
tion in the three major cultivating countries thus
mainly due to a large decrease in Afghanistan. Opium
decreased to 189,000 hectares, in spite of small increases
poppy cultivation did not change much in Myanmar
in Myanmar and the Lao People’s Democratic Republic.
and the Lao People’s Democratic Republic. Overall, the
Total potential opium production also decreased to a
level of opium poppy cultivation in Afghanistan, Myan-
total of some 8,000 metric tons; a high level, in spite of
mar and Lao PDR was about the same as in 2006.
the decrease.
In Afghanistan, opium poppy cultivation continued to
Overall opiate seizures remained stable – at a high level
be concentrated mainly in the southern provinces, while
- in 2007, due to a large decrease in morphine seizures.
more provinces in the centre and north of the country
Opium and heroin seizures increased by 33% and 14%,
became poppy-free. Two thirds of the area under opium
respectively. Although opiate trafficking is global, more
poppy cultivation in 2008 – more than 100,000 ha -
than two thirds of seizures were reported by South-West
were located in the southern province of Hilmand alone.
Asian countries in 2007. Europe accounted for the
The decline in cultivation happened in spite of less
second largest share of seizures, mainly from south-
opium poppy eradication in 2008 (5,480 ha) than in
eastern countries.
2007 (19,047 ha). In 2008, opium poppy cultivation
continued to be associated with insecurity. Almost the
Opiates remain the world’s main problem drug in terms
entire opium poppy-cultivating area was located in
of treatment, and a majority of the world’s opiate users
regions characterized by high levels of insecurity.
live in Asia. The highest levels of use (in terms of the
proportion of the population aged 15-64 years) are
In Pakistan, opium poppy continued to be cultivated in
found along the main drug trafficking routes close to
the border area with Afghanistan at about the same rela-
Afghanistan. UNODC estimates that the number of
tively low level of about 2,000 ha reported over the past
people who used opiates at least once in 2007 was
5 years.
between 15 and 21 million people worldwide.1
In Myanmar, opium poppy cultivation remained below
levels reached in 2004 and before. As in the past, cultiva-
1 The lack of robust data on the levels of drug use, particularly in
tion of opium poppy was heavily concentrated in the
large countries such as China and India, is a huge impediment to an
Shan State in eastern Myanmar. In Lao PDR, a low level
accurate understanding of the size of the population of drug users.
Please see the Methodology and Special Features sections below for
of opium poppy cultivation was found in the northern
more detail.
provinces.
33
World Drug Report 2009
Table 1: Global illicit cultivation of opium poppy and production of opium, 1994-2008
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
CULTIVATION(a) IN HECTARES
SOUTH-WEST ASIA
Afghanistan (b)
71,470
53,759
56,824
58,416
63,674 90,583
82,171
7,606
74,100
80,000
131,000
104,000
165,000
193,000
157,000
Pakistan (c)
5,759
5,091
873
874
950
284
260
213
622
2,500
1,500
2,438
1,545
1,701
1,909
Subtotal
77,229
58,850
57,697
59,290
64,624
90,867
82,431
7,819
74,722
82,500
132,500
106,438
166,545
194,701
158,909
SOUTH-EAST ASIA
Lao PDR (d)
18,520
19,650
21,601
24,082
26,837
22,543
19,052
17,255
14,000
12,000
6,600
1,800
2,500
1,500
1,600
Myanmar (e)
146,600
154,070
163,000
155,150
130,300
89,500
108,700
105,000
81,400
62,200
44,200
32,800
21,500
27,700
28,500
Thailand (f)
478
168
368
352
716
702
890
820
750
Viet Nam (f)
3,066
1,880
1,743
340
442
442
Subtotal
168,664
175,768
186,712
179,924
158,295
113,187
128,642
123,075
96,150
74,200
50,800
34,600
24,000
29,200
30,100
LATIN AMERICA
Colombia (g)
15,091
5,226
4,916
6,584
7,350
6,500
6,500
4,300
4,153
4,026
3,950
1,950
1,023
714
394
Mexico (h)
5,795
5,050
5,100
4,000
5,500
3,600
1,900
4,400
2,700
4,800
3,500
3,300
5,000
6,900
n.a.
Subtotal
20,886
10,276
10,016
10,584
12,850
10,100
8,400
8,700
6,853
8,826
7,450
5,250
6,023
7,614
n.a.
OTHER
Combined (i)
5,700
5,025
3,190
2,050
2,050
2,050
2,479
2,500
2,500
3,074
5,190
5,212
4,432
4,185
n.a.
GRAND TOTAL
272,479
249,919
257,615
251,848
237,819
216,204
221,952
142,094
180,225
168,600
195,940
151,500
201,000
235,700
n.a.
POTENTIAL PRODUCTION IN METRIC TONS
OPIUM(j)
SOUTH-WEST ASIA
Afghanistan (b)
3,416
2,335
2,248
2,804
2,693
4,565
3,276
185
3,400
3,600
4,200
4,100
6,100
8,200
7,700
Pakistan (c)
128
112
24
24
26
9
8
5
5
52
40
36
39
43
48
Subtotal
3,544
2,447
2,272
2,828
2,719
4,574
3,284
190
3,405
3,652
4,240
4,136
6,139
8,243
7,748
SOUTH-EAST ASIA
Lao PDR (d)
120
128
140
147
124
124
167
134
112
120
43
14
20
9
10
Myanmar (e)
1,583
1,664
1,760
1,676
1,303
895
1,087
1,097
828
810
370
312
315
460
410
Thailand (f)
3
2
5
4
8
8
6
6
9
Viet Nam (f)
15
9
9
2
2
2
Subtotal
1,721
1,803
1,914
1,829
1,437
1,029
1,260
1,237
949
930
413
326
335
469
420
LATIN AMERICA
Colombia (g)
205
71
67
90
100
88
88
80
52
50
49
24
13
14
10
Mexico (h)
60
53
54
46
60
43
21
91
58
101
73
71
108
149
n.a.
Subtotal
265
124
121
136
160
131
109
171
110
151
122
95
121
163
n.a.
OTHER
Combined (i)
90
78
48
30
30
30
38
32
56 50
75
63
16
15
n.a.
GRAND TOTAL
5,620
4,452
4,355
4,823
4,346
5,764
4,691
1,630
4,520
4,783
4,850
4,620
6,610
8,890
n.a.
HEROIN
Potential HEROIN (k)
562
445
436
482
435
576
469
163
452
478
495
472
606
735
n.a.
(a) Opium poppy harvestable after eradication.
(b Afghanistan, sources: 1994-2002: UNODC; since 2003: National Illicit Crop Monitoring System supported by UNODC.
(c) Pakistan, sources: ARQ, Government of Pakistan, US Department of State
(d) Lao PDR, sources: 1994-1995: US Department of State; 1996-1999: UNODC; since 2000: National Illicit Crop Monitoring System supported by
UNODC.
(e) Myanmar, sources: 1994-2000: US Department of State; since 2001: National Illicit Crop Monitoring System supported by UNODC.
(f ) Due to continuing low cultivation, figures for Viet Nam (as of 2000) and Thailand (as of 2003) were included in the category "Other".
(g) Colombia, sources: 1994-1999: various sources, since 2000: Government of Colombia. In Colombia, opium is produced as opium latex, which has
a higher moisture content than opium produced in other regions of the world. To maintain comparability with other countries, opium production
in Colombia was calculated by dividing the potential annual heroin production by 10.
(h) Figures derived from US Government surveys. In 2006, the Government of Mexico reported a gross opium poppy cultivation of 19,147 hectares and
estimated potential gross opium production at 211 mt. These gross figures are not directly comparable to the net figures presented in this table.
(i) Reports from different sources indicate that illicit opium poppy cultivation also exists in other countries and regions, including the Baltic countries,
Balkan countries, Egypt, India, Guatemala, Iraq, Lebanon, Nepal, Peru, Russian Federation and other C.I.S. countries, Thailand, Ukraine, Viet
Nam, as well as in Central Asia and Caucasus region. The cultivation level in these countries and regions is thought to be low. Due to the difficulties
of estimating cultivation and production based on the available information, no estimate is provided for 2008.
(j) All figures refer to dry opium.
(k) Heroin estimates for Afghanistan are based on the Afghanistan Opium Surveys (since 2004). For other countries, a 10:1 ratio is used for conversion
from opium to heroin.
34
1. Trends in the world drug markets Opium / heroin market
Fig. 1:
Opium poppy cultivation in major cultivating countries (ha), 1994-2008
300,000
250,000
200,000
150,000
Hectares
100,000
50,000
0
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
A f ghanistan
M yanmar
Lao PDR
Reports on eradication of opium poppy from Bangla-
Central Asia and the Caucasus region. The cultivation
desh, India, Nepal, Thailand and Viet Nam indicated
levels in these countries and regions are thought to be low.
the existence of cultivation in these countries. However,
the extent of illicit opium poppy cultivation in these
Production
countries is not known, with the exception of Thailand,
which reported the detection of 288 ha of opium poppy,
The potential opium production in the major opium
most of which was subsequently eradicated.
poppy cultivating countries decreased slightly but is still
high compared to previous years.
In the Americas, opium poppy cultivation was reported
from Colombia and Mexico, and reports on eradication
Opium yields in Afghanistan remained high in 2008.
in Ecuador, Guatemala, Peru and the Bolivarian Repub-
The potential opium production was estimated at 7,700
lic of Venezuela over the past years point to the existence
mt (range 6,330-9,308 mt). Some 60% is believed to be
of opium poppy cultivation in these countries as well.
converted into morphine and heroin within the country.
Reports from different sources indicate that opium poppy
The amount of morphine and heroin produced in
cultivation also exists in other countries and regions, includ-
Afghanistan available for export was estimated at 630 mt
ing the Baltic countries, Balkan countries, Egypt, Iraq,
(range 519-774 mt). Almost 40% of the total produc-
Lebanon, Russian Federation, Ukraine, and countries in
tion was exported as opium.
Fig. 2:
Opium production in major cultivating countries (mt), 1994-2008
9,000
8,000
7,000
6,000
5,000
Metric tons
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
A f ghanistan
M yanmar
Lao PDR
35
World Drug Report 2009
Fig. 3:
Annual farm-gate prices for dry opium in Afghanistan and Myanmar, 2004-2008 (US$/kg)
Sources: UNODC
350
301
300
250
200
153
US$/kg
142
150
Trend
100
70
50
0
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
Afghanistan (at harvest time, weighted by production)
Myanmar (annual average, weighted by production, last year: at harvest time)
Opium production in Myanmar was estimated at 410
A comparison of average opium production levels in
mt, which is much lower than in the years before 2004.
Afghanistan and Myanmar supports the assumption that
Afghanistan remained the world’s largest opium pro-
local opium production levels had a strong influence on
ducer, fol owed by Myanmar.
these prices. In Afghanistan, annual opium production
before the Taliban opium ban in 2001 was at about
Prices
3,000 mt on average (1994-2000). Since 2002, opium
production has been much higher in every single year,
Farm-gate prices in Afghanistan and Myanmar differ
and amounted to an average of some 5,300 mt. Reflect-
considerably both in trend and level. In 2004, farmers
ing these high supply levels, Afghan opium prices have
in both countries received about US$ 150/kg for one
been on the decrease since 2003. In Myanmar, on the
kilogram of dry opium. Since then, farm-gate prices in
other hand, average annual opium production fel from
Afghanistan have roughly halved, whereas they doubled
about 1,400 mt (1994-2001) to an annual average of
in Myanmar. A similar diverging trend can be observed
just 500 mt (2002-2008). As a consequence, opium
in trader prices in opium production areas, which have
prices in Myanmar increased considerably. In these two
been available since 1999.
cases, the laws of supply and demand seem to hold some
Fig. 4:
Monthly trader prices for dry opium in Afghanistan and Myanmar, 1999-2008 (US$/kg)
Sources: UNODC
600
500
400
300
US$/kg
200
100
0
Jan-99
Jul-99
Jan-00
Jul-00
Jan-01
Jul-01
Jan-02
Jul-02
Jan-03
Jul-03
Jan-04
Jul-04
Jan-05
Jul-05
Jan-06
Jul-06
Jan-07
Jul-07
Jan-08
Jul-08
Afghanistan, trader price of dry opium (unweighted average Kandahar and Nangarhar)
Myanmar, Mong Pawk, open opium market (Jan '99 - Jun '05)
Myanmar, Mong Pawk area, clandestine trading (since Jul '05)
36
1. Trends in the world drug markets Opium / heroin market
explanatory power for prices in production areas. How-
Precursors
ever, it should be noted that illicit markets do not neces-
sarily show the same behaviour as licit markets.
Il icit morphine and heroin production in Afghanistan
requires large quantities of precursor chemicals such as
Relatively high opium prices of over US$ 1,000/kg in
acetic anhydride, a substance which is essential in the
neighbouring Lao PDR and Thailand, where very little
refinement of morphine to heroin. Al acetic anhydride
opium is produced, also indicate that the demand for
has to be imported as there are no known production
opium is high compared to the amount available on the
facilities and no reported legitimate use of the chemical
market in the region.
in the country. Following increased cooperation between
Compared to Asia, farm-gate prices for opium latex in
countries in the region within the framework of the
Colombia were high, at US$ 318/kg in 2008. This would
Paris Pact Initiative, more precursor seizures were
correspond to more than US$ 600/kg in dry opium
reported from Afghanistan and neighbouring countries
equivalents. It should be noted that in the countries
as wel as from the countries of origin. During operation
discussed, opium is traded in the respective local curren-
TARCET (Targeted Anti-trafficking Regional Commu-
cies, and that prices were not adjusted for inflation.
nication, Expertise and Training) and subsequent back-
tracking investigations, almost 20 mt of acetic anhydride
Laboratories
and more than 27 mt of other precursor chemicals were
seized in Afghanistan, the Islamic Republic of Iran, Kyr-
In 2007, the detection of 638 opiates-producing clan-
gyzstan, Pakistan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan in 2008.3
destine laboratories was reported to UNODC. In 2006,
In Afghanistan, an additional 14,000 l of acetic anhy-
originally, a similar number of laboratories were reported
dride plus several other substances typically used for
by Governments (619), which was later updated to 873
heroin production were seized on other occasions. Sev-
based on additional reports received. Ukraine and
eral cases of attempted diversion of precursor shipments
Moldova, which reported high numbers of laboratories
for illicit purposes were detected and prevented and
destroyed in 2006, did not report the detection of labo-
significant precursor seizures were made in countries of
ratories in 2007.
origin in Europe and Asia as well as in countries along
The Russian Federation reported the highest total
the heroin trafficking routes. The seizures and related
number of opiate-processing laboratories (547) and,
investigations confirmed the assumption that large-scale
included in this number, also the highest number of
trafficking of morphine and heroin precursor to Afghan-
heroin laboratories (187) of all countries reporting.2
istan and neighbouring countries occurs. It is not known
However, the amount of heroin seized at the laboratory
to what extent uncontrol ed chemicals are brought into
sites does not indicate that these were large-scale process-
the region to produce controlled substances such as
ing facilities. Opiate processing laboratories were also
acetic anhydride locally to avoid increased international
detected in Afghanistan (57 heroin-processing), where
control of precursor shipments. There are indications
most of the world’s il icit opium is produced, Australia
that precursors have become a major cost factor
(9 heroin-processing), China (9 heroin-processing),
for clandestine laboratories producing heroin in
Myanmar (8 heroin-processing), Mexico (4 heroin-
Afghanistan.
processing), Colombia (2 heroin-processing), Germany
(1 fentanyl-processing) and India (1 heroin-processing
laboratory).
Laboratories in Moldova, the Russian Federation and
Ukraine tend to produce acetylated opium from local y
cultivated poppy straw. Indeed, most of the laboratories
detected in the Russian Federation (347) were produc-
ing acetylated opium. The 2007 figures and the infor-
mation received in connection to these figures indicate
that most morphine and heroin processing takes place
close the source, that is, in or close to the countries were
opium poppy is cultivated, or, in the case of Germany
and Australia, where opiates may be diverted from legal
channels.
2 The number of detected heroin laboratories in the Russian Federa-
tion indicated in the text (187) relates to locations where different
types of drugs were processed on a smal scale and of low quality
(so-cal ed ''kitchen production"). Russia did not report the detection
of significant heroin-processing laboratories in 2007.
3 International Narcotics Control Board, E/INCB/2008/4
37
World Drug Report 2009
Table 2: Significant opium poppy eradication reported (ha), 1995-2008
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
Afghanistan
400
121
21,430
*
5,103
15,300
19,047
5,480
Colombia
3,466
6,885
6,988
2,901
8,249
9,254
2,385
3,577
3,266
3,866
2,121
1,929
375
381
Egypt
15
34
65
45
50
98
Guatemala
489
720
449
536
India
29
96
248
153
18
219
494
167
12
247
7,753
595
Lao PDR
4,134
3,556
2,575
1,518
779
575
Lebanon
4
67
27
8
Mexico
15,389
14,671
17,732 17,449
15,461
15,717 15,350 19,157
20,034
15,926 21,609
16,890
11,046 13,095
Myanmar
3,310
1,938
3,093
3,172
9,824
1,643
9,317
7,469
638
2,820
3,907
3,970
3,598
4,820
Pakistan
867
654
2,194
1,197
1,704
1,484
4,185
5,200
391
354
614
0
Peru
4
18
26
155
14
57
98
92
88
88
16
Thailand
580
886
1,053
716
808
757
832
507
767
122
110
153
220
285
Venezuela
148
51
266
148
137
215
39
0
0
87
154
0
0
0
Viet Nam
477
1,142
340
439
426
125
100
32
38
99
* Although eradication took place in 2004, it was not officially reported to UNODC.
Fig. 5:
Annual opium poppy cultivation and opium production in main producing countries,
1994-2008
AFGHANISTAN - OPIUM POPPY CULTIVATION (ha), 1994-2008
AFGHANISTAN - OPIUM PRODUCTION (mt), 1994-2008
200,000
9,000
175,000
8,000
150,000
7,000
6,000
125,000
5,000
100,000
4,000
75,000
3,000
50,000
2,000
25,000
1,000
0
0
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
MYANMAR - OPIUM POPPY CULTIVATION (ha), 1994-2008
MYANMAR - OPIUM PRODUCTION (mt), 1994-2008
200,000
9,000
175,000
8,000
7,000
150,000
6,000
125,000
5,000
100,000
4,000
75,000
3,000
50,000
2,000
25,000
1,000
0
0
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
LAO PDR - OPIUM POPPY CULTIVATION (ha), 1994-2008
LAO PDR - OPIUM PRODUCTION (mt), 1994-2008
200,000
9,000
175,000
8,000
7,000
150,000
6,000
125,000
5,000
100,000
4,000
75,000
3,000
50,000
2,000
25,000
1,000
43
14
20
9
10
0
0
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
38
World Drug Report 2009
Estimating opium cultivation
documented with photos and GPS devices. This infor-
and production
mation serves as an interpretation template for the
image. If there is still uncertainty, a second image taken
after the opium harvest can help. Farmers in Afghani-
stan, for example, plough poppy fields after the harvest,
whereas they leave wheat fields for the cattle to graze on
the stubble. The freshly ploughed poppy fields show
clearly on the images with a darker tone.
Hundreds of satellite images are taken every year over
different parts of the countries. This sample of images
can be compared to a poll. If well designed, a poll ena-
bles analysts to understand the preferences of the popu-
lation as a whole, although only a sample of the
population is interviewed. Similarly, a sample of satellite
images representing the total agricultural area in the
country can be used to calculate the area under opium
poppy cultivation, based on the results of the image
Illicit crop cultivation is often associated with insecurity,
analysis.
insurgency and lack of alternative livelihood options.
Knowing where poppy is cultivated and how much To be able to estimate opium production, surveyors visit
opium and heroin can be produced is important for fields in several hundred villages and measure the number
Governments and the international community to of poppy capsules as well as their size in sample plots.
understand and tackle the issue.
Using a scientific formula, the measured poppy capsule
volume indicate how much opium gum each plant can
In Afghanistan, Myanmar and the Lao People’s Demo-
cratic Republic, UNODC supports the efforts of the potentially yield. Thus, the opium yield per hectare can
respective Governments to estimate the annual area be estimated. Because of irrigation and climate, the yield
under opium poppy cultivation. In Afghanistan and can differ considerably from year to year and from region
Myanmar, this is mainly done by using high-resolution to region.
satellite images. Opium poppy plants, like other crops, Opium yield and the total poppy cultivation area form
reflect sunlight in a specific way. This is not because of the basis for estimating annual opium production. The
its colourful flower, but rather, a certain shade of green, bulk of the opium undergoes a transformation process to
which is different from other crops. This enables an morphine and finally heroin. This is done by so-called
image analyst to identify poppy. Other characteristics, “chemists” or “cooks” who know which precursor chem-
such as the texture, shape or size of the field, are also icals are necessary and in which quantities. Information
used.
on the efficiency of this transformation process comes
Important information comes from surveyors on the mainly from law enforcement agencies which obtain
ground who map small portions of the area covered by detailed information from apprehended traffickers. With
the image and identify which crop is grown where. The this information it is possible to estimate potential heroin
growth stages of all crops and their exact locations are production in a country.
40
1. Trends in the world drug markets Opium / heroin market
1.1.3 Trafficking
Opiate trafficking is global,
Fig. 6:
Global opiate seizures, expressed in
but seizures are stabilizing
heroin equivalents*, by substance,
1998-2007
In 2007, global seizures of opiates amounted to 143 mt
* based on a conversion rate of 10 kilograms of opium for 1
(expressed in heroin equivalents1), about the same as in
kg of morphine or 1 kg of heroin.
2006 (142 mt). Compared to 1998, global opiate sei-
Source: UNODC, Annual reports Questionnaire Data / DELTA.
zures almost doubled (93% increase).
150
Out of 143 countries that reported seizures to UNODC
for 2007, 109 reported seizures of opiates. Trafficking in
38
51
heroin is in geographical terms more widespread than
21
13
34
100
trafficking in opium or morphine, as 107 countries
21
reported seizures of heroin (75% of reporting countries),
39
10
46
44
32
27
24
11
whereas 57 reported opium seizures and 36 morphine.
27
18
11
25
50
23
24
Opium seizures continue to rise in and around
54
54
57
65
Afghanistan while morphine seizures decline
49
54
61
59
32
36
Although global opiate seizures remained stable between
0
metric tons of heroin equivalents
2006 and 2007, there were significant market shifts
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
among opium, heroin and morphine. Global opium sei-
O pium (in heroin equivalents* )
zures increased by 33% in 2007, in line with the rise in
M orphine
opium production reported in 2007 (34%). Some of the
Heroin
largest increases in opium seizures in 2007 were reported
in and around Afghanistan (opium seizures in Tajikistan
increased by 83%; Pakistan 71%; the Islamic Republic of
The largest heroin seizures in 2007 were reported by the
Iran 37%; Afghanistan 28%). Most of the opium was
Islamic Republic of Iran (16 mt or 25% of the world
seized in Iran (427 mt or 84% of the global total), fol-
total), Turkey (13 mt) and Afghanistan (5 mt).
lowed by Afghanistan (52 mt) and Pakistan (6 mt).
Processing of opium into heroin appears to be
In contrast, morphine seizures fell by 41% in 2007,
less frequent
mainly due to lower seizures reported by Pakistan (66%
Between 2003 and 2007, combined heroin and mor-
decrease) and the Islamic Republic of Iran (9% decrease).
phine seizures remained basically stable. Combined with
The world’s largest morphine seizures continued to be
the data on sharp increases in opium seizures, this sug-
reported by Pakistan (11 mt or 40% of the global total),
gests that transformation of opium into morphine and
Iran (10 mt) and Afghanistan (5 mt).
heroin is becoming more difficult and less frequent3 in
Heroin seizures increase, but at a lower rate than
Afghanistan. It also suggests that the large increases in
opium production
opium production in 2006/07 did not result in large
increases in morphine and heroin flows out of Afghani-
Heroin seizures rose by 14% between 2006 and 2007,
stan.
which is a smaller increase than the one observed in
opium production in 2007 (34%). Some of the largest
increases in heroin seizures were reported by countries
along the main trafficking routes from Afghanistan to
Europe.2
(+28%), Bulgaria (+66%), Italy (+43%), Germany (+22%), Belgium
(+212%) as well as, along the Northern Route, Kyrgyzstan (65%),
Turkmenistan (+62%) and the Russian Federation (+20%)
1
For the purposes of this calculation it is assumed that 10 kg of opium
3
Increases in the price of precursors in Afghanistan is an indication of
are equivalent to 1 kg of morphine or 1 kg of heroin.
the lack of supply of precursors which could make the production of
2 Afghanistan (+24%), Islamic Republic of Iran (+49%), Turkey
heroin and morphine more difficult.
41
World Drug Report 2009
Fig. 7:
Calculated global interception rate of
Fig. 8:
Distribution of opiate seizures
opiates*
(expressed in heroin equivalents*),
* seizures of opiates in a given year (in heroin equivalents)
2002-2007
shown as a proportion of global illicit opiate production (in
* applying a conversion ratio of 10 kg of opium equivalent to
heroin equivalents)
1 kg of morphine and 1 kg of heroin
Source: UNODC, 2008 World Drug Report and UNODC, ARQ
Source: UNODC, ARQ data / DELTA.
data.
0.4%
0.2%
0.3%
0.3%
0.3%
0.2%
100%
30%
6%
6%
4%
4%
3%
3%
26%
10%
7%
5%
12%
12%
16%
23%
80%
22%
19%
20%
60%
17%
15%
40%
77%
82%
84%
86%
90%
92%
9%
10%
20%
in % of total seizures
0%
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
0%
Afghanistan/SWA/CA/Europe
Myanmar/SEA/Oceania
1990
1995
1998
2000
2005
2006
2007
Latin America/North America
Africa
The calculated global interception rate declines
Opiate seizures made in East and South-East Asia, and
as more opiates are being stock-piled
Oceania, accounted for 5% of the global total in 2007.
The global interception rate for opiates4 rose from 9%
Seizures in Africa account for only 0.2% of the world
in 1990 to 26% in 2005. The rate started to decline after
total. Traditionally, Africa has been supplied from South-
2005, reaching 19% in 2007. Following the 2006 and
West Asia (typically via Pakistan or India) and South-East
2007 increases in opium production which exceeded
Asia (typical y via Thailand), though lately the opiates
global demand, there are indications that a portion of
supply is almost exclusively from South-West Asia.
opiates has been stockpiled. Prices continue to fall and
trafficking out of Afghanistan did not grow as fast as
The Americas – which seem to be largely ‘self-sufficient’
opium production.
in terms of opiate production and consumption -
accounted for 3% of global opiate seizures. Most of the
The fal ing levels of global opium production in 2008
seizures in this region were made in the USA, the region’s
may not translate into reduced trafficking flows in the
main opiate-consuming country.
near future as production shortfalls could be compen-
Seizures rising in regions affected by Afghan opiates
sated by reducing the size of existing stocks.
The proportion of seizures related to Afghan opium
The bulk of seizures take place close to opium pro-
production5 increased from 77% of the world total in
duction centers
2002 to 92% in 2007, reflecting the strong increases in
Despite of the large number of countries affected by
Afghan opium production between 2002 and 2007.
trafficking in opiates, there are clear concentrations of
Opiate seizures in the countries of South-West Asia rose
trafficking flows and seizures.
by 177% over the same period, and in Europe by 19%.
In contrast, opiate seizures in the countries of Central
The most important subregion for opiate seizures in
Asia declined by 19%.
2007 continued to be South-West Asia, accounting for
Seizures declined in regions typically supplied by
70% of global opiate seizures. The large seizures in this
South-East Asian opiates
region clearly reflect the dominant position of Afghani-
stan as the world’s largest opium producer.
The proportion of opiate seizures in the countries mainly
supplied by opiates produced in Myanmar and the Lao
Europe accounted for almost 19% of global opiate sei-
People’s Democratic Republic6 fell from 16% of the
zures. Most opiate seizures there were made in South-
world total in 2002 to 5% in 2007. Reported seizures
East Europe (11% of the total), notably by Turkey. Most
from countries in East and South-East Asia declined by
of the opiates that reach Western Europe are trafficked
43% over the 2002-07 period. Opiate seizures reported
from Afghanistan through Turkey and the Islamic
by countries in Oceania fel by 86% over this period.
Republic of Iran.
5 Seizures made by countries in South-West Asia, Central Asia, South
4 Interception rate is defined as the total seizures of opiates of a given
Asia and Europe.
year over the global il icit opiate production in the same year.
6 Countries in South-East Asia and Oceania.
42
1. Trends in the world drug markets Opium / heroin market
Fig. 9:
Global opiate seizures, expressed in heroin equivalents*, regional breakdown, 1998-2007
* For this calculation it is assumed that 10 kg of opium are equivalent to 1 kg of morphine and1 kg of heroin.
Source: UNODC, ARQ data / DELTA
160
140
120
100
80
metric tons
60
40
20
0
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Near and Middle East /South-West Asia
South Asia
Central Asia and Transcaucasian countries
Europe
Americas
East and South-East Asia
Africa
Others
Seizures declined in North America,
is still from Myanmar, there have been reports of ship-
but they are increasing again
ments of heroin from Afghanistan via Pakistan to Chi-
na.7 The heroin is being shipped either directly (mainly
The proportion of opiate seizures made in the Americas
fell from 6% of the world total in 2002 to 3% in 2007.
by air) from Pakistan to various Chinese destinations as
This mainly reflected falling opiate seizures in South
well as indirectly, via Dubai (United Arab Emirates).8
America (-52% over the 2002-07 period), which is in
The amounts involved are still modest, but may repre-
line with reports of falling levels of opium production in
sent emerging trafficking patterns.9
Colombia. Opiate seizures reported from North Amer-
In 2007, Pakistan reported an additional new route to
ica started rising again in 2007, after a downward trend
Malaysia, both direct and via Dubai. Until recently,
in 2006 in Mexico and the USA.
heroin in Malaysia originated exclusively in Myanmar.
The vast majority of opiates found in the USA (96%)
This new route shows that Afghan opiates may now reach
originate in Mexico and Colombia.
other destinations since Malaysia has been mentioned
among the key embarkation points for heroin shipments
Trafficking in opiates continues to be concentrated
into Australia.10
along three major routes …
… and from South-West Asia to North America
Three distinct production centres for opiates still supply
three distinct markets. The main trafficking flows con-
New trafficking routes from South-West Asia to North
tinue to be:
America are emerging. Canada reported that 98% of the
heroin found on their market in 2007 originated in
from Afghanistan to neighbouring countries,
South-West Asia. The heroin was mainly trafficked by
the Middle East, Africa and Europe;
air via India and Pakistan into Canada.11 Organized
crime groups in Ontario and British Columbia are
from Myanmar/Laos to neighbouring
involved in heroin imports.12
countries of South-East Asia, (notably China)
and to the Oceania region (mainly Australia);
from Latin America (Mexico, Colombia,
Guatemala and Peru) to North America
7
UNODC, ARQ data for 2007
8
UNODC, ARQ data for 2007.
(notably USA)
9
Data collected on individual drug seizures show from 2004 to 2006 a
…although alternative routes are emerging from
marked upward trend of heroin seizures made in Pakistan with final
destinations in China. This upward trend did not continue in 2007
South-West Asia to South-East Asia and the Oceania
and in 2008.
region
10 Australian Crime Commission, Illicit Drug Data Report 2006-07,
revised edition, Canberra, March 2009.
A number of reports show that trafficking activities have
11 UNODC, ARQ data for 2007.
started to diversify from established market connections.
12 Criminal Intelligence Service Canada (CISC), Report on Organized
Though the bulk of opiates found on the Chinese market
Crime, Ottawa, Ontario 2008.
43
World Drug Report 2009
Most heroin continues to be trafficked in the
reflecting decreasing heroin manufacturing levels in
countries surrounding Afghanistan and along
Turkey. Nonetheless, Turkey remains the key transit
the Balkan route towards Western Europe
country for heroin produced in South-West Asia and
consumed in Europe, in spite of alternative trafficking
The bulk of all opiates produced in Afghanistan is des-
routes emerging in recent years. According to Turkish
tined for consumption in the neighbouring Islamic
authorities, 80% of the heroin illegally imported into
Republic of Iran, Pakistan, Central Asian countries and,
Turkey was from Afghanistan; the remaining 20% is
to a lesser extent, India. These markets are, in fact, larger
believed to have originated in Iran.
(about 5 million users) than the opiate market in West
and Central Europe (about 1.4 million). The opiate
Once in Turkey, heroin is smuggled from eastern Turkey
markets in Western Europe are, however, financially
to Istanbul towards Bulgaria for subsequent transport to
more lucrative. Therefore, opiates also leave Afghanistan
Serbia and Romania for shipments to various countries
via Iran and Pakistan along the Balkan route towards
in Western Europe. Heroin and morphine seizures made
Western Europe.
by the Bulgarian authorities rose by 66% in 2007.
According to Bulgarian authorities, most of the heroin
UNODC estimates for 2008 suggest that most of the
seized in 2007 was destined for Croatia and Germany.
opium exports from Afghanistan cross the border in the
According to information from the Romanian authori-
Islamic Republic of Iran (83%; range: 71%-96%). Mor-
ties major destination countries were the Netherlands
phine and heroin exports go to Pakistan (41%; range:
and the United Kingdom.14
28%-51%) and Iran (39%; range: 32% - 44%) and to a
lesser extent, to Central Asia (19%; range: 8%-25%)13.
Another transit country for heroin leaving Bulgaria is
the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. From
Opiate seizures continued to increase along the extended
there, heroin is either sent to Serbia for subsequent
Balkan route in 2007, accounting for 94% of all seizures
deliveries along the Balkan route (Bosnia-Herzegovina,
of Afghan opiates. Seizures along the other route, the
Croatia, Slovenia) and Western Europe, or to Albania
Silk route (or North route) have continued to decline,
for subsequent shipment to Italy. In Italy, heroin coming
reaching 9% in 2007.
from Albania and Turkey is destined for the domestic
Afghan opiates enter the Islamic Republic of Iran either
market (45%) and for re-export, mainly to Germany
directly from Afghanistan or via Pakistan.
(35%).15
The frequency of Turkey being mentioned by other
Most of the heroin shipments to Germany still arrive via
European countries as a ‘country of origin’ for the heroin
the Balkan countries and Austria. The main destination
found on their markets has declined in recent years,
of heroin seized in Germany is the Netherlands (78% in
2007). Once in the Netherlands the heroin is typically
re-exported to the United Kingdom, France, Germany
Fig. 10: Opiate* seizures along the Balkan
and other EU countries. Most of the heroin seized in
Route and along the Silk Route,
France in 2007 had transited Turkey and the Netherlands
1998-2007
and was on the way to the UK (50%) or to Spain (15%);
* For this calculation it is assumed that 10 kg of opium are
about a quarter was for domestic consumption.16
equivalent to 1 kg of morphine and 1 kg of heroin.
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data / DELTA.
There have been reports that heroin intended for West-
120
ern Europe was also trafficked through Ukraine via
Turkey and the Islamic Republic of Iran, with main
100
destinations being the UK, Poland and Germany. 17
80
A number of more direct routes from South-West Asia
to Europe also exist, mainly via Pakistan as well as via
60
the Middle East, Eastern and Western Africa.
40
20
metric tons of heroin equivalents
0
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
14 UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data for 2007.
Extended Balkan route
15 UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data for 2007.
(South-West Asia & South-East Europe)
16 UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data for 2007.
Silk Route (Central Asia & East Europe)
17 The Ukraine reported that 45% of heroin seized came via Turkey and
32% via the Islamic Republic of Iran and that 46% were intended for
the UK, 31% for Poland and 23% for Germany. Source: UNODC,
13 UNODC,
Afghanistan Opium Survey 2008, October 2008.
Annual Reports Questionnaire Data for 2007.
44
1. Trends in the world drug markets Opium / heroin market
Fig. 11: USA: Heroin retail and wholesale prices, 1990-2007, US$/gram
300
250
200
150
US$/gram
100
50
0
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
Wholes ale
163
155
150
146
143
146
142
129
125
107
81
60
51
66
69
65
65
71
Retail
224 261 296 275 274 255 212 233 206 196 192 164
158
150
142
138
132 131
Fig. 12: WESTERN EUROPE: Heroin retail and wholesale prices, 1990-2007, €/gram
150
100
/gram
50
0
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
Wholes ale
75
56
61
47
48
41
38
35
33
32
31
29
30
27
26
25
25
22
Retail
136 120 113 91 100 91
93
82
84
81
69
66
66
62
61
57
53
52
Fig. 13: Wholesale heroin prices in Western Europe and the USA, 1990-2007 (US$/gram)
200,000
150,000
100,000
US$/kilogram
50,000
-
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
Europe
USA
45
World Drug Report 2009
Fig. 14: Global illicit supply of opiates, 1997-2007
800
Total production of
735
heroin
- in metric tons
700
19%
606
Opiates intercepted
576
600
- in metric tons of
heroin equivalent
23%
15%
- in % of total
500
482
469
478
495
472
452
production
435
15%
25%
22%
18%
23%
26%
400
17%
Metric tons
300
592
Heroin available for
492
consumption (potential)
464
200
409
163
- in metric tons
361
367
369
367
374
347
47%
100
87
0
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
*Opiates are defined as heroin, morphine and opium (10:1) expressed in heroin equivalents.
O A
I
P
N
I
S
E
T
E
T RC
E
T
P
E
O
W
-
D
7
0
0
2
-
7
9
9
1
*
:
D
L
R
7
9
9
1
*
:
A
I
S
A
-
D
E
T
P
E
C
R
E
T
N
I
S
E
T
A
I
P
O
-
07
0
2
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80
Metric tons
Metric tons
60
60
40
40
20
20
0
0
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
OPIATES INTERCEPTED- AMERICAS:* 1997-2007
OPIATES INTERCEPTED- EUROPE:* 1997-2007
7
30
6
25
5
20
4
15
3
Metric tons
Metric tons
10
2
1
5
0
0
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
OP
N
I
S
E
T
A
I
E
T RC
E
T
P
E
C
I
R
F
A
-
D
7
0
0
2
-
7
9
9
1
*
:
A
7
0
0
2
-
7
9
9
1
*
:
A
I
N
A
E
C
O
-
D
E
T
P
E
C
R
E
T
N
I
S
E
T
A
I
P
O
0.5
1
0.4
0.8
0.3
0.6
0.2
Metric tons
0.4
Metric tons
0.1
0.2
0
0
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
*Opiates are defined as heroin, morphine and opium (10:1) expressed in heroin equivalents.
48
1. Trends in the world drug markets Opium / heroin market
Fig. 15: Global seizures of opium, 1997-2007
600
500
400
300
Metric tons
200
100
0
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Year
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Metric Tons
196
179
239
213
106
96
133
212
342
384
510
SEIZURES OF OPIUM in % of world total and kg- HIGHEST RANKING COUNTRIES - 2007
-
50,000
100,000
150,000
200,000
250,000
300,000
350,000
400,000
450,000
Iran (84%)
427,147
Afghanistan (10%)
52,457
Pakistan (3%)
15,370
Tajikistan (0.5%)
2,542
SEIZURES OF OPIUM in kg and % BY REGION - 2007
100,0 200,0 300,0 400,0 500,0 600,0
-
00
00
00
00
00
00
Turkmenistan (0.4%)
2,284
Near and Middle East /South-West Asia
495,004
India (0.3%)
1,758
(97%)
Lithuania (0.3%)
1,642
Central Asia and Transcaucasian
6,204
countries (1%)
Myanmar (0.2%)
1,273
East and South-East Asia (0.5%)
2,702
China (0.2%)
1,184
West & Central Europe (0.3%)
1,768
Turkey (0.2%)
785
Uzbekistan (0.1%)
731
South Asia (0.3%)
1,758
USA (0.1%)
431
Southeast Europe (0.2%)
903
Russian Federation (0.1%)
363
North America (0.2%)
843
Kazakhstan (0.1%)
336
East Europe (0.1%)
415
Mexico (0.1%)
292
Kyrgyzstan (0.1%)
271
South America (0.1%)
259
Thailand (0%)
140
North Africa (0%)
49
Colombia (0%)
133
Oceania (0%)
3
Peru (0%)
126
49
World Drug Report 2009
Fig. 16: Global seizures of heroin(a) and morphine(b), 1997-2007
120
100
80
60
Metric tons
40
20
0
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
(a) Seizures as reported (street purity).
(b) 1 kg of morphine is assumed to be equilveant to 1 kg of heroin.
Year
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Metric Tons 54
56
60
81
66
74
98
100
91
103
92
SEIZURES OF HEROIN (and morphine)(b) in % of world total and kg equivalents (a)
-
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
30,000
HIGHEST RANKING COUNTRIES - 2007
Iran (28%)
25,580
Pakistan (15%)
13,863
Turkey (15%)
13,397
Afghanistan (11%)
10,057
China (5%)
4,759
Russian Federation (3%)
2,938
USA (3%)
2,447
Italy (2%)
1,900
SEIZURES OF HEROIN (and m 10,00 20,00 30,00 40,00 50
orphine) in kg equivalents (a) ,00 60
and ,00
in % - BY REGION - 2007
Tajikistan (2%)
1,550
-
0
0
0
0
0
0
Myanmar (1%)
1,188
Near and Middle East /South-West Asia (54%)
50,002
Bulgaria (1%)
1,165
Southeast Europe (17%)
15,386
Germany (1%)
1,074
West & Central Europe (8%)
7,402
France (1%)
1,044
East and South-East Asia (7%)
6,888
United Kingdom (1%)
1,041
East Europe (4%)
3,457
(c)
India (1%)
1,009
Central Asia and Transcaucasian countries (4%)
3,358
Belgium (0.6%)
548
North America (3%)
2,888
Colombia (0.6%)
535
South Asia (1%)
1,089
Kazakhstan (0.6%)
522
South America (0.9%)
873
Netherlands (0.6%)
519
Central America (0.3%)
293
Ukraine (0.6%)
515
West and Central Africa (0.2%)
167
Uzbekistan (0.5%)
501
North Africa (0.1%)
90
Serbia (0.5%)
484
Oceania (0.1%)
65
Kyrgyzstan (0.5%)
431
54
Caribbean (0.1%)
Mexico (0.5%)
423
Southern Africa (0%)
35
Turkmenistan (0.4%)
326
19
East Africa (0%)
Thailand (0.3%)
293
(a) Seizures as reported (street purity)
(b) 1 kg of morphine is assumed to be equivalent to 1 kg of heroin.
(c ) Data refer to England and Wales only.
50
1. Trends in the world drug markets Opium / heroin market
Interpretation of seizure data
in 2001, despite the decrease of production, may partly
be attributed to intensified law enforcement efforts
The quantity of illicit drugs seized in a given year may be
(notably in China and Tajikistan1). Stock-piling could
influenced by two main factors, namely the available also be a factor that can explain this trend. Opium pro-
supply of the drug in the illicit market and the effective-
duction may also not be a good indicator of supply. In
ness of interdiction efforts by law enforcement agencies.
fact, heroin seizures may arguably be a better indicator
of heroin supply than opium production, especially for
To measure supply, it is useful to have other indicators a consumer market that is removed from the production
than seizure quantities. If these are obtained independ-
basin around Afghanistan, such as West and Central
ently, they can help to interpret the market of illicit Europe.
drugs and the relationship between supply and seizures.
Price and purity are among the key factors that can help
Supply and law enforcement activities can not be sepa-
to better interpret trends in seizures. Trends in prices rated, and assuming trends in supply solely on the basis
measure the changes in the market and can be a sign of of data on seizures can sometimes be misleading. This
changes in supply. For example, an increasing trend of can also be seen by looking at the growth of opium sei-
seizures together with a decreasing trend in prices sug-
zures between 2005-2007. Although the trend is similar
gest a real increase in supply. An increasing trend in to opium production, the more rapid increase of seizures
seizures with increasing price levels suggests an improve-
compared to production measures not only an increase
ment in law enforcement activities. Information on in supply but most probably also an increased level of
purity is also important to interpret data on seizures. law enforcement activities.
Very often the market reacts to a decrease of supply by
diminishing the pure con-
tent of the drug. Increases
Growth of opium production and opiate seizures, relative to 1997
or decreases of seizures in
terms of weight or unit
3.00
may not be sufficient to
2.50
measure actual changes
occurring in the market.
2.00
In many countries, only
1.50
seizure data are available
to estimate a trend in the
1.00
owth since 1997
availability of illicit drugs.
Gr
How much seizure trends
0.50
can help to understand
0.00
the availability of drugs is
1997
1999
2001
2003
2005
2007
illustrated in the following
example, where trends in
Opium production
Opium seizures
opium seizures and pro-
Morphine seizures
Heroin seizures
duction (as a proxy of
Note: All quantities are expressed relative to 1997. Thus, for example, a value of 2.5 indicates
supply) are compared at
that the quantity grew 2.5 times since 1997.
the global level. Interpret-
ing seizure data on short-term changes or in one single It is easy to compare levels and changes of seizures and
country could be meaningless. Looking at long-term production to understand how much information sei-
changes on a global scale provides a more accurate pic-
zures can give on the increase or decrease of supply.
ture.
However, this kind of analysis is not always possible, and
in many situations, seizure totals are the best available
In the figure, the growth of opium production is pre-
indicators of supply. When information on seizures is
sented together with growth of global seizures of opium,
supplemented with information on price, purity and
heroin and morphine. If it is assumed that both seizures consumption, more accurate conclusions can be made
and opium production are indicators of the supply of about the supply of illicit drugs. When only seizure data
opiates, it is expected that seizures and production follow
are used, there is a risk of overestimating or underesti-
the same pattern. Indeed it can be noted that seizures of mating real changes in supply.
opium and morphine follow the same trend as produc-
tion, but this is not true for heroin. Heroin seizures do
not show the same drastic decline that affected produc-
tion in 2001. The sustained high levels of heroin seizures
1
UNODC, Global Illicit Drug Trends 2003.
51
World Drug Report 2009
1.1.4 Consumption
In 2007 UNODC estimates that the total number of
This year, significant revisions were made to the approach
opiates users at the global level is between 15.2-21.1
taken in making global and regional estimates of the
million people. More than half of the world’s opiates-
number of people who use drugs. The new estimates
reflect the uncertainties surrounding these data (which
using population are thought to live in Asia. The highest
exist due to data gaps and quality) and are presented in
levels of use (in terms of the proportion of the popula-
ranges rather than absolute numbers. Because of this
tion aged 15-64 years) are found along the main drug
revision, previous point estimates are not comparable to
trafficking routes out of Afghanistan.
the current ones.
Table 3: Estimated number of people who used opiates at least once in the past year and
proporton of population aged 15-64, by region, 2007
Note: 2007 estimates cannot be compared to previous UNODC estimates
Source: UNODC
Percent of
Estimated
Estimated
Percent of popula-
population
Region/subregion
number of
number of users
tion aged 15-64
aged 15-64
users (lower)
(upper)
(upper)
(lower)
Africa
1,000,000
2,780,000
0.2
0.5
North Africa
120,000
490,000
0.3
0.4
West and Central Africa
550,000
650,000
0.3
0.4
Eastern Africa
100,000
1,330,000
0.1
1.0
Southern Africa
230,000
310,000
0.2
0.3
Americas
2,190,000
2,320,000
0.4
0.4
North America
1,310,000
1,360,000
0.4
0.5
Central America
20,000
30,000
0.1
0.1
The Caribbean
60,000
90,000
0.2
0.3
South America
800,000
840,000
0.3
0.3
Asia
8,440,000
11,890,000
0.3
0.5
East/South-East Asia
2,800,000
4,970,000
0.2
0.3
South Asia
3,620,000
3,660,000
0.4
0.4
Central Asia
340,000
340,000
0.7
0.7
Near and Middle East
1,680,000
2,910,000
0.7
1.2
Europe
3,440,000
4,050,000
0.6
0.7
Western/Central Europe
1,230,000
1,520,000
0.5
0.6
East/South-East Europe
2,210,000
2,535,000
0.8
0.9
Oceania
90,000
90,000
0.4
0.4
Global
15,160,000
21,130,000
0.3
0.5
52
1. Trends in the world drug markets Opium / heroin market
Fig. 17: Opiate use trends as perceived by experts of developed (OECD) and developing (non-OECD)
countries, 1998-2007 (baseline: 1998 = 100)
Sources: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data, UNODC Field Offices, UNODC’s Drug Use Information
Network for Asia and the Pacific (DAINAP).
105
104
103
102
101
Baseline: 1998 = 100
100
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
OE CD
G loba l
N on-OE CD
Opiate consumption may be falling in East and
Opiates remain a prominent issue in Central and
South-East Asia
South West Asia
In East and South-East Asia, it was estimated that 2.8-
Opiate use remains the most prominent illicit drug prob-
5.0 million persons aged 15-64 years used opiates in the
lem in this region. Population surveys suggested that
past year. Use in China has been estimated at around
1.4% used opiates in the past year in Afghanistan (in
0.19-0.31% (1.8 to 2.9 million persons).1 Higher levels
2005), and 2.8% in the Islamic Republic of Iran (has an
have been reported in opium cultivation areas, including
estimated 0.7 to 1.6 million so-called “drug addicts”).4
1.1% in the Shan State and Kachin (Myanmar).2
In Pakistan, injecting drug use is reportedly increasing;5
one study estimated 630,000 opiate users in Pakistan,
Most countries of East and South-East Asia reported
equivalent to 0.7% of those aged 15-64, around 77% of
recent declines in opiate use, reflecting declining opium
whom were heroin users.6
production in Myanmar and the Lao People’s Demo-
cratic Republic. Heroin was still reported as the main
In the Central Asia7 and the Caucasus subregion, opiate
problem drug in China (Hong Kong and Macao only),
use is also thought to be above estimated global average
Indonesia, Malaysia and Myanmar, although reports
levels, particularly in Kazakhstan (1%),8 Kyrgyzstan
suggested that heroin use may also be declining there.
(0.8%)9 and Uzbekistan (0.8%).10 Estimates for Tajiki-
Opium use in northern Lao PDR is estimated to have
stan are slightly lower (0.5%). The HIV epidemic con-
declined from 0.6% (2006) to 0.4% (2008)3. In both
tinues among primarily opiate-injecting drug users in the
Lao PDR and Myanmar, opium producing villages have
much higher consumption than non-opium producing
villages.
4
Drug Control Headquarters of the Islamic Republic of Iran, Policies,
Achievements, Ongoing Programs and Future Plans, Tehran 2007.
5 UNODC, Global Assessment Programme on Drug Use, Ministry
of Narcotics Control of the Government of Pakistan, Anti-Narcotics
Force of the Government of Pakistan. Problem Drug Use in Pakistan,
Results from the year 2006 National Assessment. Tashkent, 2007.
6 UNODC and the Paris Pact Initiative, Illicit Drug Trends in Paki-
stan, April 2008. UNODC, Global Assessment Programme on Drug
Use, Ministry of Narcotics Control of the Government of Pakistan,
1 Estimate derived from Lu F, Wang N, Wu Z, Sun X, Rehnstrom J,
Anti-Narcotics Force of the Government of Pakistan. Problem Drug
Poundstone K, et al. “Estimating the number of people at risk for
Use in Pakistan, Results from the year 2006 National Assessment.
and living with HIV in China in 2005: methods and results; Sex
Tashkent, 2007.
Transmitted Infections, June 2006, Vol. 82 Suppl 3, pp. iii 87-91,
reported in: Mathers B, Degenhardt L, Phillips B, Wiessing L, Hick-
7
UNODC, HIV/AIDS and injecting drug use in Central Asia: From
man M, Strathdee S, et al. Global epidemiology of injecting drug use
evidence to action, 2007.
and HIV among people who inject drugs: a systematic review. The
8 Ibid.
Lancet 2008;372:1733-1745.
9
UNODC, HIV/AIDS and Injecting Drug Use in Central Asia: from
2 2008 UNODC Opium and Poppy Cultivation Report, South-East
Evidence to Action, Kyrgyzstan Country Report 2007
Asia. (December 2008)
10 UNODC, HIV/AIDS and Injecting Drug Use in Central Asia: from
3 Ibid.
Evidence to Action, Uzbekistan Country Report 2007.
53
World Drug Report 2009
Table 4: Expert perception of changing opiate use, by region, 2007
Sources: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire data.* Identifies increases/ decreases ranging from either some to strong,
unweighted by population.
Percent
Percent
Percent
Member
Use
Use
Use
use
use
use
Region
States
problem
problem
problem
problem
problem
problem
responding
increased*
stable
decreased*
increased
stable
decreased
Africa
17
9
53%
6
35%
2
12%
Americas
12
7
58%
3
25%
2
17%
Asia
27
14
52%
4
15%
9
33%
Europe
31
8
26%
15
48%
8
26%
Oceania
0
0
0
0
Global
87
38
44%
28
32%
21
24%
region, particularly marked across Uzbekistan,11 Tajiki-
Near and Middle East: heroin use may be increasing
stan12 and Kyrgyzstan.13 This is thought to be driven by
but data are limited
the countries’ proximity to major trafficking routes out
of Afghanistan.
In countries with available data in this region, heroin use
is reported to have increased, with decreasing age of
South Asia
onset and increasing demand for treatment. Many coun-
tries, however, still lack essential capacity to collect and
India holds the largest opiate-using population in the
analyse data on drug use and drug treatment demand.
subregion, estimated at around 3.2 million persons (esti-
There is a need to improve data in this region.
mated from a study conducted in the year 2000). There
are few data on the size of opiate-using populations in
Europe holds the second largest population of
this region; the most recent population survey - of
opiate users; trends differ between western and east-
Indian men - was conducted in 2000.
ern countries
Some information on drug use has been obtained from
Europe has an estimated 3.4-4.0 million opiate users
samples of illicit drug users in countries across this region.
(around 0.6-0.7% of the population aged 15-64):
These studies have suggested that heroin use is common
between 1.23-1.52 million estimated consumers in West
among illicit drug users in Bangladesh14 and India,15 and
and Central Europe, and between 2.21-2.53 million
buprenorphine injection16 has been identified as a sig-
consumers (0.8-0.9%) in Eastern and South Eastern
nificant issue among Indian and Bangladeshi drug users.
Europe. This region is the world’s second largest opiate
In Sri Lanka, in contrast, heroin smoking is more
market in terms of quantities consumed, and the largest
common – injection appears to rarely occur.
in economic terms.
The major populations of users in Western Europe are
11 UNODC, HIV/AIDS and Injecting Drug Use in Central Asia: from
estimated to be in the United Kingdom (between 404-
Evidence to Action, Uzbekistan Country Report 2007.
434,000 persons), Italy (305,000), France (171-205,000),
12 UNODC, HIV/AIDS and Injecting Drug Use in Central Asia: from
Evidence to Action, Tajikistan Country Report 2007
Germany (76-161,000) and Spain (61-121,000).17
13 UNODC, HIV/AIDS and Injecting Drug Use in Central Asia: from
According to expert perceptions, use of opiates remained
Evidence to Action, Kyrgyzstan Country Report 2007
stable or declined in this subregion. Data from the past
14 UNODC Regional Office for South Asia. (2008). Rapid Situation
decade similarly suggest stable levels of use, although
and Response Assessment of Drugs and HIV in Bangladesh, Bhutan,
some countries have reported increases in fatal overdoses
India, Nepal and Sri Lanka: A Regional Report.
15 Degenhardt L, Larance B, Mathers B, Azim T, Kamarulzaman A,
and in first treatment entrants with heroin as the pri-
Mattick RP, on behalf of the Reference Group to the United Nations
mary drug problem in recent years.
on HIV and injecting drug use. Benefits and risks of pharmaceutical
opiates: Essential treatment and diverted medication. A global review
of availability, extra-medical use, injection and the association with
HIV. Sydney: University of New South Wales, 2008.
17 All of these estimates have been derived from estimates of the number
16 It is important to note that large scale diversion of buprenorphine is
of problem drug users because household surveys are not considered
at the factory/warehouse level (rather than diversion from patients or
to provide good estimates on the number of heroin and other opiate
medical practitioners).
users.
54
1. Trends in the world drug markets Opium / heroin market
Fig. 18: Distribution of opiate users in the past
Fig. 19: Percentage of all US drug treatment
year among Western European
admissions accounted for by heroin
countries
and other opiates
Source: UNODC
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration,
Office of Applied Studies. Treatment Episode Data Set (TEDS)
r
s
500,000
e
Highlights - 2007 National Admissions to Substance Abuse
450,000
Treatment Services.
us
t
e
a
400,000
18%
350,000
16%
r
opi
a
e
300,000
14%
250,000
12%
s
t
y
200,000
10%
pa
8%
r
of
150,000
6%
100,000
4%
50,000
admissions
2%
d numbe
0
y
ly
l
n
d
s
0%
t
e
ce
m
r
n
an
a
nds
ai
r
i
e
a
It
t
uga
Sp
r
l
an
Percentage of all treatment
Fr
r
m
r
l
a
i
nde
or
a
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
i
ngdo
s
t
i
ma
ount
E
Ge
t
he
P
t
z
e
m
e
K
c
d
N
Swi
Re
of
Heroin
A ll other opioids
i
t
e
n
U
The Russian Federation has the largest opiate-using pop-
Fig. 20: Percentage of all US poisoning deaths
ulation in Eastern Europe. Although estimates of the
where pharmaceutical opioids were
number vary substantially18, some estimate there are
mentioned
1.68 million opiate users in the country (1.6% of the
Warner, M., Chen, L-H., (2009). Drug poisoning mortality:
population aged 15-64).19 The second largest opiate
Scope of the problem. CDC meeting on State Strategies for
using population in Eastern Europe is the Ukraine with
Preventing Prescription Drug Overdose. Atlanta, Jan 13, 2009.
between 323-423,000 opiate users (1-1.3%).
40%
In 2008, perceived increases in opiate use were noted in
35%
Albania, Belarus, Croatia, and the Republic of Moldova.
30%
25%
Specialised studies have estimated that injecting drug
20%
use is prevalent in many eastern European countries,
and HIV is common among people who inject drugs.20
15%
This is particularly the case in the Russian Federation,
10%
5%
the Ukraine, and Belarus, and there are reasons to be
Percentage of poisonings
0%
concerned about increasing problems in many other
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
countries in the region where injecting is also occur-
ring.21
Opioid consumption in the Americas: heroin use
may be stable, but other opiate use is a significant
18 This also reflects major differences on the estimates of total drug use
issue
in the Russian Federation. A review of estimates of the total number
of drug users in the Russian Federation showed a range from 1.5 mil-
The largest heroin using population in this region is
lion to 6 million people (UNODC, Illicit Drug Trends in the Russian
found in the USA, with one study estimating approxi-
Federation, 2005. UNODC and the Paris Pact Initiative, Illicit Drug
Trends in the Russian Federation, April 2008.)
mately 1.2 million heroin users (0.6% of the population
19 The new estimate is based on registered drug users and a new treat-
aged 15-64;22 derived from a study of “problem drug
ment multiplier. 350,267 drug dependent patients were registered in
users” in 2000). The largest opioid using population in
2006. Of these, 89% were opiate users (UNODC and the Paris Pact
this region is also, by far, in the USA, with an estimated
Initiative, Illicit Drug Trends in the Russian Federation, April 2008).
The new national-level treatment multiplier is 5.3 (United Nations
5.2 million persons in 2007 reporting using prescription
Office on Drugs and Crime, National Addiction Centre of the Rus-
pain relievers non-medically (a level that has remained
sian Federation, Dynamics of Drug-Related Disorders in the Russian
stable since 2002).23 This reflects a very well-docu-
Federation, 2007).
mented problem across the USA of inappropriate pre-
20 UNODC, Global Assessment Programme on Drug Use (GAP), National
Addiction Centre of the Russian Federation. Koshkina, E.A. (2007)
scribing and use of pharmaceutical opiates (particularly
Dynamics of Drug-Related Disorders in the Russian Federation (2008).
Mathers B, Degenhardt L, Phillips B, Wiessing L, Hickman M,
Strathdee S, et al. Ibid.
22 ONDCP,
2000.
21 Mathers B, Degenhardt L, Phillips B, Wiessing L, Hickman M,
23 SAMHSA, Results from the 2007 National Survey on Drug Use and
Strathdee S, et al. Ibid.
Health, National Findings, (Rockville, Maryland, 2008).
55
World Drug Report 2009
Fig. 21: Percentage of all treatment admissions in South Africa for heroin, 1996-2008
Unweighted average of treatment (including alcohol) in 6 provinces. Source: SACENDU, “Monitoring Alcohol & Drug Use Trends in
South Africa, July 1996 - June 2007”, Research Brief, Vol. 10 (2), 2007.
12.0
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
in % of all treatment
2.0
0.0
1996b
1997a
1997b
1998a
1998b
1999a
1999b
2000a
2000b
2001a
2001b
2002a
2002b
2003a
2003b
2004a
2004b
2005a
2005b
2006a
2006b
2007a
2007b
2008a
oxycodone), leading to a new cohort of opiate-depend-
Almost all opiate consumption is heroin, which is the
ent persons across the country. Treatment admissions
primary drug among problematic drug users in coun-
and poisoning deaths continue to increase.
tries such as Kenya, Mauritius, Nigeria, Tanzania and
Zambia.26,27,28
The largest population of opioid users in South America
is found in Brazil, with some 635,000 opioid users
Reported heroin use trends suggest that heroin con-
(0.5% of those aged 12-65). Most use synthetic opioids
sumption continues to rise in eastern and southern
rather than heroin (less than 0.05%). Experts reported a
Africa and some western African countries. This reflects
stable trend of opioid use in multiple countries in the
the increasing role of African countries as heroin transits
Americas, but rising levels of opioid use were reported
from Afghanistan to Europe. Opiates are the second
in Mexico, Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of ) and
most common drug for treatment; greater opiate treat-
Argentina.
ment demand exists in the eastern and southern parts of
the continent.
Heroin use in Oceania appears stable
Unfortunately, few countries of west and central Africa
Data from the Oceania region reflect only Australia and
report drug use trends, and there are no accurate preva-
New Zealand, with no reports from the numerous island
lence data. Data in Africa therefore primarily reflect
nations. Data from drug monitoring systems in Aus-
countries in northern and southern Africa. South Africa
tralia and New Zealand suggest stable levels of use, with
is the only country with a drug use surveillance system
some 90,000 opiates users in the Oceania region. In
(the South African Community Epidemiology Network
Australia, these remain much lower than those seen in
on Drug Use (SACENDU). There is a continuing need
the late 1990s prior to the so-called Australian “heroin
for technical assistance in the region in order to build
shortage”, though there are indications that injecting
sustainable, cost-effective drug monitoring capacity.
drug users are increasingly injecting other opioids such
as morphine.24
Heroin use may be rising in Africa
There may be between 1.00-2.78 million people using
opiates in Africa – the wide range of this estimate reflects
and Alcohol in Egypt. (Cairo, 2007)
the uncertainty in the numbers. Comparatively high
26 Abdool, R., Sulliman, F.T., Dhannoo, M.I. The injecting drug use
levels have been reported in Mauritius and Egypt25.
and HIV/AIDS nexus in the Republic of Mauritius, African Journal
of Drug & Alcohol Studies, 5(2), 2006
27 Deveau, C., Levine, B., Beckerleg, S. Heroin use in Kenya and find-
ings from a community based outreach programme to reduce the
24 E. Black, A. Roxburgh, L. Degenhardt, R. Bruno, G. Campbell, B. de
spread of HIV/AIDS, African Journal of Drug & Alcohol Studies,
Graaff, et al. Australian Drug Trends 2007: Findings from the Illicit
5(2), 2006
Drug Reporting System (IDRS). Australian Drug Trends Series No.
28 Timpson, S., McCurdy, S.A., Leshabari, M.T., Kilonzo, G.P., Atkin-
1 National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New
son, J., Msami, A. & Williams, M.L. Substance use, HIV risk and
South Wales (Sydney, 2008).
HIV/AIDS in Tanzania, African Journal of Drug & Alcohol Studies,
25 Ghaz, I. National Study of Addiction, Prevalence of the use of Drugs
5(2), 2006
56
1. Trends in the world drug markets Opium / heroin market
Injecting drug use and HIV
What is the extent of injecting drug use around the world?
Injecting drug use is well established in every region of the world and appears to be an emerging phenomenon in
many countries where it has not been previously reported1. By 2008, injecting drug use had been reported in 148
countries and territories which together account for 95% of the world’s population.
Estimates of the prevalence of injecting drug use were available for only 61 countries around the world; these coun-
tries make up 77% of the world’s population. The prevalence of injecting drug use varies consider ably, both between
and within countries. Observed country-level prevalence of injecting drug use ranges from 0.02% in India and
Cambodia to Georgia with 4.19% and Azerbaijan with 5.21%.
It is estimated that between 11–21 million people worldwide inject drugs. China, the USA, the Russian Federation
and Brazil are estimated to have the largest populations of injecting drug users (IDUs) and together account for 45%
of the total estimated worldwide population of IDUs.
What is the extent of HIV among people who inject drugs?
Injecting drug use is responsible for an increasing proportion of HIV infections in many parts of the world,
including countries in Eastern Europe, South America and East and South-East Asia. Investment in compre-
hensive public-health interventions is required to address this.
HIV infection among people who inject drugs has been reported in 120 countries, and the prevalence of HIV
among IDUs varies dramatically. Midpoint HIV prevalence is reported to be between 20 and 40% in five
countries: Spain (39.7%); Russian Federation (37.2%); Viet Nam (33.9%); Cambodia (22.8%) and Libyan
Arab Jamahiriya (22.0%); and is greater than 40% in a further nine: Estonia (72.1%); Argentina (49.7%);
Brazil (48.0%); Kenya (42.9%); Myanmar (42.6%); Thailand (42.5%); Indonesia (42.5%); Ukraine (41.8%)
and Nepal (41.4%).
HIV prevalence rates among IDUs also vary significantly within countries. For example, in China, reported
HIV infections are concen trated within seven of the country’s 22 provinces. Moreover, in Russia, the reported
prevalence rates varied from 0.3% in Pskov, 12.4% in Moscow, 32% in St. Petersburg to 74% in Biysk.
It is estimated that between 0.8 and 6.6 million people who inject drugs worldwide are infected with HIV.
Regions with the largest numbers and highest concentration of HIV-posi tive IDUs include Eastern Europe,
East and South-East Asia, and Latin America. The prevalence of HIV is higher than 40% in many national
and subnational injecting drug user populations in these regions.
Outside of sub-Saharan Africa injecting drug users make up a sizeable proportion of the total number of people
living with HIV. In Eastern Europe and Central Asia, more than half of those living with HIV are IDUs.
The dynamics of the spread of HIV infection are notable. A decade ago, HIV was not identified among people
who inject drugs in Estonia; by contrast, a more recent estimate now suggests that the prevalence of HIV infec-
tion has reached 72% in one sample of injecting drug users. In contrast, Australia and New Zealand have
maintained very low levels of HIV infection (1.09% and 0.73% respectively) despite a higher prevalence of
injecting drug use than some other countries. This difference has been attributed to geographic isolation, as
well as the swift introduction of needle and syringe programmes and the expansion of opiate substitution treat-
ment programmes after HIV infection was first documented in 1984.
1
This information was compiled, reviewed and published by the Reference Group to the United Nations on HIV and injecting drug
use and published in The Lancet in September 2008. The Reference Group was established for the purpose of providing independent
technical advice on HIV and injecting drug use to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), World Health Organization
(WHO), the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) Secretariat and relevant co-sponsors. The Reference Group cur-
rently comprises 24 experts from 20 countries, and includes clinicians, researchers in epidemiology and policy, and injecting drug user
representatives. Further information is available at: www.iduRefGroup.com
57
World Drug Report 2009
Table 5: Regional and global estimates of prevalence and number of people who inject drugs and
the prevalence and number who may be HIV positive, 2007
Estimated
Estimated
Estimated number of
midpoint
Estimated number of
midpoint
people who inject
prevalence
people who inject
prevalence
drugs and who are
of HIV
drugs
of injecting
HIV positive
among
(range)
drug use
(range)
people who
inject drugs
3,476,500
940,000
Eastern Europe
1.50%
27.04%
(2,540,000-4,543,500)
(18,500-2,422,000)
1,044,000
114,000
Western Europe
0.37%
10.90%
(816,000-1,299,000)
(39,000-210,500)
East and South-East
3,957,500
661,000
0.27%
16.70%
Asia
(3,043,500-4,913,000)
(313,000-1,251,500)
569,500
74,500
South Asia
0.06%
13.08%
(434,000-726,500)
(34,500-135,500)
247,500
29,000
Central Asia
0.64%
11.81%
(182,500-321,000)
(16,500-47,000)
186,000
24,000
Caribbean
0.73%
12.90%
(137,500-241,500)
(6,000-52,500)
2,018,000
580,500
Latin America
0.59%
28.77%
(1,508,000-2,597,500)
(181,500-1,175,500)
2,270,500
347,000
Canada and USA
0.99%
15.29%
(1,604,500-3,140,000)
(127,000-709,000)
Pacific Island States
19,500
500
0.36%
1.37%
and Territories
(14,500-25,000)
(<250-500)
Australia and New
173,500
2,500
1.03%
1.51%
Zealand
(105,000-236,500)
(500-6,000)
Middle East and North
121,000
3,500
0.05%
2.94%
Africa
(89,000-156,500)
(1,500-6,500)
1,778,500
221,000
Sub-Saharan Africa*
0.43%
12.43%
(534,500-3,022,500)
(26,000-572,000)
Extrapolated global
15,861,500
2,997,500
0.37%
18.90%
estimates
(11,008,500-21,222,000)
(764,000-6,589,000)
*These numbers are extremely tenuous as they are based on very few countries in the region
Data on injecting drug use: challenges and limitations
Currently only limited data exist on the prevalence of injecting drug use around the world and the quality of the
available data is generally poor. The inadequacy of the available data makes it impossible to determine with any
certainty how the extent of injecting drug use globally has changed over time
A lack of consistency in the definition of injecting drug use in the literature and different datasets makes reliable
comparison between countries, and in some cases even within countries, impossible.
Injecting drug use is an illegal, stigmatised behaviour and con sequently injecting drug users are often referred to as
a “hidden population.” It is difficult to measure the extent of this behaviour. Population surveys tend to underesti-
mate its prevalence and indirect methods can also be uncertain.
Collecting the data is technically challenging, particularly for developing countries. However, data from many
higher income countries is also inadequate. For example, the most recent na tional estimates of injecting drug use
for eight Western European countries were from the year 2000 or earlier. In order to plan and implement successful
interventions to address injecting drug use and HIV, it is critical that consistent, timely data on the extent of inject-
ing drug use and HIV among IDUs is collected.
58
1. Trends in the world drug markets Opium / heroin market
Cutting agents for heroin in Afghanistan
Through improved forensic capacities and facilities, the forensic laboratory of the Counter Narcotics Police of
Afghanistan (CNPA) was able to identify several cutting agents typically used for mixing with heroin.1 The samples
were seized during law enforcement activities in 2008. The chemicals identified include caffeine, chloroquine, phe-
nolphthalein and paracetamol.
Users who smoke or inhale heroin draw some practical benefits if it is mixed with a certain amount of caffeine, as
this causes the heroin to vaporize at a lower temperature.
Chloroquine, a well-known anti-malarial drug, has been used as a cutting agent in heroin for many years, though it
was not previously known to be used in Afghanistan. Chloroquine does not alter the effects of heroin or influence
the way it can be consumed. Its widespread availability, low price, colour and crystalline structure are thought to be
some of the reasons for its use. Given the close resemblance in appearance and consistency of chloroquine with some
seizures of what is known in South-West Asia as “crystal heroin”, one could also speculate that the chloroquine was
marketed on its own, as fake heroin.
“Crystal heroin”
Chloroquine
Phenolphthalein is used as an acid or base indicator. It has also been used as a laxative for more than a century, but
has now been removed from the market because of concerns over carcinogenicity. It has been reported as a cutting
agent for heroin in the past2 but the reasons for its use are not well understood.
Paracetamol is a popular over-the-counter painkiller. It is easy to purchase and relatively cheap. Its mild analgesic
properties and bitter taste may disguise a poorer quality heroin. The use of paracetamol as a cutting agent for heroin
is well documented from many regions and countries.
The reason for adding specific, pharmacologically active substances (so-called adulterants) to heroin remains an area
of speculation that can only be partly explained by the pharmacological properties of the substances concerned.
However, the findings of the CNPA laboratory suggest that cutting of heroin takes place at source and that heroin
produced in Afghanistan may be customized for different markets and consumer groups.
The findings are also a reminder that there is a frequently neglected market associated with the illicit drug industry:
the market in cutting agents. This market is lucrative because cutting agents are legal and their trade carries low risk.
The increased awareness of the potential value for drug enforcement of understanding the trade in these substances
is very recent.3
1
http://www.unodc.org/pdf/scientific/LIB%20IV-2008_Kabul-.pdf
2
Chaudron-Thozet, H., Girard, J., and David, J.J. (1992), Analysis of heroin seized in France, Bulletin on Narcotics, Vol.1, 29-33.
3
Daly, M. (2008), Police target ‘bash’ industry, DrugLink, September/October 2008, 3.
61
1.2 Coca / cocaine market
1.2.1 Summary trend overview
1.2.2 Production
Cultivation
In 2008, a significant decrease in Colombia, the world’s
In 2008, the total area under coca cultivation decreased
largest cultivator of coca bush, brought the total area
by 8% due to a significant reduction in Colombia
under coca cultivation down by some 8% to 167,600
(-18%), which was not offset by small increases in the
ha. Total cultivation is close to the average level since
Plurinational State of Bolivia (6%) and Peru (4%). The
2002, and well below the levels reached in the 1990s.
total area under coca cultivation decreased to 167,600
Similarly, the estimated global cocaine production also
ha, which is well below the level reached in the 1990s.
decreased in 2008, due to a strong reduction in Colom-
In spite of this decrease, Colombia remained the world’s
bia. The Plurinational State of Bolivia and Peru both
largest coca bush-cultivating country with 81,000 ha,
registered small increases in cultivation and produc-
followed by Peru (56,100 ha) and Bolivia (30,500 ha).
tion.
Most of the decrease of 18,000 ha in Colombia hap-
Compared to the record high in 2005, cocaine seizures
pened in the regions of Meta-Guaviare and Putumayo-
decreased in 2007. The Americas account for the vast
Caquetá. However, a significant increase was observed in
majority of the world’s cocaine seizures, although a sig-
the Pacific region as well as in some smaller cultivation
nificant decline in trafficking towards North America,
regions.
the world's largest cocaine consumer market, was
reported in 2008. This decline was reflected in rapidly
In 2008, the area under coca cultivation in Peru increased
rising prices and falling purity levels.
by 4% to 56,100 ha, the third, albeit relatively small,
consecutive yearly increase. Peru remains the world’s
North America also reported significant declines in
second largest coca bush-cultivating country.
cocaine use, notably from the USA. Following strong
increases in recent years, a number of surveys in West
The area under coca cultivation in the Plurinational
European countries – including Spain - showed the first
State of Bolivia in 2008 increased by 6% to 30,500. Like
signs of a stabilization in 2008, whereas cocaine use still
in Peru, this was the third consecutive yearly increase.
appears to be increasing in South America. The total
An expansion of the area under coca cultivation was
number of people who used cocaine at least once in
observed in both large cultivation regions, the Yungas of
2007 worldwide is estimated to range between 16 and
La Paz and Chapare.
21 million.
Although sizeable coca cultivation does not exist outside
Bolivia, Peru and Colombia, eradication reports from
Governments and media reports indicate that small-
scale coca cultivation took place in other countries in the
region in 2008.
63
World Drug Report 2009
Table 6: Global illicit cultivation of coca bush and production of coca leaf and cocaine, 1994-2008
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
CULTIVATION OF COCA BUSH IN HECTARES (a)
Bolivia (b)
48,100
48,600
48,100
45,800
38,000
21,800
14,600
19,900
21,600
23,600
27,700
25,400
27,500
28,900
30,500
Colombia (c)
44,700
50,900
67,200
79,400
101,800
160,100
163,300
144,800
102,000
86,000
80,000
86,000
78,000
99,000
81,000
Peru (d)
108,600
115,300
94,400
68,800
51,000
38,700
43,400
46,200
46,700
44,200
50,300
48,200
51,400
53,700
56,100
Total 201,400
214,800
209,700
194,000
190,800
220,600
221,300
210,900
170,300
153,800
158,000
159,600
156,900
181,600
167,600
POTENTIAL PRODUCTION OF DRY COCA LEAF IN METRIC TONS (e)
Bolivia (f)
89,800
85,000
75,100
70,100
52,900
22,800
13,400
20,200
19,800
27,800
38,000
28,200
33,200
36,400
39,400
Colombia (g)
67,500
80,900
108,900
129,500
165,900
261,000
266,200
236,000
222,100
186,050
164,280
164,280
154,130
154,000
116,900
Colombia (fresh
552,800
555,400
528,300
525,300
389,600
coca leaf) (h)
Peru (i)
165,300
183,600
174,700
130,600
95,600
69,200
46,200
49,300
52,500
72,800
101,000
97,000
105,100
107,800
113,300
POTENTIAL MANUFACTURE OF COCAINE IN METRIC TONS (j)
Bolivia (b)
255
240
215
200
150
70
43
60
60
79
98
80
94
104
113
Colombia (k)
201
230
300
350
435
680
695
617
580
550
640
640
610
600
430
Peru (l)
435
460
435
325
240
175
141
150
160
230
270
260
280
290
302
Total
891
930
950
875
825
925
879
827
800
859
1,008
980
984
994
845
(a)
Potentially
harvestable,
after
eradication.
(b) Sources: 1994-2002: CICAD and US Department of State, International Narcotics Control Strategy Report. For the region Yungas of La Paz since
2002, for all regions since 2003: National Illicit Crop Monitoring System supported by UNODC. Cocaine production: before 2003, see cultivation.
Since 2003, own calculations, partly based on UNODC yield coca leaf yield surveys. Figures for 2004 and 2005 were revised in 2007 based on new
information on coca leaf yield in the Yungas of La Paz.
(c) Sources: 1994-1998: CICAD and US Department of State, International Narcotics Control Strategy Report; since 1999: National Illicit Crop
Monitoring System supported by UNODC.
(d) Sources: 1994-1999: CICAD and US Department of State, International Narcotics Control Strategy Report; since 2000: National Illicit Crop
Monitoring System supported by UNODC.
(e) Refers to the potential dry coca leaf production available for cocaine production, i. e. after deducting the amount, which Governments report as being
used for traditional or other purposes allowed under national law. In the absence of a standard definition of "dry coca leaf" and given considerable
differences in the processing of the fresh coca leaf harvested, the figures may not always be comparable across countries.
(f ) Since 2005, potential sun-dried coca leaf production available for cocaine production, estimated by the National Illicit Crop Monitoring System
supported by UNODC. This figure does not include the estimated amount of coca leaf produced on 12,000 ha in the Yungas of La Paz where coca
cultivation is authorized under national law.
(g) Sources: 1994-2002: CICAD and US Department of State, International Narcotics Control Strategy Report. Since 2003, potential coca leaf produc-
tion available for cocaine production estimated by the National Illicit Crop Monitoring System supported by UNODC. Figures refer to oven-dried
coca
leaf
equivalents.
(h) Since 2004, fresh coca leaf production figures are available based on coca leaf yield studies done by UNODC and the Government of Colombia.
Similar to potential cocaine production, fresh coca leaf production in Colombia is calculated based on two-year area averages.
(i) Since 2003, potential sun-dried coca leaf production available for cocaine production, estimated by the National Illicit Crop Monitoring System
supported by UNODC. For the calculation of coca leaf available for cocaine production, 9,000 mt of sun-dried coca leaf were deducted, which,
according to Government sources, is the amount used for traditional purposes.
(j) Amounts of cocaine that could be manufactured from locally produced coca leaf (due to imports and exports of coca derivatives, actual amounts of
cocaine manufactured in a country can differ).
(k) Since 2002, cocaine production is calculated based on the average area under coca cultivation of the reporting year and the previous year. This is
thought to be closer to the actual amount produced than a figure solely based on the year-end cultivation. Colombian cocaine production estimates
for 2004 and later are based on new research and cannot be directly compared with previous years. For the calculation of the 2008 cocaine produc-
tion, new information on coca leaf yield available for some regions was used.
(l) Figures from 2003 to 2005 were revised in 2007 based on updated information available on the amount of coca leaf necessary to produce one
kilogram
of
cocaine
HCl.
64
1. Trends in the world drug markets Coca / cocaine market
Fig. 22: Global coca bush cultivation (ha), 1994-2008
225,000
200,000
175,000
150,000
125,000
Hectares
100,000
75,000
50,000
25,000
0
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
Colombia
Peru
Bolivia
Production
Farm-gate prices
In 2008, the global potential cocaine production
Sun-dried coca leaf
decreased by 15%, from 994 mt in 2007 to 845 mt in
2008. This is the lowest amount in the period 2004-
Farm-gate prices for sun-dried coca leaf increased in
2008, for which directly comparable figures are availa-
both the Plurinational State of Bolivia and Peru. As in
ble. The decrease is due to a strong reduction in cocaine
the past years, in Bolivia, coca leaf prices were consider-
production in Colombia (28%), which was not leveled
ably higher than in neighbouring Peru. The prices
out by production increases in Bolivia and Peru. Colom-
reached levels of over US$ 6.0/kg in the Chapare region,
bia remained the world’s largest producer of cocaine
a level last reached in 2002. In Peru, the simple average
(51%) followed by Peru (36%) and Bolivia (13%).
farm-gate price of sun-dried coca leaf traded outside the
Government-controlled market was US$ 3.4/kg, over
one third more than in 2007, compared to just US$ 1.7/
kg for coca leaf traded under Government control.
Fig. 23: Global cocaine production (mt), 1994-2008
1,200
1,000
800
600
Metric tons
400
200
0
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
Colombia
Peru
Bolivia
65
World Drug Report 2009
Table 7: Reported eradication of coca bush (ha), 1994-2008
Sources: Bolivia (Plurinational State of)/Colombia/Peru/Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of): as reported by the respective Government.
Ecuador: Comisión Interamericana para el Control del Abuso de Drogas (CICAD); US Department of State: International Narcotics
Control Strategy Report.
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
Bolivia
manual
1,100
5,493
7,512
7,000 11,620 15,353
7,653
9,395
11,839
10,089
8,437
6,073
5,070
6,269
5,484
manual
1,033 1,487
4,057
2,262
3,126 1,046
3,495
1,745
2,762
4,219
6,234
31,980
43,051
66,805
95,634
Colombia
aerial
3,871 23,915 18,519 41,861 66,029 43,112 58,073 94,153 130,364 132,817 136,552 138,775 172,026 153,134 133,496
spraying
Peru
manual
1,259
3,462
7,834 14,733
6,208
6,436
7,134
11,312
10,399
12,237
12,688
12,072
10,143
Ecuador
manual
4
18
9
36
10
Venezuela
manual
44
181
18
0
0
0
38
47
0
0
118
40
0
0
0
Fig. 24: Annual coca bush cultivation and cocaine production in main producing countries,
1994-2008
O
L
O
C
A
I
B
M
-
U
B
A
C
O
C
S
A
V
I
T
L
U
C
H
1
,
N
O
I
T
99
2
-
4
00
a
h
(
8
)
I
T
N
E
T
O
P
-
A
I
B
M
O
L
O
C
A
C
O
C
L
A
,
N
O
I
T
C
U
D
O
R
P
E
N
I
)
t
m
(
8
0
0
2
-
4
9
9
1
175,000
700
150,000
600
125,000
500
100,000
400
75,000
300
50,000
200
25,000
100
0
0
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
U
R
E
P
-
U
B
A
C
O
C
S
A
V
I
T
L
U
C
H
O
I
T
1
,
N
99
2
-
4
00
a
h
(
8
)
I
T
N
E
T
O
P
-
U
R
E
P
A
C
O
C
L
A
,
N
O
I
T
C
U
D
O
R
P
E
N
I
)
t
m
(
8
0
0
2
-
4
9
9
1
175,000
700
150,000
600
125,000
500
100,000
400
75,000
300
50,000
200
25,000
100
0
0
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
-
A
I
V
I
L
O
B
U
B
A
C
O
C
S
A
V
I
T
L
U
C
H
1
,
N
O
I
T
99
2
-
4
00
a
h
(
8
)
I
T
N
E
T
O
P
-
A
I
V
I
L
O
B
A
C
O
C
L
A
N
O
I
T
C
U
D
O
R
P
E
N
I
,
)
t
m
(
8
0
0
2
-
4
9
9
1
175,000
700
150,000
600
125,000
500
100,000
400
75,000
300
50,000
200
25,000
100
0
0
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
Estimates for Bolivia since 2003, for Colombia since 1999 and for Peru since 2000 come from national monitoring systems establihed by the respective Governments with the support of UNODC. Due to the change of
methodology, these figures are not directly comparable with data from previous years. Colombian cocaine production estimates for 2004 and later are based on new research cannot be directly compared with previous years.
For detailed source information, see Table: Global illicit cultivation of coca bush and production of coca leaf and cocaine.
66
1. Trends in the world drug markets Coca / cocaine market
Fig. 25: Monthly prices for coca paste in Peru and Colombia, 2002-2008
Sources: National monitoring system in Colombia and Peru supported by UNODC.
1,250
2,500
1,000
2,000
750
1,500
US$/kg
500
1,000
'000 COP/kg
250
500
0
0
Jan-02
Jan-03
Jan-04
Jan-05
Jan-06
Jan-07
Jan-08
Peru (US$/kg)
Colombia (US$/kg)
Colombia (COP/kg)
Fresh leaf
cally found in coca cultivation regions to produce coca
paste.2 In 2007, a small number of cocaine laboratories
In Colombia, coca leaf is traded as fresh leaf, and the
was reported from other Latin American countries such
average per kilo price of fresh coca leaf decreased from
as Chile (5), Ecuador (1) and Mexico (1). In previous
COP 2,400,000/kg or US$ 1.2/kg in 2007 to COP
years, similarly small numbers of laboratories were
2,200,000/kg or US$ 1.1/kg in 2008. Converted into
reported from countries such as Argentina, Brazil and
sun-dried coca leaf equivalents this would correspond to
the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela. Outside Latin
US$ 2.6/kg.
America, the highest number of laboratories detected
Coca paste and cocaine
was reported by Spain (18), followed by the USA (3).
Prices for coca paste and cocaine in different countries
Potassium permanganate is believed to be essential for
may not be directly comparable as little is known about
cocaine manufacturing and large amounts are required
their quality and composition. In Peru, the average
each year in coca producing countries. In 2007, 15
farm-gate price of coca paste increased by 21% from
countries reported seizures of potassium permanganate
US$ 600/kg in 2007 to US$ 723/kg in 2008. In Colom-
totaling 153.3 mt, of which Colombia seized 144 mt.
bia, however, coca paste prices decreased in Colombian
The Colombian authorities also dismantled 4 clandes-
peso terms by 4% but increased slightly (by 2%) in US$
tine potassium permanganate laboratories, from which
terms, from US$ 943/kg to US$ 963/kg as the Colom-
they seized almost 45 mt of substance, which may sug-
bian peso gained strength against the US dollar. Whole-
gest that it is becoming more difficult to import or
sale prices for cocaine HCl increased in both Colombia
divert potassium permanganate from the licit to the
(7%, in main cities) and Peru (10%, in producing
illicit market. Peru reported the seizure of 1,5 mt of
regions) in US dollar terms.
potassium permanganate in 2007. The large amount of
seizures and the detection of potassium permanganate
As the availability of farm-gate prices differs from region
laboratories in coca producing countries may indicate
to region and over the course of a year, small changes
that traffickers have found ways to circumvent interna-
should be interpreted with caution.
tional control mechanisms, for example, by diverting
potassium permanganate from domestic trade, by smug-
Clandestine laboratories and precursors
gling or by clandestine manufacturing.3
In 2007, Governments reported the detection of 7,225
clandestine coca processing laboratories, compared to
7,060 laboratories reported for 2006.1 Over 99% of the
coca processing laboratories were located in the three
coca cultivating countries. Bolivia and Peru also destroyed
large numbers of coca maceration pits, which are typi-
2 An extract of the leaves of the coca bush. Purification of coca paste
1 The 2006 figure was updated from originally 6,390 laboratories
yields cocaine.
based on additional reports received from Governments.
3
International Narcotics Control Board, E/INCB/2008/4.
67
World Drug Report 2009
1.2.3 Trafficking
Global cocaine seizures fell in 2006 but
There is a potential problem of double counting sei-
remained largely unchanged in 2007
zures, particularly when more than one law enforcement
agency is involved3 (for example, customs and police in
Global seizures of cocaine base, salts and crack cocaine
the same country, or police/customs from different
(reported at street purity levels) fell slightly from the
countries). Considering this potential double counting,
record high of 750 mt in 2005 to 711 mt in 2007, a
the ‘actual’ interception rate could be lower than the one
decrease of some 5%. This was similar to the level in
reported above.
2006 (693 mt), thus halting the strong upward trend
reported in recent years. Nonetheless, cocaine seizures in
Cocaine seizures remain concentrated in
2007 were twice as high as in 2000 (344 mt). The strong
the Americas and, to a lesser extent, in Europe
increases in cocaine seizures were not triggered by an
increase in production. It can, however, be explained by
In 2007, most of the cocaine was again intercepted in
a strengthened commitment to fight the trafficking of
the Americas (88%), followed by Europe (11%).
cocaine, particularly in the region where it is produced.
South America accounted for 323 mt (45%) of global
The share of South America, Central America and the
cocaine seizures in 2007. More than 60% of seizures in
Caribbean in total cocaine seizures rose from 32% in
South America were reported by Colombia. Large sei-
1989 to 60% in 2007.
zures in this region were also reported by the Bolivarian
The global cocaine interception rate remains high
Republic of Venezuela (32 mt) and Ecuador (25 mt).
In 2007, the global cocaine interception rate1 was above
Substantive cocaine seizures in South America were also
the 40% benchmark for the third year in a row. It was
made by the Plurinational State of Bolivia (18 mt),
calculated at 41.5% for the year 2007,2 that is, practi-
Brazil (17 mt), Peru (14 mt), Chile (11 mt) and Argen-
cally the same as in 2006 and 2005 (around 42%). The
tina (8 mt). Seizures increased in Bolivia but declined in
interception rate was 23% in 1990 and 29% in 1998.
Peru. Overall cocaine seizures in the Southern Cone
countries (Argentina, Chile, Brazil, Paraguay and Uru-
Fig. 28: Global cocaine seizures, 1987-2007
guay) rose from 10 mt in 2000 to 38 mt in 2007. This
* including Caribbean and Central America
reflects the growing importance of these countries for
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data / DELTA.
cocaine trafficking to satisfy domestic demand and to
800
re-export cocaine to various overseas destinations in
750 711
Europe, Africa and the Pacific region.
700
600
Central America and the Caribbean, two major cocaine
500
transit regions, accounted for 15% of global seizures.
396
344
The vast majority of seizures in 2007 was reported by
400
291
Central American countries (97 mt) while seizures in the
300
152
Caribbean subregion (7 mt) continued to decline.
200
seizures in metric tons
100
North America reported 28% of global cocaine seizures
(199 mt). The largest seizures were reported from the
0
USA (148 mt), followed by Mexico (48 mt).
1987
1989
1991
1993
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
2005
2007
Europe reported 11% of global cocaine seizures; 99% by
West and Central Europe
North America
South America*
Other
countries in West and Central Europe. Spain reported the
largest seizures in Europe (38 mt). The rest of the world
1
Calculated as the rate of total seizures over the total production.
reported only 1 % of global cocaine seizures in 2007.
2
The global interception rate of 41.5% was calculated on the basis of
a global cocaine production of 994 mt in 2007 and global seizures of
711 mt at street purity. Given a global average cocaine purity of 58%
3 The risk of double counting seizures has increased in recent years
in 2007 (as reported in the ARQ) this is equivalent to pure cocaine
due to the increased cooperation in fighting cocaine trafficking across
seizures of some 412 mt (or 41.5% of global cocaine production).
countries and law enforcement agencies.
70
1. Trends in the world drug markets Coca / cocaine market
Declining trafficking of cocaine towards North
Fig. 29: Availability of cocaine reported by US
America, the world’s largest cocaine market
high school students,* 1998-2008
Cocaine trafficked to North America typically originates
*unweighted average of 8th, 10th and 12th grade students
reporting that it is ‘fairly easy’ or ‘very easy’ to obtain cocaine.
in Colombia and reaches the USA through Mexico,
Source: NIDA, Monitoring the Future
either directly by speed boats or via countries such as the
Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, Ecuador and Panama.
38
37.9
Most of the cocaine (close to 70%) is estimated to be
transported via the Eastern-Pacific route towards Mexico
36
and some 20% via the Western Caribbean route.4
North America, notably the USA, reported some of the
34
32.5
most striking declines of cocaine trafficking in 2007.
32.0
This trend became even more pronounced in 2008. On
32
average, federal US seizures fell from more than 13 mt
per quarter in 2006 to less than 10 mt per quarter over
30
the first six months of 2008. A strong decline of 40%
Percent reporting cocaine to be
30.0
was observed at the US-Mexican border.5
'fairly easy' or 'very easy' to obtain
28
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
In parallel, Mexico saw a major decline of cocaine sei-
zures from 48 mt in 2007 to 19 mt in 2008; a reduction
of some 60%. Both Mexico and the US reported that
school surveys found an ongoing decline of perceived
this decline was linked to a strong decrease in cocaine
cocaine availability after 2006; the decline became more
trafficking.6 There are no indications that the reductions
pronounced in 2008.12
are related to less enforcement efforts.7
The most striking data indicating a shortage of cocaine
A number of indicators showed that cocaine availability
in the US market relate to the changes in cocaine prices
decreased in the USA in 2007 and 2008.8 For one, law
and purity in 2008. While street prices increased, purity
enforcement agencies and interagency analysis coordi-
decreased. The purity of cocaine declined from an aver-
nated by the National Drug Intelligence Center indi-
age of 69.7% in the fourth quarter of 2006 to 43.9% in
cated that the large US cocaine markets experienced a
the fourth quarter of 2008. As a result, the average
substantial cocaine shortage in 20079 and during the the
purity-adjusted prices (retail and wholesale) more than
first quarter of 2008. Secondly, the number of emer-
doubled, from an average of US$89 per gram in the
gency department visits related to cocaine abuse declined
fourth quarter of 2006 to US$200 in the fourth quarter
in the great majority of the cities in the first quarter of
of 2008. This is the sharpest increase seen in the USA in
2008, compared to 2006.10 Thirdly, the workplace test-
recent years.
ing results revealed a strong decline in the use of cocaine
in 2008.11 Finally, the ‘Monitoring the Future’ high
The flow of cocaine towards Europe may have
started to decline
4
National Drug Intelligence Center, National Drug Threat Assessment
In 2007, European cocaine seizures declined by some
2009, December 2008.
35%, from 121 to 79 mt, the lowest total since 2004.
5
Ibid.
Individual drug seizures reported by European countries
6
UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data.
suggest that the downward trend may have continued in
7 The Mexican Government substantially increased supports for its
2008.
security forces and the justice sector in 2008. This resulted, inter
alia, in the arrest of a number of drug kingpins of the various Mexi-
The decline in 2007 was primarily due to lower seizure
can drug cartels (Source: US State Department, 2009 International
Narcotics Control Strategy Report, March 2009). Increased efforts were
totals reported by Portugal, Spain and France and, to a
also reported by the United States which continuously increased its
lesser extent, by lower totals in Belgium, Sweden, Italy,
federal drug control budget for domestic law enforcement over the
the Netherlands, Iceland and Finland. Overall, 15 Euro-
2000-2008 period from $2 bn to $3.8 bn and for interdiction from
$1.9 bn to $3.2 bn; the overall federal drug control budget rose from
pean countries recorded declining levels of cocaine sei-
$9.6 to $13.7 bn. (Source: ONDCP, National Drug Control Strategy
zures in 2007.
FY 2009 Budget Summary).
8
Cocaine shortages were most evident in the Great Lakes, New Eng-
At the same time, 27 countries reported higher levels of
land and the Mid-Atlantic regions, as well as in the cities of Atlanta,
cocaine seizures compared to the year before, mostly
Los Angeles, Phoenix and San Francisco.
smaller countries and/or countries of Central, Eastern
9 ONDCP,
National Drug Control Strategy, 2008 Annual Report, Febru-
and South-Eastern Europe. This suggests that cocaine
ary 2008.
10 National Drug Intelligence Centre, National Drug Threat Assessment
2009, December 2008.
12
NIDA,
Monitoring the Future – 2008 Data from In-School Surveys of
11
Ibid.
8th- 10th- and 12th-Grade Students.
71
World Drug Report 2009
Fig. 30: USA, cocaine prices and purity, 2005-2008
Source: DEA, System To Retrieve Information on Drug Evidence (STRIDE), April 2009, quoted in ONDCP, “What can Europe learn
from the US experience of policy-related drugs monitoring?”, presentation to the EMCDDA Conference, “Identifying Europe’s
Information Needs for Effective Drug Policy”, Lisbon, May 6-8, 2009.
$200
80%
$150
60%
$100
40%
Purity in %
$50
20%
Price of cocaine in US$ per gram
$0
0%
2005
2006
2007
2008
Mean purity adjusted price
Mean unadjused price
Mean purity
in volume terms was the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela
Fig. 31: Cocaine seizures in Europe, 1998-2007
(40%). If the origin of the individual cocaine seizure cases
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire.
is analyzed - as opposed to seizures in volume terms - the
140
most important cocaine transit countries for Europe in
121
2007 were the Dominican Republic (11%), Argentina
120
107
(9%) and Brazil (8%). African countries accounted for
100
32% of the total, but this share declined in 2008.
88
79
73
80
Cocaine prices increased in Western Europe in 2007,
59
both in euro and in dollar terms, suggesting that falling
60
metric tons
44
cocaine seizures in 2007 were a consequence of lower
47
34
trafficking flows. Retail prices rose from on average
40
29
US$82 per gram in 2006 to US$92 per gram in 2007.
20
Retail prices in dollar terms were at their highest level
since 1998 (in euro terms since 2002). However, the
0
increase was less pronounced once inflation – as meas-
ured by the consumer price index – was taken into
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
account.
Spain
Netherlands
Portugal
France
Average wholesale prices rose from some US$47 per
Italy
United Kingdom
Ireland
Belgium
gram in 2006 to US$56 per gram in 2007. Once infla-
Germany
Other
tion is considered, the wholesale prices of 2007 (in euro)
trafficking is spreading in geographical terms as new
were at their highest level since 1997.
routes are being explored, even though the overall traf-
Drug price changes can be misleading unless additional
ficked volumes towards Europe seem to have declined.
information on changes in purity is taken into account.
The most frequently mentioned country of origin of the
Unfortunately, such information is not systematically
cocaine trafficked to Europe is Colombia (48% of coun-
collected, analyzed and reported by most European
tries reported Colombia as the source country for their
countries.
seizures), followed by Peru (30% of countries) and the
One exception is the UK – Europe’s largest cocaine
Plurinational State of Bolivia (18% of countries). The
market - where information of changes in purity is made
most frequently reported transit countries were the Boli-
available on a quarterly basis. The results of forensic
varian Republic of Venezuela and Ecuador. In addition,
analyses show that the mean cocaine purity declined in
the Dominican Republic, Brazil, Argentina and Chile were
the UK from 2006 to the first quarter of 2009, at both
mentioned, as well as some Western African countries.
wholesale retail levels.13 The average cocaine purity in
According to UNODC’s individual drug seizures data-
base the most important cocaine transit country in 2007
13 Customs seizures reflect mainly the import-wholesale level; seizures
72
1. Trends in the world drug markets Coca / cocaine market
Fig. 32: Average cocaine retail and wholesale
Fig. 33: Mean purity of cocaine seized in the
prices* in Western Europe, 1990-2007
UK, 2004-2009
* average price, weighted by population.
Source: Forensic Science Service
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire.
120
80%
100
92
70%
82
60%
80
76
66
50%
60
56
47
40%
46
prices per gram
40
30%
37
cocaine purity in %
20
20%
10%
0
0%
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
Retail-price in US$
Retail-price in €
Wholesale price in US$
Wholesale price in
Customs
Police
€
police seizures fell from 32% in 2007 to 23% in the first
Fig. 34: Average cocaine wholesale prices
quarter of 2009 while the purity of cocaine seized by the
per kg in the UK in £, 2005-2009
customs declined from 67% in 2007 to 56% in the first
Sources: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data (2005-
quarter of 2009.14 Almost a third of police seizures now
2007), SOCA price data (2008 and 2009) and UK Forensic
Science Service.
have purity levels of less than 9%, and in some small-
scale seizures at the retail level, purity levels were as low
80,000
as 4%-5% in the first quarter of 2009. This indicates
80,000
62,000
that purity-adjusted cocaine prices in the UK rose,
60,000
despite the stable retail prices.15
45,000
42,000
44,000
39,000
The increased dilution of cocaine within the UK also
36,000
40,000
30,000
suggests the establishment of large international traffick-
28,000
24,500
ing activities in cutting agents which are usually legal
20,000
substances when they are not used to adulterate cocaine.
The Serious Organized Crime Agency (SOCA) seized
- 0
some 15 mt of such cutting agents over the last year,
wholesale prices in £ per kilogram
wholesale price
purity adjusted wholesale
which is more than the amount of cocaine seizures
price
reported by the UK to UNODC.16
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009 (1st Q tr)
The cocaine wholesale prices rose over the same period
from some £30,000 per kg in 2007 to £45,000 per kg
Trafficking of cocaine via Africa, notably Western
in the first quarter of 2009 according to data collected
Africa, showed an upward trend until 2007…
by SOCA in the UK.
In 2007 total cocaine seizures amounted to 5.5 mt in
Africa, a more than seven-fold increase since 1998. But
made by the police reflect the domestic wholesale as well as the
the cocaine seized in Africa (0.8% of global seizures in
domestic retail level.
2007) is still a very modest percentage as compared to the
14 Forensic Science Service Data.
likely cocaine trafficking flows affecting the continent.
15 The purity-adjusted wholesale prices (based on Customs purities)
increased from around £44,000 per kg of 100% pure cocaine in
Out of 26 African countries reporting their 2007 drug
2007 to around £80,000 in the first quarter of 2009, equivalent to
an increase of some 80%.
seizures to UNODC, 25 reported seizures of cocaine.
16 Frequently found cutting agents for cocaine in the UK are benzocaine
Only two countries reported falling levels of seizures in
and lignocaine - normally used to relive pain in the dentistry and
2007, while the remaining 23 reported a rising trend.
veterinary fields - which mimic some of the anaesthetic effects of
cocaine. These are not easily identified by retail customers. (Source:
Over the 1998-2002 period, annual cocaine seizures in
Representative of the Serious Organized Crime Agency (SOCA) at
Africa were very limited and concentrated in Southern
the conference: "Identifying Europe's information needs for effective
drug policy", 6-8 May 2009.)
Africa. After 2003, cocaine seizures increased sharply and
73
World Drug Report 2009
Fig. 35: Cocaine seizures in Africa, 1998-200717
Fig. 36: Proportion of cocaine seized in Europe
that transited Africa, 2005-2008
Sources: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data.
Source: UNODC, Individual Drug Seizures Database
16.0
35.0%
14.0
32.4%
15
s 12.0
28.2%
30.0%
n
27.4%
10.0
c
to
25.0%
tri
8.0
e
5.5
m
20.0%
6.0
3.6
4.0
2.6
15.0%
11.5%
0.8
proportion
0.8
2.0
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.6
1.1
9.4%
9.4%
10.0%
6.8%
0.0
5.0%
2.7%
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
0.0%
Southern Africa
East Africa
Seizure cases
Seizure volume
North Africa
West and Central Africa
(kilograms)
West and Central Africa
Trend
(not confirmed)
2005
2006
2007
2008
concentrated mostly in Western Africa, reflecting the
European airports. While in 2007, 28% of cocaine cou-
rising importance of this region for transit of cocaine.
riers were African, in 2008, this share decreased to
17%.18
In 2007, 83% of total seizures of cocaine in Africa were
reported in West and Central Africa, 12% in Southern
Signs of stabilization in Oceania in 2008
Africa, 5% in Northern Africa and 0.3% in Eastern
Africa. The largest seizures in 2007 were reported by
Though cocaine seizures in the Oceania region are still
Senegal (2.5 mt). The cocaine found in Africa originated
very small (0.6 mt or 0.1% of global seizures in 2007),
mainly in Colombia and Peru and frequently transited
they showed a clear upward trend after 2005. Australia
through Brazil. There is, however, significant trafficking
accounted for more than 99% of the cocaine seizures
of cocaine across the continent. The main African transit
made in the Oceania region in 2007.19
countries in 2007 (in terms of cocaine seized in other
The expansion of cocaine supply and the resulting
African countries) were Cape Verde, Guinea, Mali, Guin-
downward trend in cocaine prices noted in 2006/07,
ea-Bissau, Ghana, Benin, Togo, Gambia and Nigeria, all
however, does not seem to have continued in 2008. The
in West Africa.
Australian Customs Services reported seizures of 0.6 mt
….but the importance of Africa as a cocaine transit
in both 2006/07 and 2007/08. Moreover, cocaine avail-
region appears to have declined in 2008 and in the
ability as well as cocaine prices remained basically stable
first quarter of 2009
in 2008 according to information collected from a panel
of injecting drug users and other key informants in Aus-
According to UNODC’s individual drug seizure data-
tralia. 20
base, in 2008, there has been a substantive decline in the
percentage of seizures transiting Africa, from 28% in
Cocaine seizures are still limited in Asia, in spite of
2007 to 7% in 2008. The decline can also be seen in the
some subregional increases
number of seizures. No large seizures which can be
Cocaine seizures reported to UNODC from Asia
traced back to Africa have been reported to UNODC in
the first quarter of 2009. In 2008 there was a strong
amounted to 400 kg in 2007, equivalent to 0.06% of
decline in European seizures with Africa as the source, as
global seizures. The largest cocaine seizures in Asia were
well as a general decline of European seizures.
reported from Hong Kong, China (200 kg in 2007, up
from 15 kg in 2006), followed by the Syrian Arab
Other sources seem to confirm the downward trend
Republic (77 kg in 2007, up from 2 kg in 2006). Other
after 2007. From 1990 to 2007, there was a large increase
in the share of cocaine couriers from Africa detected in
18 UNODC,
Transnational trafficking and the rule of law in West Africa:
A threat assessment. Vienna: UNODC, 2009 (forthcoming).
17 Cocaine seizures reported in 2006 and 2007 are not comparable.
19 Australian Crime Commission, Illicit Drug Data Report 2006-07,
2006 data included one major seizure of more than 14 mt which –
revised edition, March 2009.
after follow-up analysis it appeared that no psychoactive ingredients
20 National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre (NDARC), Australian
could be identified. Excluding the 14 ton seizure, total African sei-
Drug Trends 2008 – Findings from the Illicit Drug Reporting System
zures appear to have markedly increased in 2007.
(IDRS), Sydney 2009.
74
1. Trends in the world drug markets Coca / cocaine market
Fig. 37: Share of detected cocaine couriers whose flight originated in West Africa
Source: UNODC, Transnational trafficking and the rule of law in West Africa: A threat assessment. Vienna: UNODC, 2009
(forthcoming).
70%
60%
59%
50%
48%
40%
35%
35%
36%
30%
30%
27%
28%
20%
20%
15%
10%
8%
6%
0%
2006/2
2006/3
2006/4
2007/1
2007/2
2007/3
2007/4
2008/1
2008/2
2008/3
2008/4
2009/1
countries and territories reporting cocaine seizures in
Fig. 38: Cocaine seizures in the Oceania
Asia included - in order of importance - Israel, Japan,
region, 2002-2007
Thailand, Malaysia, the Islamic Republic of Iran, India,
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data.
Jordan, Pakistan, Lebanon, Taiwan Province of China,
Kazakhstan, Indonesia, Armenia, the Palestinian Terri-
800
tory, the Republic of Korea, the Philippines and Geor-
gia.
600
Out of the 43 Asian countries and territories that
reported drug seizures to UNODC in 2007, 19 reported
seizures of cocaine. No cocaine seizures were reported by
400
the People’s Republic of China (excluding Hong Kong)
kilograms
in 2007. However some 530 kg of cocaine were, seized
in one single case in June 2008 in Guangzhou.21
200
The largest increase of cocaine seizures in 2007 was
reported by the countries of the Near and Middle East
0
(from 72 kg in 2006 to 141 kg in 2007).
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
21 US State Department, 2009 International Narcotics Control Strategy
Report, March 2009.
75
World Drug Report 2009
Fig. 39: Global illicit supply of cocaine, 1997-2007
Total Cocaine
1,008
980
984
994
Production
1,000
925
- in metric tons
879
859
827
875
800
825
24%
800
34%
42%
Cocaine
(a)
nt
24%
24%
42%
41%
intercepted
l
e
a
29%
27%
28%
35%
- in % of
production
quiv
600
ons e
Cocaine
t
r
i
c t
400
available for
666
704
672
Me
660
588
607
576
560
567
575
582
consumption
(potential)
200
- in metric tons
0
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
(a) Seizures as reported (street purity).
(b) Includes cocaine HCl, cocaine base, crack cocaine, and other cocaine types.
SEIZURES OF COCAINE (a) in % of world total and kg equivalents (b)
-
50,000
100,000
150,000
HIGHEST RANKING COUNTRIES - 2007
200,000
250,000
Colombia (27%)
195,435
USA (21%)
147,804
Panama (8%)
60,000
Mexico (7%)
48,168
Spain (5%)
37,788
Costa Rica (5%)
32,435
Venezuela (4%)
31,861
SEIZURES OF COCAINE (a) in kg equivalents(b) and
50,0
100,
150,
200,
250,
300,
350,
Ecuador (4%)
25,303
-
00
000
000
in % - BY REGION - 2007 000
000
000
000
Bolivia (3%)
17,835
South America (45%)
322,767
Brazil (2%)
17,187
North America (28%)
198,638
Peru (2%)
14,379
Central America (14%)
97,284
Chile (2%)
10,799
West & Central Europe (11%)
78,650
Netherlands (1%)
10,478
Caribbean (0.9%)
6,518
Argentina (1%)
8,000
West and Central Africa (0.6%)
4,568
Portugal (1%)
7,363
Southern Africa (0.1%)
636
France (0.9%)
6,586
Oceania (0.1%)
626
El Salvador (0.6%)
4,081
Southeast Europe (0%)
306
Italy (0.6%)
3,949
North Africa (0%)
303
Dominican Rep. (0.5%)
3,804
East and South-East Asia (0%)
249
(c)
United Kingdom (0.5%)
3,468
East Europe (0%)
177
Ireland (0.5%)
3,370
Near and Middle East /South-West Asia (0%)
141
Canada (0.4%)
2,666
19
East Africa (0%)
Belgium (0.4%)
2,515
South Asia (0%)
8
Senegal (0.3%)
2,450
(a) Includes cocaine HCl, cocaine base, crack cocaine, and other cocaine types.
(b) Seizures as reported (street purity)
(c) Data refer to England and Wales only.
76
1. Trends in the world drug markets Coca / cocaine market
Fig. 40: Global seizures of cocaine, 1997-2007
CO
W
-
D
E
T
P
E
C
R
E
T
N
I
E
N
I
A
C
7
0
0
2
-
7
9
9
1
:
D
L
R
O
7
0
0
2
-
7
9
9
1
:
A
I
S
A
-
D
E
T
P
E
C
R
E
T
N
I
E
N
I
A
C
O
C
0.80
800
0.70
700
0.60
600
500
0.50
400
0.40
300
0.30
200
0.20
Metric ton equivalents
Metric ton equivalents
100
0.10
0
0.00
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
COCAINE INTERCEPTED - AMERICAS: 1997-2007
COCAINE INTERCEPTED - EUROPE: 1997-2007
700
140
600
s
120
500
100
400
80
300
60
tric ton equivalents 200
tric ton equivalent
e
40
M
Me
100
20
0
0
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
COCAINE INTERCEPTED - AFRICA: 1997-2007
COCAINE INTERCEPTED - OCEANIA: 1997-2007
8
1.6
7
1.4
6
1.2
5
1.0
4
0.8
3
0.6
tric ton equivalents
tric ton equivalents
e
2
0.4
M
Me
1
0.2
0
0.0
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
77
World Drug Report 2009
Fig. 41: USA: Cocaine retail and whole sale prices, 1990-2008 (US$/gram)
160
140
120
100
80
US$/gram
60
40
20
0
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
Wholesale 45 48 48 45 42 39 36 34 32 31 30 22 23 22 22 21 27 31
Retail
154 142 119 121 111 123 120 105 103 101 115 113 96 102 92 90 96 106 120
Fig. 42: WESTERN EUROPE: Cocaine retail and wholesale prices, 1990-2007, €/gram
120
80
Euro/gram
40
0
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
Wholesale
53
42
44
38
40
37
38
39
39
36
38
40
38
37
38
38
39
41
Retail
92 93 91 89 94 91 83 81 82 82 76 83 76 74 71 69 68 67
Fig. 43: Wholesale cocaine prices in Western Europe and the USA, 1990-2007, US$/kg
80,000
70,000
60,000
50,000
40,000
US$/kilogram
30,000
20,000
10,000
-
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
Europe
USA
78
World Drug Report 2009
1.2.4 Consumption
In 2007, UNODC estimates that the annual prevalence
This year, significant revisions were made to the approach
of cocaine use worldwide ranges from 15.6 to 20.8 mil-
taken in making global and regional estimates of the
lion people, equivalent to 0.4% to 0.5% of the popula-
number of people who use drugs. The new estimates
tion aged 15-64. The new estimates – like those reported
reflect the uncertainties surrounding these data (which
for previous years - suggest that the largest market is still
exist due to data gaps and quality) and are being pre-
North America, followed by West and Central Europe
sented in ranges rather than absolute numbers. Because
and South America.
of this revision, previous point estimates are not compa-
rable to the current ones.
Table 8: Estimated number of people who used cocaine at least once in the past year and
proporton of population aged 15-64, by region, 2007
Estimated
Estimated
Percent of
Percent of
Region/subregion
number of users
number of users
population aged
population aged
annually (lower)
annually (upper)
15-64 (lower)
15-64 (upper)
Africa*
1,150,000
3,640,000
0.2
0.7
North
Africa
30,000
50,000
0.0
0.0
West and Central Africa
750,000
1,320,000
0.4
0.8
Eastern
Africa
Subregional estimate cannot be calculated
Southern
Africa
300,000
820,000
0.3
0.8
Americas
9,410,000
9,570,000
1.6
1.6
North
America
6,870,000
6,870,000
2.3
2.3
Central
America
120,000
140,000
0.5
0.6
The
Caribbean
170,000
250,000
0.7
1.0
South
America
2,250,000
2,310,000
0.9
0.9
Asia
400,000
2,560,000
< 0.1
0.1
East/South-East
Asia
310,000
990,000
< 0.1
0.1
South
Asia
Subregional estimate cannot be calculated
Central
Asia
Subregional estimate cannot be calculated
Near and Middle East
Subregional estimate cannot be calculated
Europe
4,330,000
4,600,000
0.8
0.8
Western/Central
Europe
3,870,000
3,880,000
1.4
1.4
East/South-East
Europe
460,000
720,000
0.2
0.3
Oceania
340,000
390,000
1.5
1.7
Global
15,630,000
20,760,000
0.4
0.5
Cocaine use is falling strongly in North America
Significant declines in cocaine use were reported in
North America, notably from the USA, which in abso-
lute numbers is still the world’s largest cocaine market.
Cocaine was used at least once in the last year by some
* The estimates for Africa and its subregions are the most problematic
5.8 million people in the USA in 2007, equivalent to an
because of the lack of data for most countries. This is reflected in the
annual prevalence rate of 2.8% of the population aged
wide ranges calculated. The problem is particularly acute for Eastern
Africa where the is an almost total lack of data.
15-64. The monthly prevalence rate (use at least once in
80
1. Trends in the world drug markets Coca / cocaine market
Fig. 44: US national workforce: percentage testing positive for cocaine, 2000-2008
Source: Quest Diagnostics, “Quest Diagnostics Drug Testing Index” (June 2008), quoted in ONDCP, Making the Drug Problem
Smaller, 2001-2008, January 2009.
0.9%
0.8%
0.7%
0.6%
0.5%
0.4%
0.3%
0.2%
0.1%
0.0%
Jan-
Jul-
Jan-
Jul-
Jan-
Jul-
Jan-
Jul-
Jan-
Jul-
Jan-
Jul-
Jan-
Jul-
Jan-
Jul-
Jan-
Jul-
00
00
01
01
02
02
03
03
04
04
05
05
06
06
07
07
08
08
the month prior to the survey) was 0.8% of the popula-
household survey, conducted in 2008, suggest that life-
tion age 12 and above in 2007, down from 1.0% in
time prevalence of cocaine use rose from 1.5% in 19983
2006.
to 2.5% of the population aged 12-65 in 20084. Such
levels are, however, still significantly lower than lifetime
This decline in the use of cocaine is confirmed by the
prevalence of cocaine use in the USA (17.8% of the
results of drug tests among the general US workforce.
population aged 15-65 in 2007) or in Canada (10.6%
The proportion of the workforce testing positive dropped
among the population aged 15 and above in 2004).
from 0.91% in 1998 to 0.72% in 2006 and 0.41% in
2008, equivalent to a decline by more than 50% over
In several West and Central European countries, use
the last decade.1 The annual declines accelerated, from
is stabilizing
-3% in 2006 to -19% in 2007 and -29% in 2008. Posi-
tive tests for cocaine typically result from cocaine con-
Following strong increases in recent years, a number of
sumption a few days prior to drug testing.2 Data show
surveys in West European countries showed first signs of
that most of the decline took place during the last two
a stabilization. The largest cocaine markets in Europe –
years.
Spain, England and Wales, Italy, and Germany – have
begun to stabilize.
Declines in cocaine use were also noticed in school sur-
veys conducted in Ontario, Canada. The school surveys
Spain, which has had the highest cocaine prevalence
showed a decline in the annual prevalence of cocaine use
rates in Europe for the last decade and even higher rates
of around 35% between 2003 and 2007. The perceived
than the USA in recent years, stabilized at an annual
availability of cocaine dropped strongly between 2003
prevalence rate of 3% of the population aged 15-65
and 2007 and is now lower than in the late 1980s.
between 2005 and 2008. This is equivalent to some
910,000 cocaine users. Annual prevalence of cocaine
Following several years of increase, the Mexican author-
use among secondary school students fell from a peak of
ities also reported cocaine use to have declined among
the general population in 2007 as compared to the prev
7.2% in 2004 to 4.1% in 2006, the lowest such rate
ious year. Overall cocaine use is, nonetheless, still higher
since the late 1990s.5
than a decade ago. Preliminary results of a national
Cocaine use in England and Wales showed strong
increases from the mid-1990s to 2007. Data for 2008,
1 The data have been generated by Quest Diagnotics, based on more
than 8.5 million drug tests every year, and are regularly reported by
the US Office on National Drug Control Policy (ONDCP).
3
Secretaria de Salud, El Consumo de Drogas en México, Mexico Salud-
2000.
2
Cocaine positive result in urine tests are normally obtained for ‘infre-
quent users’ 12-48 hours after having consumed cocaine and for ‘frequent
4
Monica Arriola, “Encuesta Nacional de Adicciones 2008”, La Chro-
users’ the period extends to 1-4 days . For ‘chronic users’, in contrast, the
nia de Hoy, 23 Sept. 2008.
substance can be detected up to several weeks after they had last used it.
5 Ministerio de Sanidad y Consumo, 2007 National Report to the
(Source: United Nations International Drug Control Programme, “A
EMCDDA by the Reitox National Focal Point, “Spain” New Devel-
summary of commercially available products and their applications:
opment, Trends and in-depth information on selected issues, http://
guidance for the selection of suitable products, Part I, Biological Spec-
www.emcdda.europa.eu/attachements.cfm/att_61190_EN_
imens”, Scientific and Technical Notes, SCITEC/18, Dec. 2001, p. 6.)
NR2007Spain.pdf
81
World Drug Report 2009
Fig. 45: Spain, England & Wales, Italy, Germany and annual prevalence of cocaine use in % of youth
and adult populationa
a Spain in % of population aged 15-64; England and Wales in % of population aged 16-59; Italy: 2001 in % of population aged 15-44, in 2003 15-54,
2005 and 2008 15-64, Germany: in % of population aged 18-59, 1995-2003; in % of population aged 18-64 in 2006; Austria: in % of population
15-64. Sources: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire data; EMCDDA, Statistical Bulletin; Ludwig Boltzmanninstitut, “Österreichweite Repräsentativer-
hebung zu Substanzgebrauch – Erhebung 2008” (Draft), Vienna 2009”.
3.5
3.0
3.0
2.7
3.0
%
2.5
2.4 2.6 2.3
2.2 2.2
2.5
2.0
2.0
1.6
1.2
1.5
1.1 1.2
0.9 1.0
0.9 0.9
1.0
0.6
0.6
0.5
annual prevalence in
0.0
9
3
3
5
7
5
8
7
0
3
4
8
Italy '01
Italy '03
Italy '0
Italy '0
Spain '9
Spain '0
Spain '0
Spain '0
Spain '0
England '98
England '00
England '04
England '07
England '08
Austria '0
Austria '0
Germany '9
Germany '0
Germany '0
Germany '06
* annual prevalence in % pop. age 18-59; ** in % of pop. age 15-64
however, suggest a stabilization or even a smal decline
Fig. 46: Hungary and Poland: annual preva-
with annual prevalence of cocaine use falling from a
lence of cocaine use, 2001-2007
peak of 2.6% of the population aged 16-59 in 2006/07
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire data.
to 2.3% in 2008. This corresponds to a total of 860,000
persons estimated to have used cocaine in England and
0.8
Wales in 2007/08. Including Scotland and Northern
0.7
0.7
Ireland, the United Kingdom is estimated to have about
1 mil ion cocaine users. The UK thus continues to be
0.6
– in absolute numbers – Europe’s largest cocaine market,
0.5
0.5
with its second highest cocaine use prevalence rate.
0.4
0.4
Europe’s third largest cocaine market is Italy with around
850,000 cocaine users. Similar to Spain, and England
0.3
and Wales, data for Italy showed a stabilization of cocaine
0.2
0.2
annual prevalence in
0.2
use over the 2005-08 period, fol owing massive increases
%
in previous years. The annual prevalence rate of cocaine
0.1
use remained at 2.2% of the population aged 15-64 in
0
2008, the same level as in 2005.
The cocaine market in Germany, Europe’s fourth largest
2001/a
2003/b
2007/c
2002/d
2006/e
(in absolute numbers), also stopped growing. Cocaine
Hungary
Poland
use among the general population aged 18-59 declined
from 1.0% in 2003 to 0.6% in 2006. Including crack
a: age 18-65; b: age18-54; c: age 18-64; d: age 16-64; e: age 15-64
cocaine, the prevalence rate amounted to 0.7% in 2006,6
equivalent to some 380,000 persons. The decline in
in Central Europe (Poland and Hungary) similarly
prevalence rates in Germany is also reflected in falling
reported a stabilization in 2007. Household surveys sug-
numbers of new cocaine users identified by law enforce-
gest that cocaine use may have even declined in recent
ment each year. This number declined some 30% over
years in both Poland (from 0.5% in 2002 to 0.2% in
the last decade. Household surveys also showed a stabi-
2006) and Hungary (from 0.7% in 2001 to 0.2% in
lization of cocaine use in Austria over the 2004 to 2008
2007).
period.
Use still rising in some European countries
A stabilization in cocaine use in 2007 was reported in
Switzerland and the Netherlands. The Baltic countries
In contrast, a number of countries continued to show
(Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) as wel as some countries
increases in cocaine use. France, Europe’s fifth largest
cocaine market, reported an increase of cocaine use in
6 DBDD, 2007 National Report to the EMCDDA by the REITOX
2007, in addition to the Czech Republic, Ireland, Slova-
National Focal Point Germany.
kia and Ukraine. Cocaine use also increased in Portugal
82
1. Trends in the world drug markets Coca / cocaine market
over the 2001-2007 period, from 0.3% to 0.6%, reflect-
Several South American countries continue
ing the growing importance of Portugal as a cocaine
to show increases
transit country between South America, Western Africa
and continental Europe in the last few years. Cocaine
In contrast to the decline in North America and the
use in Ireland increased from 1.1% in 2003 to 1.7% in
stabilization in Europe, cocaine use in South America
2007 among the population aged 15-64. This increasing
still appears to be increasing. Increases in cocaine use in
trend reverses the previously seen decrease (see figure).
2007 were reported by Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic
of ), Ecuador, Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay as well as
countries in Central America (Guatemala and Hondu-
Fig. 47: Ireland: annual prevalence of cocaine
ras) and the Caribbean (Jamaica and Haiti). A stable or
use among the general population
slightly decreasing level of cocaine use was seen in Chile,
aged 15-64, 1998-2007
Peru, Paraguay and Costa Rica.
Source: EMCDDA, Statistical Bulletin 2008: Last year preva-
lence of drug use among all adults (aged 15 to 64 years old)
A study by UNODC and the Comisión Interamericana
in nationwide surveys among the general population. http://
www.emcdda.europa.eu/stats08/gpstab03
para el Control del Abuso de Drogas (CICAD)10 shows
that the highest prevalence rate in South America was
1.8
1.7
reported by Argentina. The annual prevalence of cocaine
use for 2006/07 was 2.6% of the population aged 12-65,
1.6
up from 1.9% in 1999. Argentina also constitutes the
1.4
second largest cocaine market in South America in abso-
1.3
lute numbers (some 660,000 persons) after Brazil (some
1.2
1.1
890,000 persons or 0.7% of the population aged 12-65;
up from 0.4% in 2001).
1.0
For some countries, results from the UNODC/CICAD
0.8
study differed from other household surveys conducted
in these countries. This variance can usually be explained
0.6
by differences in the sampled populations (age group,
urban/rural, etc.).
0.4
Poly drug use further complicates the comparison of
0.2
annual prevalence data. Annual prevalence of all cocaine
use (as reported to UNODC in the ARQ) does not take
0.0
into account poly drug use and cannot be calculated
1998*
2003
2007
simply by adding prevalence rates for cocaine HCL and
*Age 18-64
cocaine base found in the UNODC/CICAD study.
Expert perceptions in the Nordic countries indicated
In contrast to the upward trend found in most South
that cocaine use continued to increase among the gen-
American countries, cocaine use in Chile has been grad-
eral population. The annual prevalence of cocaine use in
ually declining over the last few years. Annual prevalence
Finland increased from 0.2% (of the population aged
of all cocaine use fell slightly, from 1.8% in 2000 to
15-64) in 20007 to 0.5% in 20068. Cocaine use also
1.5% of the population aged 12-64 in 2006. This is
appears to be increasing in a number of countries in
equivalent to 1.7% of the population aged 15-64 (as
South-East Europe, as reflected in school survey data
reported to UNODC in the ARQ for the year 2007), or
from the European School Survey Project on Alcohol
190,000 persons. Results from school surveys in Chile
and Other Drugs (ESPAD), conducted under the aus-
also confirm a slight downward trend of cocaine HCl
pices of the Council of Europe.9
use in recent years, as the annual prevalence among high
school students fell slightly between 2001 and 2007.
Drug use levels in Uruguay have clearly shown an
7 European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction
(EMCDDA), Statistical Bulletin 2007: Last year prevalence of drug
upward trend in recent years. Annual prevalence of
use among all adults (aged 15 to 64 years old) in nationwide surveys
cocaine use rose from 0.2% in 2001 to 1.4% among the
among the general population. http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/stats07/
population aged 12-65 in 2007.
gpstab03
8 EMCDDA,
Country overview: Finland – Key statistics on the drug
situation in Finland. http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/publications/
country-overviews/fi/data-sheet#fn_one
9 In total, 35 European countries and territories participated in the
10 Naciones Unidas Oficina contra la Droga y el Delito (UNODC)
2007 ESPAD survey. In addition, the reports also provided data from
y Comisión Interamericana para el Control del Abuso de Drogas
Spain even though Spain had not formally participated in the ESPAD
(CICAD), Elementos orientadores para las Políticas Públicas sobre
process
Drogas en la Subregión, Lima 2008.
83
World Drug Report 2009
Fig. 48: Annual prevalence of cocaine use in six South American countries, 2006/07 in % of
population aged 15-64,
Source: Naciones Unidas Oficina contra la Droga y el Delito (UNODC) y Comisión Interamericana para el Control del Abuso de
Drogas (CICAD), Elementos orientadores para las Políticas Públicas sobre Drogas en la Subregión, Lima 2008.
3.0
2.67
2.5
2.0
1.68
1.31
1.5
1.0
0.66
0.62
0.54
0.36
0.43
0.31
0.5
0.09
0.11 0.14
0.0
Argentina
Uruguay
Chile
Bolivia
Peru
Ecuador
Cocaine HCl
Cocaine base
Fig. 49: Uruguay: cocaine use among the population aged 12-65*, 1998-2007
* Age group 15-65 for survey in 1994; age group 12-64 in 1998 and in 2001; and age group 12-65 in 2007.
Sources: Observatorio Uruguay de Drogas (OUD), Encuesta Nacional en Hogares sobre Consumo de Drogas 2007 and Secretaria
Nacional de Drogas y Junta Nacional de Drogas, Encuesta Nacional de Prevalencia del Consumo de Drogas 2001.
5.0%
4.0%
4.0%
3.0%
2.0%
1.3%
0.9%
1.0%
1.0%
1.4%
0.2%
0.2%
0.4%
0.0%
1994
1998
2001
2007
Life-time prevalence
Annual prevalence
The levels of cocaine HCl use for Bolivia (0.7%), Peru
data show that some African countries, notably in West-
(0.3%) and Ecuador (0.1%) found in the UNODC/
ern and Southern Africa, are experiencing rising levels of
CICAD study are much lower than for Argentina, Uru-
cocaine use. Unfortunately, most countries in these
guay and Chile. In addition to the use of cocaine HCL,
regions still do not have proper monitoring systems that
the study showed that ‘pasta base’ (cocaine base), is
could validate the expert perceptions.
frequently being consumed in South America. The high-
est annual prevalence rates of cocaine base were reported
South Africa is one of the few countries which has some
by Chile (0.6%) followed by Argentina (0.5%) and Peru
data to substantiate expert perceptions. Treatment data
(0.4%).
for South Africa show a strong increase of cocaine related
treatment (incl. alcohol) over the 1998-2008 period,
Use rising around emerging cocaine transit
from a proportion of around 5% of treatment demand
countries in Africa...
in 1998 to 9% of total treatment demand over the first
Data on cocaine use in Africa is mostly based on the
two quarters of 2008. Data show that treatment
perceptions of country experts rather than surveys. These
demand for cocaine (incl. alcohol) is responsible for
84
1. Trends in the world drug markets Coca / cocaine market
Fig. 50: South Africa: cocaine as primary drug of abuse in treatment demand*, 1996-2008
* unweighted average of treatment (incl. alcohol) in 7 provinces.
Source: SACENDU, “Monitoring Alcohol & Drug Abuse Trends in South Africa, July 1996-June 2008”, Research Brief, Vol. 11 (2), 2008
12.0
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
in % of all treatment
2.0
0.0
1996b
1997a
1997b
1998a
1998b
1999a
1999b
2000a
2000b
2001a
2001b
2002a
2002b
2003a
2003b
2004a
2004b
2005a
2005b
2006a
2006b
2007a
2007b
2008a
some 10% of all drug treatment in South Africa. If alco-
Fig. 51: Australia: annual prevalence of
hol is excluded, treatment demand for cocaine is already
cocaine use among the population
responsible for more than 15% of all drug treatment in
age 14 and above, 1993-2007
South Africa – a higher proportion than in Europe.
Source: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2007
National Drug StrategyHousehold Survey, April 2008.
…as well as in the Oceania region
1.8
In contrast to the decline of cocaine use in North Amer-
1.6
ica and signs of a stabilization in Europe, cocaine use
1.6
appears to be growing in the Oceania region.
1.4
1.4
1.3
Annual prevalence of cocaine use among the population
1.2
age 14 and above grew in Australia from 1.0% in 2004
1.0
1.0
1.0
to 1.6% in 2007 (1.9% among those aged 15-64 years).
Annual prevalence is thus now slightly above the West
0.8
and Central European average (1.4%). The upward
0.6
0.5
trend over the 2004-2007 period reversed the previous
annual prevalence
0.4
downward trend observed over the 1998-2004 period.
in % of population age 14+
0.2
The upward trend over the 2003-2007 period is also
0.0
reflected in the data collected by the Australian Institute
1993
1995
1998
2001
2004
2007
for Criminology for the ongoing Drug Use Monitoring in
Australia (DUMA) project where arrested people at
selected police stations across Australia are regularly
tested for drug abuse. The unweighted average of the
results showed an increase in the number of people test-
ing positive for cocaine from 0.5% in 2003 to 2.1% in
2007.
Cocaine use in New Zealand also more than doubled
between 2003 and 2006. In both Australia and New
Zealand cocaine prevalence is now higher than in
1998.
85
World Drug Report 2009
Joint UNODC-WHO Programme
The Joint Programme:
on Drug Dependence Treatment
1. Leads a global collaborative effort for improving
and Care
coverage and quality of treatment and care services
for drug use disorders in low- and middle-income
The Joint UNODC-WHO Programme on Drug Depend-
countries.
ence Treatment and Care is a milestone in the develop-
ment of a comprehensive, integrated health-based approach
2. Promotes the development of comprehensive and
to drug policy that can reduce demand for illicit sub-
integrated treatment systems that are able to deliver
stances, relieve suffering and decrease drug-related harm to
a continuum of care for drug users and link services
individuals, families, communities and societies.
at municipal and national levels.
The initiative sends a strong message to policymakers
3. Maps population needs, legislative frameworks and
regarding the need to develop services that address drug use
available services and programmes for drug depend-
disorders in a pragmatic, science-based and humanitarian
ence treatment and care.
way, replacing stigma and discrimination with knowledge,
4. Supports policy and legislation revision to achieve
care, recovery opportunities and reintegration.
balance in drug policy and to support humane and
The programme is based on a global collaborative effort,
effective drug prevention, treatment and care.
under the leadership of UNODC and WHO. The col-
5. Develops low-cost outreach treatment and care ser-
laboration will include governments, health profession-
vices, and increases access in rural and remote areas.
als, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and funding
agencies committed to increasing the coverage of essential
6. Places prevention, treatment and care of drug use
services for drug dependence treatment and care.
disorders into the mainstream health care system,
linking with NGOs and ensuring full coordination
Why UNODC and WHO together?
with the health care system, as part of an integrated
continuum of care.
UNODC and WHO both have constitutional mandates
to address issues presented by drug use and dependence.
7. Provides alternative measures to imprisonment for
Moreover, taking into account the health, socioeconomic
dependent drug users where appropriate and, where
and security implications of drug use and related disor-
this is not possible, provision of drug-dependence
ders, the two agencies are uniquely positioned to lead this
treatment in prison settings.
initiative. In particular, it will open a dialogue with
Member States and involve a varied group of government
8. Supports universities at the national level to promote
ministries such as those for health and welfare, as well as
research and training curricula on drug dependence
the criminal justice system and other relevant sectors.
treatment and care.
Objectives:
9. Provides and supports training programmes for pro-
fessionals involved in the provision of treatment and
Promoting and supporting worldwide (with a par-
care for drug users, including those whose profes-
ticular focus on low- and middle-income countries)
sional primary focus is not in that area.
evidence-based policies, strategies and interventions
10.
that are based on a public health and human rights
Develops international recommendations, guide-
approach, in order to reduce drug use and the health
lines and standards aiming at the knowledge transfer
and social burden it causes.
from research to practice and supports adaptation
and implementation at country level.
Recognizing drug dependence as a preventable and
11.
treatable multi-factorial health disorder; and recog-
Supports regional networks of quality service pro-
nizing the social advantages of investing in treatment:
viders, working on drug dependence treatment, so-
lowering health-related costs, improving security and
cial support services and HIV/AIDS prevention and
contributing to social cohesion.
care.
12.
Bringing drug dependence treatment into the main-
Seeks to assist the development of drug treatment
stream health care and social welfare system, without
monitoring systems in countries, in ways that will
discrimination.
facilitate not only a greater understanding of the
drug situation within countries, but also between
Promoting investment in comprehensive and re-
countries, for a better understanding of regional and
sults-oriented programmes for drug dependence
global trends.
treatment and care, particularly community-based
interventions.
86
1.3 Cannabis market
1.3.1 Summary trend overview
1.3.2 Production
UNODC estimates that between 200,000-641,800 ha
The total estimated area for outdoor production of can-
were used for outdoor cannabis cultivation in 2008.
nabis in 2008 ranges from 200,000-641,800 ha. The
There are high levels of uncertainty in cultivation esti-
total cannabis herb production is estimated to range
mates as cannabis can be grown - indoors or outdoors -
from 13,300-66,100 mt and the production of cannabis
in most countries in the world. Therefore, it is not
resin from 2,200-9,900 mt. Due to high levels of uncer-
possible to produce more precise data, as is done for
tainty in estimating cultivation, it is not possible to
opiates and cocaine. The total cannabis herb production
produce more precise data, as is done for opiates and
is estimated to range from 13,300-66,100 mt, and for
coca/cocaine.
cannabis resin, the estimated production range is 2,200-
9,900 mt.
This chapter shows the information that is available and
gives an indication of the extent of global cannabis cul-
Total cannabis herb seizures increased somewhat in 2007
tivation and production. Minimum and maximum
to reach a total of 5,600 mt. As in 2006, the majority of
levels of production and cultivation are explored by
cannabis herb seizures in 2007 were reported from
applying four methods. One method is based on reported
Mexico and the USA. Cannabis resin seizures also
cultivation and production, the second is based on sei-
increased to some 1,300 mt, with most seizures reported
zures of cannabis, and the third and fourth method are
by countries in West and Central Europe. Resin seizures
based on user prevalence rates.
increased by more than one third in this subregion,
compared to 2006.
Availability of data
UNODC estimates that between 143 and 190 million
The cannabis market is the largest illicit drug market in
persons globally used cannabis at least once in 2007.
terms of global spread of cultivation, volume of produc-
Cannabis use seems to be increasing in several countries
tion and number of consumers. Unfortunately, the dom-
in Latin America and Africa, whereas in the established
inance of cannabis in the drug market is not reflected in
markets of North America and Western Europe, there
the availability of reliable data. The information available
are signs from recent studies that the levels of use are
on cannabis cultivation and production is fragmented,
declining, particularly among young people.
non-standardized and not always based on scientific
research. This complicates the estimation of total global
production.
A major source of information for cultivation and pro-
duction are the responses to the Annual Report Ques-
tionnaires (ARQ). The ARQ asks for figures on the
extent of cultivation, production and yield. Data on
89
1. Trends in the world drug markets Cannabis market
Global cannabis herb and
them by an estimated rate of interdiction. Cannabis sei-
resin production estimates
zures are reported as herb, plants or resin. The interception
rate for herbal cannabis and cannabis plants is estimated
Cannabis herb and resin production can be estimated
to range between 10-20%, whereas the interception rate
from the supply and from the demand side. An estimate
for resin is likely to be a bit higher, at least 17% (Bulletin
from the supply side can be based on reported seizures
on Narcotics, 2006). These interception rates were com-
or by estimating the total area of cultivation and produc-
bined with conversion rates for resin and plants to calcu-
tion per hectare, based on the figures provided by a
late the total production range of each drug.
limited number of countries. For the latter, most coun-
The third way to estimate production is based on the
tries do not have a national figure for cultivation and do
demand for cannabis from the calculated number of
not have the capacity to generate an estimate. The table
cannabis users and the average use per year. This pro-
summarizes the most recent data available for some of
vides the amount of herbal and resin cannabis produc-
the main producing countries as reported in the ARQs
tion required to satisfy global demand. The estimates for
and other sources. The figures given in the table are in
average use per year has a high variability depending on
herbal equivalents, and the total shows a range of herbal
the users’ habits, the method of consumption and the
production of some 88,000-110,000 mt. This does not
quality of cannabis products. The literature mentions
include important producing countries like Afghanistan,3
average use estimates between 60-200 g per year, with-
Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ghana, Jamaica,
out making a distinction between cannabis resin and
Nigeria and Pakistan, and should therefore be considered
herbal cannabis. These levels of use give a demand
as an absolute minimum figure of global production.
volume of 9,000-51,000 mt. About 10-17% of the use
These figures are given in herbal equivalent volumes, and
is estimated to be consumed as cannabis resin. Applying
are therefore not comparable with the figures calculated in
these factors and adding the amount of cannabis herb,
the 2008 WDR. They cannot be used to describe trends.
cannabis plants (in herbal equivalents) and resin, respec-
tively, gives a required production volume of some
Another way to estimate cannabis production is to use
13,300-52,400 mt of cannabis herb and 2,200-9,900
data on seizures reported in the ARQs and multiply
mt of cannabis resin.
Table 9:
Available information on cannabis production in the major producing countries 20084
Cultivated area
Harvestable area
Herbal production
Country
Eradicated area (ha)
(ha)
(ha)
(mt)
Morocco
60,0005
60,0005
43,8505
21,3574 (2007)
Mexico
8,900 (2007)7
27,8064 (2007)
18,5624 (2008)
15,8007 (2008)
Paraguay
6,0006
1,6934 (2007)
6,0006
16,5006
Kazakhstan (1999)
124,000-329,6278
3,000-6,0007
South Africa
1,500-2,0009
1,500-2,0009
Colombia (2006)
5,00010
4,00010
6.6 million outdoor
USA
plants / 430 000
3,149-7,34911
indoor plants7
Canada
1,399-3,49812
Netherlands
851,510 plants7
36-9913
6257
Lebanon
3,5007
3,5007
Total
200,000-406,000
87,734-109,628
8
Annual Survey reports Cannabis, Opium Poppy and Ephedra, 1998
3 UNODC was not able to provide relieable estimates for cannabis
and 1999. UNDCP. Includes areas of wild growth.
cultivation in Afghanistan during the Opium Poppy Survey 2008.
9 INCSR 2009; expert opinion; some top-end estimates are that
4
Annual Reports Questionnaires, 2007.
20,000-30,000 hectares of arable land are used to grow cannabis.
5 Official Government communication 26/02/2009, in Lutte antid-
10 Bulletin on Narcotics 2006.
rogue - Synthese 2008, Min of Interior. Herbal production, which
11 UNODC, calculated with the number of eradicated plants, using
was calculated from the reported resin production of 877 mt, refers to
the method applied by the US National Drug Intelligence Center,
gross cannabis production and is not necessarily directly comparable
2007.
to herbal production of other countries.
12 Public Safety Canada, 2009. http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/prg/le/
6
Secretaria Nacional Antidrogas (SENAD), 2008.
oc/_fl/us-canadian-report-drugs-eng.pdf.
7 US Department of State, International Narcotics Control Strategy
13 Van der Heijden, 2003. De Nederlandse Drugsmarkt. Korps landeli-
Report (INCSR), 2009.
jke politiediensten, Dienst Nationale Recherche Informatie.
91
World Drug Report 2009
Table 10: Estimated volume of cannabis herb and resin based on seizure data
Sources: *2009 WDR and **Bulletin on Narcotics 2006.
Interception rate**
Conversion rate
Production (mt)
Seizures* (mt)
Low
High
Low
High
Low
High
Cannabis herb
5,557
0.1
0.2
-
-
28,025
56,050
Cannabis plants
5,020
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.2
2,510
10,040
Total cannabis herb
30,535 66,090
Total cannabis resin
1,296
0.17
0.2
-
-
6,480
7,624
Table 11: Total cannabis demand, based on average user consumption
Sources: *Van der Heijden, 2003. De Nederlandse Drugsmarkt. Korps landelijke politiediensten, Dienst Nationale Recherche
Informatie and **2008 WDR; neither source differentiates between cannabis resin and herbal use.
Number of users 15-64 year
Average use (kg/user/year)
Calculated use (mt)
Low
High
Low*
High**
Low High
Africa
29,545,844
120,459,807
0.06
0.2
1,773
24,092
Asia
40,912,205
59,464,983
0.06
0.2
2,455
11,893
Europe
28,888,570
29,660,039
0.06
0.2
1,733
5,932
North America
31,262,302
31,262,302
0.06
0.2
1,876
6,252
Oceania
2,455,307
2,572,840
0.06
0.2
147
515
South America
10,457,999
11,083,110
0.06
0.2
627
2,217
Global total
143,522,228
254,503,082
0.06
0.2
8,611
50,901
Table 12: Estimated global production of cannabis herb and resin, based on average user
consumption
Source: *Based on the proportion of seizures. 17% of the seizures were cannabis resin, however this is most probably an overestima-
tion of the proportion of use since resin is more trafficked abroad and has higher chances of being seized. The lower proportion is
assumed to be 10%.** In herbal equivalents, applying a factor of 0.1 and 0.2 to plant seizures for the low/high estimates, respectively.
Correction factor for propor-
Calculated cannabis
Use (mt)
tion of cannabis resin use*
production (mt)
Low
High
Low
High
Low
High
Total cannabis use
8,611
50,901
Cannabis herb use
83%
90%
7,147
45,811
Cannabis herb/plant seizures**
6,107
6,609
Total cannabis herb production
13,254
52,420
Cannabis resin use
10%
17%
861
8,653
Cannabis resin seizures
1,296
1,296
Total cannabis resin production
2,157
9,949
Instead of using a simple average for all users, according
Applying these user rates and the same conversion factors
to a typology reported in the Bulletin on Narcotics (2006),
as in the former estimation method (proportion of can-
users can be differentiated and classed as casual users,
nabis resin use and conversion rate) give a total of can-
regular users, daily users and chronic users. Casual users
nabis used for consumption which ranges between
(45%) are people who share cannabis cigarettes an aver-
20,000-33,200 mt of cannabis herb and 3,000-6,300 mt
age of four times per year (0.6 grams/year). Regular users
of cannabis resin.
(41%) use more advanced inhaling techniques with
The calculated estimates, using the four different meth-
higher frequency, on average 100 times per year (15 g/
ods, indicate the large range of uncertainties in estimat-
year). Daily users (9%) use one to four cannabis ciga-
ing the worldwide cannabis herb and resin production.
rettes per day (320 g/year) and chronic users (4%) who
A final range can be constructed by considering the dif-
reach ten cigarettes per day (1,825 g/year).
ferent estimates. The final global production figure can
92
1. Trends in the world drug markets Cannabis market
Table 13: Calculation of the volume of cannabis demand, based on amounts of use by user typology
Typology
% of users
Use (gram/year)
Min demand (mt)
Max demand (mt)
Casual
45
0.6
39
69
Regular
41
15
888
1,575
Daily
9
320
4,306
7,635
Chronic
4
1,825
11,459
20,320
Total
100
172*
16,692
29,599
* weighted average
Table 14: Estimated volume of cannabis herb and resin demand, based on amounts of use by
user typology
* Based on the proportion of seizures. 17% of the seizures were cannabis resin, however this is most probably an overestimation of the proportion of
use since resin is more trafficked abroad and has higher chances of being seized. The lower proportion is assumed to be 10%. ** In herbal equivalents,
applying a factor of 0.1 and 0.2 to plant seizures for the low/high estimates, respectively.
Calculated use of cannabis*
Low High
Cannabis herb
13,854
26,639
Cannabis herb/plant seizures*
6,107
6,609
Total cannabis herb production
19,961
33,248
Cannabis resin
1,669
5,032
Cannabis resin seizures
1,296
1,296
Total cannabis resin production
2,965
6,328
Table 15: Summary of cannabis herb and resin production estimates
Cannabis herb (mt)
Cannabis resin (mt)
Method
Minimum
Maximum
Minimum
Maximum
Seizure based calculation
30,535
66,090
6,480
7,624
User based calculation –
13,254
52,420
2,157 9,949
average use total population
User based calculation –
19,961
33,248
2,965 6,328
average use by user type
Ranges
13,254
66,090
2,157
9,949
vary from 13,300-66,100 mt of cannabis herb and
age outdoor yields for herb from 470-1,200 kg/ha (2008
2,200-9,900 mt of cannabis resin.
WDR) and assuming that 80-95% of the total produc-
tion takes place outside, gives a range of cultivated area
To convert these figures into cultivation area, a distinc-
varying broadly between 25,800-641,800 ha. For can-
tion should be made between indoor and outdoor culti-
nabis resin, yield per hectare could be derived from
vation, since acreage for indoor cultivation is not a very
surveys in Morocco and Afghanistan. The average yield
meaningful unit. Indoor cultivation is not area restricted
in Morocco, where most cannabis is grown on rain-fed
due to the potential use of several floors in one building
land, was used for the lower estimate, and the yield from
and the large number of harvests per year.14 Outdoor
Afghanistan, where most cannabis is grown on irrigated
cannabis yields can also vary largely, for example, due to
land, for the higher estimate.16
climate variances and the use of irrigation, but these
yields probably have a smaller range.15 Assuming aver-
between 470 kg/ha without irrigation to 5,000 kg/ha in well-tended
gardens, with figures around 2,000 kg/ha typical for the situation in
14 Indoor crops can have up to 6 harvests per year, with a yield of 5,000
the USA (as identified through the analysis of data from court cases),
kg/ha confirmed by several sources. This makes indoor cropping
and levels around 1,000 kg/ha typical for developing countries. In
15-30 times more productive than outdoor crops (Bulletin on Narcot-
contrast, hydroponically grown cannabis were found to reach typical
ics, 2006).
yield levels from 15,000-30,000 kg/ha. (WDR 2008).
15 Yields vary from 5 kg/ha to 40,000 kg/ha, reflecting ranges between
16 Sources: UNODC/Govt. of Morocco: Enquête sur le cannabis, 2004
wild cannabis and hydroponically grown cannabis. The median can-
and 2005. The lower average resin yield of the two years 2004 and
nabis yield was 770 kg/ha. Typical yield for outdoor cannabis varies
2005 was taken for the lower estimate. Afghanistan: UNODC/Min.
93
World Drug Report 2009
Fig. 52: Ranges of global estimates of cannabis herb production by methodology
70000
60000
50000
40000
mt
30000
20000
10000
0
Seizure based calculation
User based calculation -
User based calculation -
All estimates
average use total
average use by user type
population
Fig. 53: Ranges of global estimates of cannabis resin production by methodology
12,000
10,000
8,000
6,000
mt
4,000
2,000
0
Seizure based calculation
User based calculation -
User based calculation -
All estimates
average use total
average use by user type
population
Table 16: Estimation of outdoor cultivation area from the calculated production range
Proportion of out-
Average outdoor
Production range (mt)
Cultivation area (ha)
door cultivation
yield kg/ha*
Low
High
Low
High
Low
High
Low
High
Cannabis herb
13,254
66,090
80%
95%
470
1,200
8,836
133,586
Cannabis resin
2,157
7,624
-
-
15
125
17,256
508,235
(25,757)
Total
200,000 641,821
Since the cultivation area in Morocco alone ranged from
about 200,000-641,800 ha. Outdoor cultivation can
60,000-130,000 ha in the period of 2004-2008, it is
also give several harvests in one year17 but this has not
better to use the sum of the known cultivated areas as an
been taken into account here, which makes the calcu-
absolute minimum, which is 200,000 ha. Thus, the
lated area an absolute maximum for the calculated pro-
estimated area under cannabis cultivation ranges from
duction.
of Counter Narcotics (2008): Baseline information on cannabis cul-
tivation. The median of 81 farmer responses was used for the higher
17 Especially at lower-latitude locations, where temperature and day
estimate.
length are less restricting.
94
1. Trends in the world drug markets Cannabis market
Trends by country
edly of Moroccan origin has increased in the period
2005-2007, compared to 2001-2004.
Since few countries report the extent of their own can-
nabis production, it is difficult to analyze any global
Afghanistan is the second most prominent cannabis
trends from these data. However, there are more reports
resin producer, with a small increase in the figures from
on the origin of cannabis in the market of each country.
the annual seizures. Nine per cent of source countries in
UNODC collects data on countries of origin of annual
2005-2007 pointed to Afghanistan, compared to 6% in
and individual seizures through the ARQ and a ques-
2001-2004. Another indication of the importance of
tionnaire on individual seizures. This information pro-
Afghanistan as a cannabis producer is the report of a
vides some indication of the trends in the main
very large seizure in 2008, amounting to some 237 mt
producing countries. The table below shows the main
in one stockpile.18 Although there is no reliable figure
source countries of cannabis herb. The Netherlands,
available for cannabis cultivation in Afghanistan in
South Africa, Albania, Jamaica and Paraguay have been
2008, experts believe that the extent of cannabis produc-
seen as principal producers of cannabis herb for about
tion is approaching the cultivation area of Morocco with
25% of the cannabis herb market, because seized can-
steadily increasing production due to the relatively
nabis originated there. In 2005-2007, Colombia and
higher prices for cannabis products, compared to opium.
Nigeria were added to the list. However, almost 76% of
At the end of 2008, UNODC performed a baseline
the entries refer to source countries which are mentioned
study on cannabis cultivation in Afghanistan and identi-
less than 10 times in a 3-year period. There are only
fied 20 out of 34 provinces with substantial cannabis
insignificant changes between the two time periods.
cultivation. A first cannabis survey is being planned by
the Afghanistan Ministry of Counter Narcotics and
Cannabis resin production
UNODC in 2009.
The picture for cannabis resin is clearer because the
India and Nepal are also identified as source countries
production of resin is concentrated in relatively few
(4%). Some CIS countries are increasingly (6%) men-
countries and it is trafficked across borders more often.
tioned as a source for cannabis resin, mainly due to new
Morocco is known to be the world’s main source of can-
reports from Azerbaijan, in addition to reports from
nabis resin. The Government of Morocco reported fur-
Ukraine, the Republic of Moldova, the Russian Federa-
ther reduction of the cannabis production in 2008,
tion and Armenia. Pakistan continues to be an impor-
reporting 60,000 hectares in production after eradica-
tant source according to both annual and individual
tion, following a decrease observed in the 2005 survey
seizure information. The Central Asian countries, mainly
by the Government of Morocco and UNODC. This
Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, are only mentioned as
decline is, however, not reflected in the data reported by
sources in the annual seizures. The main production area
countries on the origin of their seized cannabis resin.
in Central Asia is the Chu Valley in Kazakhstan where
Both in the ARQs and in the Individual Seizure Data-
cannabis - for both herb and resin production - grows
base, Morocco continues to be the principal supplier of
on extensive wild and cultivated areas, estimated to total
resin in the world. In the ARQs, the proportion report-
more than 300,000 ha.
Table 17: Main source countries of cannabis herb according to reported seizures in the ARQs,
2005-2007 and 2002-2004
Source: UNODC Annual Reports Questionnaire data.
Source country
2005-2007
2002-2004
Number of mentions
Proportion (%) of all
Number of mentions
Proportion (%) of all
as a source country
reporting countries*
as a source country
reporting countries*
Netherlands
38
8%
36
8%
South Africa
15
3%
14
3%
Albania
14
3%
20
4%
Jamaica
12
3%
14
3%
Colombia
11
2%
7
1%
Paraguay
10
2%
12
3%
Nigeria
10
2%
7
1%
Others
1 to 9 times
76%
1 to 9 times
77%
Total
458
100%
485
100%
* Cumulative reporting for three years. Countries may report more than once.
18 ISAF, 2008, http://www.nato.int/isaf/docu/pressreleases/2008/06-
june/pr080611-246.html.
95
World Drug Report 2009
Algeria and the Islamic Republic of Iran have recently
Fig. 54: Main source countries of cannabis
emerged as a significant source country for individual
resin according to the ARQs in the
seizures. Iran is also mentioned as a source by 3% of the
period 2005-2007 and 2002-2004*
annual seizures as reported in the ARQ. It might be an
*Number of times that countries were identified as source countries,
indication of Iran being increasingly used as a transit
represented as proportion of countries reporting.
country.
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire data.
The Netherlands is mentioned as a country of origin for
21%
Morocco
resin, but it is not clear to what extent the cannabis resin
9%
Afghanistan
actually originates there. Although the Netherlands is an
C.I.S. excl.
6%
important producer of cannabis herb, available informa-
. Central Asia
Central Asia
tion suggests that resin production is limited. The same
5%
Pakistan
might be true for other Western European countries
5%
Central Asia
such as France, Germany and Belgium that are men-
5%
Netherlands
tioned in the annual seizures, but it is not clear to what
4%
extent they are transit countries.
Lebanon
4%
India
Albania’s importance as an exporter of cannabis in gen-
4%
Nepal
eral and specifically of resin seems to have diminished.
4%
Only 3% of the countries mention Albania as an exporter
Spain
and it seems to be cultivating mostly for local/regional
3%
Albania
use.19 Seizures of herbal cannabis from Albania have
3%
Jamaica
become very rare in the last five years.20
3%
Iran
Lebanon continues to be a source country in the Middle
2%
Turkey
East. Production in Lebanon has declined drastically
2%
Paraguay
2005-2007
compared to the early 1990s, but farmers appear to be
2%
other Balkan
2002-2004
resuming cannabis cultivation.
Overall production and consumption of cannabis resin
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
in the Americas are limited. The most important resin
producer in the region is Jamaica (3% of annual sei-
zures). Paraguay is also mentioned in 2% of the cases but
UNODC has had consultations with relevant Govern-
is more important as a cannabis herb producer. The
ment institutions to conduct a survey in Paraguay to
cultivation area in Paraguay is estimated at 6,000 ha.21
collect more precise information.22
Table 18: Main source countries of cannabis resin seizures according to the Individual Seizure
Database in the period 2005-2007 and 2002-2004
Source: UNODC, Individual Seizure Database.
Source
2005-2007
Source
2002-2004
country
country
No. of seizures
Quantity (kg)
No. of seizures
Quantity (kg)
Morocco
811
440,747
Morocco
1,243
468,727
Afghanistan
1,083
144,387
Afghanistan
1,113
172,565
Spain
853
19,226
Pakistan
22
16,400
Pakistan
10
2,825
Spain
84
16,072
Netherlands
27
2,615
Netherlands
20
9,047
Portugal
1
2,449
Portugal
2
7,207
France
3
2,135
France
7
2,216
Germany
5
591
Belgium
9
1,764
Algeria
16
455
South Africa
6
926
Iran (I.R. of)
13
450
Germany
6
771
19 INCSR
2009.
20 World Customs Organization, Customs and Drugs Report 2007.
22 The Government of Brazil has also been involved in the consultations
21 Secretaria Nacional Antidrogas (SENAD), 2008
as Brazil is likely to fund the survey.
96
1. Trends in the world drug markets Cannabis market
Why does cannabis potency matter? scientific and comparable assessment of cannabis potency
between places and over time.8
Cannabis products dominate the world’s illicit drug market.
The term cannabis, however, refers to different types of Plant part used: The secretion of THC is most abundant
preparations derived from the plant Cannabis sativa, which in the flowering heads and surrounding leaves. The
all contain chemical substances called cannabinoids. The amount of resin secreted is influenced by environmental
most psychoactive of these substances is Δ-9-
conditions during growth (light, temperature and humid-
tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). The amount of THC in a ity), sex of the plant, and time of harvest. The THC
cannabis sample is generally used as a measure of “cannabis content varies between parts of the plant: from 10-12 %
potency”. In recent years, several claims of increased can-
in flowers, 1-2 % in leaves, 0.1-0.3 % in stalks, to less
nabis potency have been made.
than 0.03 % in the roots.
One driving force behind the interest in cannabis potency Product type: There are three main types of cannabis
is the possible link to mental health problems.1 It is products: herb (marijuana), resin (hashish) and oil (hash
thought that high potency cannabis may have the poten-
oil). Cannabis herb comprises the dried and crushed flow-
tial to be more harmful.2 Also significant may be the ratio er-heads and surrounding leaves. It often contains up to
between THC and cannabidiol (CBD), another cannabi-
5% THC. Sinsemilla, derived from the unfertilized female
noid believed to moderate the effect of THC. Consider-
plant, can be much more potent, however. Cannabis resin
ing the large population of cannabis users worldwide, it is can contain up to 20% THC. The most potent form of
important that the link between mental health problems cannabis, however, is cannabis oil, derived from the con-
and cannabis potency is understood.
centrated resin extract. It may contain more than 60%
THC. The increase in market share of a particular prod-
What do we know about trends
uct type can influence the reported average potency
in cannabis potency?
values. For example, the reported rise in the average THC
content to 10% in seized samples in 2008 by the United
A number of studies have been carried out to assess poten-
States Office of National Drug Control Policy is associ-
tial changes in potency over time. One of the most compre-
ated with a market share of 40% for high potency can-
hensive was conducted in 2004 by the European nabis (presumably indoor-grown).9
Monitoring Centre on Drugs and Drug Addiction
(EMCDDA) and concluded that that a modest increase in Cultivation methods: The cannabis plant grows in a variety
aggregate cannabis potency had occurred, possibly related of climates. The amount and quality of resin produced
to the use of intensive indoor cultivation methods. The depends on the temperature, humidity, light and soil acid-
authors noted that THC content nonetheless varied wide-
ity/alkalinity. Outdoor-produced herbal cannabis, therefore,
ly.3 While the United Kingdom Home Office study in shows considerable variation in potency. Intensive indoor
20084 found little change: from a median potency of sin-
cultivation of female plants and clones, under artificial light,
semilla cannabis of 14% among samples in 2004/5 com-
often without soil (hydroponic cultivation), and optimised
pared to 15% in 2008, long-term increases have been cultivation conditions, produces cannabis of a consistently
reported in the United States5 with an average potency of higher potency.
10% in 2008.
Sampling: Most data on cannabis potency are derived from
Multiple methodological issues have been raised, which the analysis of seized samples. This means that these samples
impact on our capacity to generate comparable data and need to be representative of the entire seizure so that infer-
infer trends.6 Important variables to be considered include ences and extrapolations can be made.
the phytochemistry;7 type of cannabis product; cultivation Stability: THC is converted to cannabinol on exposure
method; sampling; and stability. As detailed below, each of to air and light. This process reduces the THC concentra-
these can affect the potency estimates. Only through tion, especially in old samples which have not been stored
examining these factors can we have a more systematic, under suitable conditions (such as a dark, cool place). It
is believed that claims of increases in potency of cannabis
1 Ashton CA, Pharmacology and effects of cannabis, a brief review.
preparations confiscated over a period of 18 years in the
British journal of Psychiatry 2001; 178:101-6.
United States10 may have been affected by the stability of
2
Smith H, High potency cannabis; the forgotten variable. Addiction
THC in old samples.
2005; 100: 1558-60.
3
EMCDDA, An overview of cannabis potency in Europe. 2004.
4 Hardwick S and King L. Home Office Cannabis Potency Study
8 Hunt N, Lenton S, and Witton J, Cannabis and mental health:
Responses to the Emerging Evidence. Beckley Foundation Report,
2008.
2006: No 8.
5 Office of National Drug Control Policy, Press Release May 14,
9 Office of National Drug Control Policy, Press Release May 14,
2009.
2009.
6
McLaren J, Swift W, Dillon P and Allsop S. Addiction 2008; 103:
10 ElSohly MA et al. Potency trends of delta-9-THC and other can-
1100-09.
nabinoids in confiscated marijuana from 1980-1997. Journal of
7
Phytochemistry refers to the chemical composition of plants.
Forensic Science 2000; 45:24-30
97
World Drug Report 2009
1.3.3 Trafficking
Seizures of cannabis herb and resin
which in many countries contribute heavily to the over-
all amount of drugs seized. In spite of this, a much
Global seizures of both cannabis herb and resin increased
higher number of countries and territories reported sei-
in 2007. Seizures of cannabis herb amounted to 5,600
zures of cannabis herb (165) to UNODC in the period
mt, whereas for resin, the total was some 1,300 mt. An
2005-2007 than cannabis resin (120), which can be
overwhelming proportion of all cannabis herb seizures
taken as an indication of its wider use and its broader
was made in the Americas (82%), mainly in Mexico and
geographical spread.
the USA, which together accounted for almost two
thirds of global herb seizures. Most of the global increase
Cannabis herb seizures amounted to 5,605 mt in 2007,
in cannabis resin seizures was due to a strong increase in
whereas resin seizures amounted to 1,300 mt. Both herb
West and Central Europe, where seizures were up 33%
and resin seizures were higher in 2007 than in 2006 and
compared to 2006.
2005. However, comparing total seizures during this
period, the total is still lower than in 2002-2004, when
The two main cannabis products, cannabis herb (also
known as marijuana), and cannabis resin (commonly
global seizures of cannabis reached record highs. Small
marketed under the name hashish), are considerably dif-
quantities of cannabis oil were also seized in 2007
ferent in several aspects. The production areas for can-
(equivalent to 418 kg).
nabis resin are much more limited in geographic terms
The majority of cannabis herb seizures in 2007 were
than those of cannabis herb. Moreover, consumption of
reported from Mexico (39% of the world total), fol-
cannabis resin is concentrated in, although not limited
lowed by the USA (26%), Bolivia (Plurinational State
to, West and Central Europe, while the use of cannabis
of ) (8%), Nigeria (4%), Morocco (4%), Colombia (3%)
herb is widespread. Thus, quite different regional and
and Paraguay (3%). South Africa and Malawi, which
international trafficking and seizure patterns become
had ranked third and fourth in 2006 after the USA and
apparent when comparing cannabis herb and resin. A
Mexico, reported much lower seizures in 2007.
specific feature of cannabis herb is that sizable amounts
are thought to be produced in the countries of con-
Most seizures of cannabis resin, on the other hand, were
sumption. This is likely to lower the probability of can-
made by Spain (50%), followed by Morocco (9%), Iran
nabis being seized by customs and border authorities,
(Islamic Republic of ) (7%), Pakistan (8%), Afghanistan
(6%), Belgium (5%), Portugal (3%) and France (3%).
Fig. 55: Cannabis herb and resin seizures (mt),
176 countries and territories reported cannabis seizures
1985-2007
(both herb and resin) to UNODC in the period 2005-
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire / DELTA
2007.
8,000
Most cannabis herb seizures are reported
by North America
In contrast to other drugs, trafficking in cannabis herb
6,000
continues to be mostly intraregional. In 2007, an over-
whelming proportion of all cannabis herb seizures was
4,000
made in the Americas (82%), mainly in Mexico (2,177
mt) and the USA (1,447 mt), which together accounted
Metric tons
for almost two thirds of global herb seizures. Cannabis
2,000
herb seizures increased both in the USA and Mexico in
2007 compared to the previous year.
South America including Central America and the
0
Caribbean accounted for 17% of global cannabis herb
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
seizures. The largest seizures were made in Bolivia
Cannabis herb
Cannabis resin
(Plurinational State of ) (424 mt), which reported over
98
1. Trends in the world drug markets Cannabis market
three times more cannabis herb seizures than in 2006,
Most seizures of cannabis resin reported by
followed by Colombia (183 mt), Paraguay (172 mt),
countries of West and Central Europe
Argentina (75 mt) and Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic
Most of the global increase in cannabis resin seizures was
of ) (25 mt). In the period 2005-2007, Paraguay was
mentioned as the source of cannabis herb seized in
due to a 33% increase in West and Central Europe,
South America more often than other countries in the
compared to 2006. In 2007, 849 mt - two thirds of global
region. However, many other countries were mentioned
cannabis resin seizures - were made in West and Central
as well, including Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia and Peru.
Europe. Cannabis resin seized in Europe continued to
Paraguay was also reported several times as the source of
originate mainly from Morocco. Spain accounted for
cannabis resin.
50% of global resin seizures, and for 77% of seizures in
the West and Central Europe subregion. In 2007, resin
Large seizures were also made in Africa, accounting for
seizures in Spain increased by 42% compared to the
11% of global cannabis herb seizures. In 2007, more
previous year, and in Morocco, the increase was 33%.
seizures were made in Morocco, several West African
Despite an increase in cannabis resin seizures in Europe,
countries and Kenya. Less seizures were reported from
the amounts seized in 2006 and 2007 were still lower
Egypt, Malawi and South Africa, which resulted in an
than those reported in 2003 and 2004.
overall decline in herb seizures for Africa as a region
compared to one year earlier.
Morocco accounted for most cannabis seizures made in
Africa (118 mt), followed by Algeria (17 mt) and Egypt
The largest cannabis herb seizures made in Asia – which
(6 mt), both of which also reported higher seizures than
accounted for 4 % of all seizures in 2007 – were reported
in 2006. While most cannabis resin produced in
by India (108 mt), followed by Indonesia (32 mt), Kaza-
Morocco is destined for Europe, trafficking also takes
khstan (22 mt), Thailand (15 mt) and Nepal (8 mt).
place to or via North African and sub-Saharan coun-
tries.
Cannabis herb seizures in Europe – representing 3% of
the world total in 2007 – increased slightly but remained
In 2007, as in the year before, South West Asia reported
well below the seizure levels reached between 1997 and
the second highest cannabis seizures worldwide, repre-
2004. As in 2006, the largest seizures were reported by
senting 22% of the global total. Most seizures in the
the Russian Federation (27 mt), Turkey (26 mt) and the
region were made by Pakistan (8% of global seizures or
United Kingdom (20 mt).1 Europe is the only region
110 mt), followed by Iran (Islamic Republic of ) (7% or
which also “imports” significant amounts of cannabis
90 mt) and Afghanistan (6% or 84 mt). Cannabis resin
herb from other regions.
seizures more than doubled in Iran and Afghanistan,
Oceania reported only a small fraction of global seizures
while they remained at about the same level in Pakistan.
in 2007 (2.7 mt), most of which was reported by Aus-
The strong increase in cannabis resin seizures in this
tralia (2.4 mt).
subregion confirms its role as an important cannabis
resin producer. A rapid assessment of cannabis con-
Main cannabis resin trafficking routes run from
ducted by UNODC in 2008 confirmed the existence of
Morocco and South-West Asia to West and Central
cannabis cultivation for resin production in most prov-
Europe
inces in Afghanistan.
In 2007, global cannabis resin seizures increased by 29%
Most of the cannabis resin produced in the region is
and accounted for 1,296 mt, which was higher than in
trafficked towards Europe. However, reports confirm
most years since 1985 with the exception of 2003 and
that some cannabis resin originating in South-West Asia
2004. A large number of countries reported resin sei-
also reached other Asian as well as North American
zures in the period 2003-2007 though this was smaller
countries.
than the number of countries reporting seizures of can-
nabis herb. Trafficking patterns seem to follow the estab-
South Asia reported about 6 mt or 0.5% of global sei-
lished routes from the two main resin production areas
zures in 2007. India (3.8 mt) and Nepal (2.1 mt) con-
in Morocco and South-West Asia to the main consump-
tinued to report the majority of cannabis resin seizures
tion areas in West and Central Europe. As the consump-
made in the region. Both countries are considered to be
tion of cannabis resin is mainly concentrated in West
cannabis resin producers.
and Central Europe, trafficking to other regions, as
reflected in seizures, took place at a far lower level.
1
Data refer to England and Wales only.
99
World Drug Report 2009
Fig. 56: Global seizures of cannabis herb, 1997-2007
8,000
7,000
6,000
s
5,000
n
c
to
tri
4,000
e
M
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Year
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Metric tons
3,105
2,998
4,043
4,680
4,759
4,801
5,941
7,154
4,671
5,247
5,605
SEIZURES OF CANNABIS HERB in % of world total and kg- HIGHEST RANKING COUNTRIES - 2007
-
500,000
1,000,000
1,500,000
2,000,000
2,500,000
Mexico (39%)
2,176,748
USA (26%)
1,446,866
Bolivia (8%)
423,777
Nigeria (4%)
210,263
Morocco (4%)
209,445
Colombia (3%)
183,203
Paraguay (3%)
171,868
India (2%)
108,000
500,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
SEIZURES OF CANNABIS HERB in kg and % - BY REGION - 2007
-
000
000
000
000
000
000
000
000
Argentina (1%)
74,600
North America (66%)
3,673,533
South Africa (1%)
67,442
South America (16%)
889,617
Canada (0.9%)
49,919
North Africa (5%)
257,028
Egypt (0.8%)
47,538
West and Central Africa (4%)
225,623
Kenya (0.8%)
43,903
South Asia (2%)
117,862
Jamaica (0.7%)
37,440
Southern Africa (2%)
102,545
Indonesia (0.6%)
31,872
East and South-East Asia (1%)
61,402
Malawi (0.5%)
27,149
West & Central Europe (1%)
60,284
Russian Federation (0.5%)
26,865
Caribbean (1%)
54,430
Turkey (0.5%)
25,546
East Africa (0.8%)
43,944
Venezuela (0.5%)
25,392
East Europe (0.7%)
39,070
Kazakhstan (0.4%)
21,794
Southeast Europe (0.7%)
37,304
(a)
United Kingdom (0.4%)
19,927
Central Asia and Transcaucasian countries (0.5%)
27,825
Thailand (0.3%)
15,384
Central America (0.2%)
10,199
Oceania (0%)
2,730
Belgium (0.2%)
12,759
Near and Middle East /South-West Asia (0%)
1,961
Ukraine (0.2%)
12,065
(a) Data refer to England and Wales only.
100
1. Trends in the world drug markets Cannabis market
Fig. 57: Global seizures of cannabis herb, 1997-2007
CANNABIS HERB INTERCEPTED - WORLD: 1997 - 2007
CANNABIS HERB INTERCEPTED - ASIA: 1997 - 2007
8,000
400
7,000
6,000
300
ons
5,000
ons
t
r
ic t
4,000
200
Me
t
r
ic t
3,000
Me
2,000
100
1,000
0
0
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
CANNABIS HERB INTERCEPTED - AMERICAS: 1997 - 2007
CANNABIS HERB INTERCEPTED - EUROPE: 1997 - 2007
5,000
300
4,000
200
ons
3,000
ons
t
r
ic t
t
r
ic t
2,000
Me
Me
100
1,000
0
0
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
CANNABIS HERB INTERCEPTED - AFRICA: 1997 - 2007
CANNABIS HERB INTERCEPTED - OCEANIA: 1997 - 2007
3,000
20
2,500
15
2,000
ons
tric tons
1,500
t
r
ic t
10
e
M
Me
1,000
5
500
0
0
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
101
World Drug Report 2009
Fig. 58: Global seizures of cannabis resin, 1997-2007
1,600
1,400
1,200
1,000
ons
800
t
r
ic t
Me
600
400
200
0
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Year
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Metric tons
819
899
902
1,052
943
1,090
1,394
1,474
1,272
1,003
1,296
SEIZURES OF CANNABIS RESIN in % of world total and kg- HIGHEST RANKING COUNTRIES - 2007
-
100,000
200,000
300,000
400,000
500,000
600,000
700,000
Spain (50%)
653,631
Morocco (9%)
117,706
Pakistan (8%)
109,531
Iran (7%)
89,718
Afghanistan (6%)
83,844
Belgium (5%)
58,545
Portugal (3%)
42,772
France (3%)
34,183
Italy (2%)
19,779
Algeria (1%)
16,595
100,
200,
300,
400,
500,
600,
700,
800,
SEIZURES OF CANNABIS RESIN in kg and % - BY REGION - 2007 900,
(a)
-
000
000
000
000
000
000
000
000
000
United Kingdom (1%)
16,566
Netherlands (0.8%)
9,948
West & Central Europe (66%)
849,296
Turkey (0.5%)
6,302
Near and Middle East /South-West Asia (22%)
290,827
Egypt (0.4%)
5,624
Yemen (0.4%)
4,663
North Africa (11%)
140,542
India (0.3%)
3,776
Southeast Europe (0.5%)
6,375
Northern Ireland (0.3%)
3,684
Germany (0.3%)
3,678
South Asia (0.5%)
5,907
Nepal (0.2%)
2,131
East Europe (0.1%)
1,725
Russian Federation (0.1%)
1,696
Ireland (0.1%)
1,650
Central Asia and Transcaucasian countries (0.1%)
945
Sweden (0.1%)
1,379
Israel (0.1%)
1,009
North America (0%)
449
Denmark (0.1%)
741
South America (0%)
189
Norway (0.1%)
669
Tunisia (0%)
617
East and South-East Asia (0%)
89
Qatar (0%)
521
Oceania (0%)
2
Switzerland (0%)
484
Scotland (0%)
446
Southern Africa (0%)
1
Kyrgyzstan (0%)
440
(a) Data refer to England and Wales only.
102
1. Trends in the world drug markets Cannabis market
Fig. 59: Global seizures of cannabis resin, 1997-2007
CANNABIS RESIN INTERCEPTED - WORLD: 1997 - 2007
CANNABIS RESIN INTERCEPTED - ASIA: 1997 - 2007
350
1,600
300
1,400
1,200
250
ons 1,000
ons
200
t
r
ic t
800
t
r
ic t
150
Me
600
Me
100
400
50
200
0
0
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
CANNABIS RESIN INTERCEPTED - AMERICAS: 1997 - 2007
CANNABIS RESIN INTERCEPTED - EUROPE: 1997 - 2007
80
1,200
70
1,000
60
ons 50
800
ons
t
r
ic t 40
t
r
ic t
600
Me 30
Me
400
20
200
10
0
0
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
CANNABIS RESIN INTERCEPTED - AFRICA: 1997 - 2007
CANNABIS RESIN INTERCEPTED - OCEANIA: 1997 - 2007
200
3.5
180
3.0
160
140
2.5
ons
ons
120
2.0
t
r
ic t 100
t
r
ic t
Me
80
1.5
Me
60
1.0
40
0.5
20
0
0.0
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
103
World Drug Report 2009
1.3.4 Consumption
The global number of cannabis users is estimated to
This year, significant revisions were made to the approach
range from some 142.6-190.3 million persons, equiva-
taken in making global and regional estimates of the
lent to a range from 3.3 to 4.4% of the population aged
number of people who use drugs. The new estimates
15-64 who used cannabis at least once in 2007.
reflect the uncertainties surrounding these data (which
exist due to data gaps and quality) and are presented in
ranges rather than absolute numbers. Because of this
revision, previous point estimates are not comparable to
the current ones.
T
Estimated number of people who used cannabis at least once in the past year and
able 19:
proporton of population aged 15-64, by region, 2007
As percent of
As percent of
Estimated number
Estimated number
population
population
Region/subregion
of users annually
of users annually
aged 15-64
aged 15-64
(lower)
(upper)
(lower)
(upper)
Africa
28,850,000
56,390,000
5.4
10.5
North
Africa
3,670,000
9,320,000
3.0
7.6
West and Central Africa
16,110,000
27,080,000
9.3
15.6
Eastern
Africa
4,490,000
9,030,000
3.4
6.9
Southern
Africa
4,570,000
10,950,000
4.3
10.2
Americas
41,450,000
42,080,000
7.0
7.1
North
America
31,260,000
31,260,000
10.5
10.5
Central
America
580,000
580,000
2.4
2.4
The
Caribbean
1,110,000
1,730,000
4.3
6.7
South
America
8,500,000
8,510,000
3.4
3.4
Asia
40,930,000
59,570,000
1.6
2.3
East/South-East
Asia
4,110,000
19,860,000
0.3
1.3
South
Asia
27,490,000
27,490,000
3.2
3.2
Central
Asia
1,890,000
2,020,000
3.8
4.1
Near and Middle East
7,440,000
10,200,000
3.1
4.3
Europe
28,890,000
29,660,000
5.2
5.4
Western/Central
Europe
20,810,000
20,940,000
7.7
7.7
East/South-East
Europe
8,080,000
8,720,000
2.9
3.1
Oceania
2,460,000
2,570,000
11.0
11.5
Global
142,580,000
190,270,000
3.3
4.4
106
1. Trends in the world drug markets Cannabis market
Estimates of cannabis use for the People’s Republic of China
A number of indirect indicators, including seizures, arrest data and treatment data, suggest that cannabis use in the
People’s Republic of China is significantly lower than in other East and South-East Asian countries. China has so
far, however, not undertaken any national household survey of illicit drug use. No national estimate of cannabis use
exists.
One World Health Organization (WHO) school survey, conducted in 2003 in four cities, assessed drug use. It found
lifetime prevalence rates of drug use among 13-15 year old pupils ranging from 0.9% in Beijing to 2.5% in
Hangzhou (eastern China). The unweighted average of the four cities was 1.75%.
In comparison, the lifetime prevalence of drug use among 13-15 year old pupils in Thailand in 2008 was 6.1%. A
2007 Thai household survey found an annual prevalence of cannabis use of 1.2% among the general population
(aged 12-65). In the Philippines, data from a 2003 WHO school survey among 13-15 year old students (life-time
prevalence of 6.7%) was similarly far higher than a recent household survey estimate (annual prevalence of around
0.8% in 2008).
In the regional estimate calculated for cannabis use, all countries with no national data available, including China,
were assigned the range from other countries in the region. This means that there was a wide range applied from
existing national prevalence estimates, namely from 0.23% to 1.34%
UNODC has not applied the school data estimate for China to make an estimate for 15-64 year olds across the
country, because it was based on only four cities that do not necessarily reflect the national picture of cannabis use.
This means that the regional and global range of estimated cannabis users is very large, because of the sheer size of
China’s population. However, using such an estimate would reduce the range of uncertainty in the estimates for Asia
by 25%. This highlights the great importance that estimates of the level of drug use in the world’s populous countries
(and in this case, their absence) has upon our confidence in global figures.
Use stabilizing or declining in North America
Fig. 60: USA: annual prevalence of cannabis
use, 2002-2007
Cannabis use declined in North America over the last
decade. In 2007/08 it seems to have stabilized at the
Source: SAMHSA, Results from the 2007 National Survey on
lower levels.
Drug Use and Health, National findings, Rockville, Maryland,
2008.
Drug tests, which are regularly conducted among the
12.0
US workforce, found a decline in the proportion of
11.0
10.6
10.6
positive cannabis tests among the general US workforce
10.4
10.3
10.1
from 3.4% in 1997 to 2.3% in 2007, equivalent to a
10.0
decline of 31% over the last decade. The figures suggest
that the USA may be heading towards a stabilization of
8.0
cannabis use at around 2%. In 2008 2.1% of the work-
force tested positiv for cannabis.
6.0
The decrease can also be observed in the total popula-
tion using household data. Over the 2002-2007 period
annual prevalence
4.0
the annual prevalence of cannabis use declined gradually,
from 11% of the population aged 12 and above in 2002
to 10.1% in 2007.
2.0
in % of population age 12 and above
The last national Canadian Addiction Survey (CAS),
conducted in 2004, found a prevalence rate of 14.1%
0.0
among the population aged 15 and above1 - thus exceed-
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
ing the prevalence of cannabis use in the USA. The
highest levels of cannabis use were reported in the
province of British Columbia, located at the Pacific
coast (16.8%). Though data show that the differences
across provinces in Canada or across states in the USA
1 Health
Canada,
Canadian Addiction Survey (CAS), Detailed Report,
March 2005.
are not negligible, it should be pointed out that the
107
World Drug Report 2009
differences are far less pronounced than, for instance,
increase in the annual prevalence rate from 3.7% in
across countries in Europe or South America.
1999 to 6.9% in 2006, among the population aged
12-65. Moreover, studies among high school students in
A significant decline in cannabis use over the last few
Argentina (aged 13-17) showed an increase in the annual
years was found among high school students in North
prevalence rate of cannabis use from 3.5% in 2001 to
America. Cannabis use among 8th-12th graders in the
8.1% in 2007.
USA fell by 21% between 1998 and 2008. A decline in
cannabis use over the last decade was also reported
A clear upward trend is also reflected in data from neigh-
among high-school students in the province of Ontario,
bouring Uruguay. Following moderate use rates in the
Canada.
1990s, the annual prevalence of cannabis use rose quad-
rupled, from 1.3% among the population aged 15-65 in
Increases reported in Latin America
2001 to 5.3% in 2007.
In contrast to the declining trend in North America,
increases in cannabis use have been reported in coun-
Fig. 62: Uruguay: annual prevalence of
tries in Latin America and the Caribbean in recent years,
cannabis use among the population
aged 15-65, 1994-2007
notably in 2007. Eleven countries reported rising levels
of cannabis use in 2007, up from seven in 2005. Seven
Sources: Observatorio Uruguay de Drogas (OUD), Encuesta
Nacional en Hogares sobre Consumo de Drogas 2007 and
countries saw a stable trend, but not a single country
Secretaria Nacional de Drogas y Junta Nacional de Drogas,
reported a decline in 2007. The increase across the
Encuesta Nacional de Prevalencia del Consumo de Drogas
region was also identified by the Latin American Epide-
2001.
miological Network (REDLA).2
8.0%
Despite the increasing trend, cannabis use levels are still
significantly lower in South America than in North
America, as reflected in data collected in school surveys
6.0%
5.3%
and household surveys.
Comparative household surveys among the general pop-
ulation were conducted in six South American states in
4.0%
2006/07 by UNODC and the Inter-American Drug
Abuse Control Commission (CICAD). These identified
Annual prevalence
the highest levels of cannabis use in Chile, followed by
2.0%
Argentina and Uruguay. Far lower levels were reported
1.2%
1.3%
0.7%
in Peru and Ecuador.
0.0%
Fig. 61: Cannabis use in selected South
1994
1998
2001
2007
American countries in 2006/07*
An increase in cannabis use was also reported in Brazil,
Source: UNODC and CICAD, Elementos orientadores par alas
Políticas Públicas sobre Drogas en la Subregión, Lima 2008.
the largest country in South America. The annual prev-
alence of cannabis use more than doubled, from 1% in
In Argentina, the 2006 household survey showed an
Chile
7.5
2001 to 2.6% in 20053 and – according to the Brazilian
authorities it appears to have continued rising in subse-
Argentina
7.2
quent years.
Strong increases in cannabis use were also reported in
Uruguay
6.0
Chile. The annual prevalence of cannabis use rose from
3.7% in 1994 to 7.5% in 2006.
Bolivia
4.3
Peru
0.7
Ecuador
0.7
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
*Sampled populations vary slightly. Figures not directly comparable.
3 CEBRID, Il Levantamento Domiciliar sobre o Uso de Drogas Psi-
cotrópicas no Basil: Estudo Envolvendo as 108 Maiores Cidades
2 CICAD Observer, “REDLA Network Identified Worrisome Trends
do Pais, 2005, Sao Paolo 2006 and CEBRID, Il Levantamento
in Drug Use across Latin America”, June 2008, http://www.cicad.
Domiciliar sobre o Use de Drogas Psicotrópicas no Basil: Estudo
oas.org/oid/NEW/Information/Observer/08_01/REDLA.asp
Envolvendo as 107 Maiores Cidades do País, Sao Paolo 2002.
108
1. Trends in the world drug markets Cannabis market
Fig. 63: South Africa: cannabis as primary drug of abuse in treatment demand*, 1996-2008
* unweighted average of treatment (incl. alcohol) in 7 provinces.
Source: SACENDU, “Monitoring Alcohol & Drug Abuse Trends in South Africa, July 1996 – June 2008”, Research Brief, Vol. 11 (2), 2008.
25.0
23.5
20.0
17.1
15.0
10.0
in % of all treatment
5.0 7.0
0.0
1996b
1997a
1997b
1998a
1998b
1999a
1999b
2000a
2000b
2001a
2001b
2002a
2002b
2003a
2003b
2004a
2004b
2005a
2005b
2006a
2006b
2007a
2007b
2008a
Cannabis use is increasing in Africa
aged 16-59 in 2002/03 to 7.4% in 2007/08. The decline
among youth started several years before the decline
From a total of 21 African countries reporting cannabis
among the general population. In fact, annual preva-
use trends for 2007, 7 countries saw use levels rising and
lence of cannabis use among people aged 16-24 fell from
4 countries reported a decline. The rest were stable.
28.2% in 1998 to 17.9% in 2007/08, a decline of 37%
These data suggest that overall cannabis use continued
over the last decade. The overall prevalence estimate for
to rise in Africa in 2007. The increase, however, may be
the United Kingdom as a whole would be around 8.1%,
losing momentum. While 7 African countries saw an
equivalent to some 3.2 million persons.
increase in cannabis use in 2007, the comparable num-
bers were 12 in 2006 and 18 in 2004.
In Spain, an important cannabis market due to its stra-
tegic location close to the main cannabis resin produc-
The only systematic monitoring of drug use in Africa is
tion centers of Morocco, household survey data showed
taking place in South Africa, based on treatment demand.
a moderate decline, from a peak of 11.3% of the popula-
Data for South Africa suggest that treatment demand for
tion aged 15-64 in 2003 to 10.1% in 2007. Data sug-
cannabis use increased over the first two quarters of
gest that the strong upward trend over the 1993-2003
2008. Including alcohol, cannabis accounted for 23.5%
period has thus started being reversed. The total number
of substance abuse-related treatment demand in South
of cannabis users in Spain is now estimated at around 3
Africa during this period.
million persons.
In many European countries, use is stabilizing
Fig. 64: Spain: annual prevalence of cannabis
or declining
use among the population aged 15-64
In contrast, cannabis use in Europe has stabilized or
Source: Delegación del Gobierno para el Plan Nacional Sobre
shown a downward trend in a number of countries.
Drogas, “Informe de la Encuesta Domiciliaria sobre Alcohol y
Drogas en España (Edades) 2007/08”, October 2008.
Increased prevention efforts and the spread of knowledge
on the health risks, partly related to the emergence of
12.0
11.3
11.2
high-potency cannabis, seems to have contributed to the
10.1
stabilization or downward trend. Some of the stabiliza-
10.0
9.2
tion/decline may be linked to decreases of cannabis resin
8.0
production in Morocco, Europe’s main source country
7.0
of hashish, though such supply reductions seem to have
6.0
been partly offset by rising levels of cannabis herb pro-
duction within Europe.
4.0
In the UK, which used to be Europe’s largest cannabis
annual prevalence in %
2.0
market, a clear downward trend has been observed in
recent years. In England and Wales cannabis use fell
0.0
from a prevalence rate of 10.9% among the population
1999
2001
2003
2005
2007/08
109
World Drug Report 2009
Fig. 65: England & Wales, France, Denmark, Germany, Austria, Hungary and Sweden:
annual prevalence of cannabis use in % of the young and adult populationa
a England and Wales in % of population aged 16-59; France: in % of population aged 15-64; Germany: in % of population aged 18-59, 1995-2003;
in % of population aged 18-64 in 2006; Denmark: in % of population aged 16+ in 1990 and in % of population aged 16-64 in 2005; Austria: in %
of population 15-65. * UNODC estimate for Austria for 1984 extrapolated from results of a national study in 1984 among 15-40 year olds; UNODC
estimate for 2002 based on several local studies conducted around 2002, reported in UNODC’s 2004 World Drug Report.
Sources: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire data; EMCDDA, Statistical Bulletin; Ludwig Boltzmanninstitut, “Österreichweite Repräsentativerhebung
zu Substanzgebrauch – Erhebung 2008” (Draft), Vienna 2009”.
12.0
10.9
10.5
9.8
9.5
10.0
8.4
8.6
7.4
7.5
8.0
6.9
6.2
6.0
5.6
6.0
5.0
5.2
4.7
4.4
4.7
3.9
3.5
3.5
4.0
2.4
annual prevalence in %
2.3
2.2 2.0
2.0
0.7
0.0
France '95
France '00
France '02
France '05
England '96
England '00
England '03
England '08
Austria '84*
Austria '02*
Austria '04
Austria '08
Denmark '90
Denmark '00
Denmark '05
Germany '95
Germany '00
Germany '03
Germany '06
Hungary '01
Hungary '03
Hungary '07
Sweden '00
Sweden '04
Sweden '06
A similar trend of rising cannabis use in the 1990s fol-
... although use is increasing in some
lowed by some decline in recent years can be also noticed
European countries
in recent household surveys from a number of other
European countries.
In contrast, cannabis use appears to have increased in
some of the countries at the geographical fringes of
Cannabis use seems to have remained stable in the Neth-
Europe such as Ireland, Portugal, Bulgaria, Latvia and
erlands, one of the key cannabis production and redis-
Finland. However, some of these increases were small
tribution centres in Europe. Available household survey
and not statistically significant.
data, however, only reflect the situation over the first few
years of the new millennium (5.5% in 2001 and 5.4%
The situation is different for Italy, where the cannabis
in 2005). Despite this stabilization, treatment demand
prevalence rates more than doubled in recent years
related to cannabis abuse increased strongly between
(7.1% in 2003; 14.6% in 2007). Italy has evolved as
2000 and 2005, possibly reflecting the emergence and
Europe’s single largest cannabis market, with some 5.7
spread of higher-potency cannabis on the market. The
million users in 2007, out of a total of about 30 million
number of (outpatient) addiction care clients with pri-
users in Europe. This reflected, inter alia, widespread
mary cannabis problems rose by more than 75% between
availability of cannabis herb from Albania and the Neth-
2000 and 2005.4 The average THC content of domesti-
erlands, and rising domestic production in southern
cally grown Dutch marijuana almost doubled, from
Italy. In contrast to many other European countries, the
8.6% in 2000 to 16% in 2007.
average cannabis potency has remained stable in Italy,
fluctuating at around 6%, which is a low level by Euro-
Following increases in the 1990s, cannabis use levels also
pean standards. This may explain that the negative con-
remained quite stable in some of the new Central Euro-
sequences of cannabis consumption, found in many
pean EU member states, including Poland (2.8% in
other European countries, may have been less obvious in
2002; 2.7% in 2006), the Czech Republic (10.9% in
Italy.
2002; 9.3% in 2004) and Slovakia (7.2% in 2000; 6.9%
Despite of the increases in cannabis use in Italy, overall
in 2006).
cannabis use in Europe remained basically stable.
4 Trimbos
Instituut,
The Netherlands National Drug Monitor, Annual
Report 2007, Utrecht 2008.
110
1. Trends in the world drug markets Cannabis market
Fig. 66: Bulgaria, Portugal, Finland, Latvia, Ireland and Italy: annual prevalence of cannabis use
in % of the young and adult populationa
a in % of population aged 15-64 for Bulgaria, Portugal, Finland, Latvia, Ireland; data for Italy refer to the age group 15-44 in 2001; 15-54 in 2003 and
15-64 in 2005 and 2007.
Sources: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire data, EMCDDA, Statistical Bulletin, Presidenza del Consiglio dei Ministri, Relazione
sullo Stato delle Tossicodipendenze in Italia, Anno 2007, Rome 2008.
16.0
14.6
14.0
12.0
11.2
10.0
8.0
7.1
6.3
6.2
6.0
4.9
5.0
3.3
3.6
3.6
3.8
4.0
annual prevalence in %
2.2
2.2
1.5
2.0
0.0
Italy '01
Italy '03
Italy '05
Italy '07
Bulgaria '05
Bulgaria '07
Finland '00
Finland '06
Latvia '03
Latvia '07
Portugal '01
Portugal '06
Ireland '02/03
Ireland '06/07
Cannabis use declined in the Oceania region
Fig. 67: Australia: annual prevalence of
The downward trend of cannabis use in the Oceania
cannabis use among the population
aged 14 and above, 1998-2007
region continued. The annual prevalence rate of canna-
bis use in Australia fell by almost one fifth to 9.1% of
Source: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2007
National Drug Strategy Household Survey, April 2008.
the population aged 14 and above between 2004 and
2007. The decline was strongest among the 14-19-year-
20.0
olds, falling by 28%, indicating that prevention activi-
17.9
18.0
ties in schools may have played a key role in lowering
cannabis use.
16.0
Household survey data for New Zealand also showed a
14.0
12.9
decline of cannabis use in recent years, though this was
11.3
12.0
less pronounced than in Australia. The annual preva-
9.1
lence of cannabis use fell from 20.4% among the popu-
10.0
lation aged 15-45 in 2003 to 17.9% in 2007, a decline
8.0
of 12%.
annual prevalence
6.0
Cannabis use appears to be rising in Asia
in % of population age 14+
4.0
According to expert opinion, expressed by the national
2.0
drug authorities reporting to UNODC, cannabis use
0.0
appears to be rising in Asia. However, most countries in
1998
2001
2004
2007
this region do not have effective drug abuse monitoring
systems which means that no recent cannabis prevalence
data exist. Trends from Asia - largely based on expert
perceptions - must thus be treated with caution.
The number of Asian countries reporting an increase in
cannabis consumption rose from 9 in 2005 to 13 in
2007. Increases in 2007 were reported by Azerbaijan, the
People's Republic of China, Indonesia, the Islamic Repub-
lic of Iran, Kazakhstan, Lebanon, Mongolia, Myanmar,
Oman, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Tajikistan and Uzbeki-
stan. Six countries/territories reported a decline, whereas
11 reported stable levels of cannabis use in 2007.
111
1.4 Amphetamine-type stimulants market
1.4.1 Summary trend overview
1.4.2 Production
In 2007, UNODC estimates that between 230 and
Global amphetamine-group manufacture estimated
640mt of amphetamines-group1 stimulants were manu-
between 230 and 640 mt; ecstasy 72 and 137 mt
factured. Ecstasy-group2 production was between 72 and
137 mt. As amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) can be
Clandestine ATS manufacture can, and does, occur nearly
produced virtually anywhere at relatively low cost, the
everywhere. The output, however, can only be indirectly
locations of production are changing rapidly. Moreover,
estimated, using information on use of ATS around the
organized criminal groups are increasing the size and
world and/or information about seizures. In the 2009
sophistication of manufacturing operations.
World Drug Report the estimates are based on the number
of users and their yearly average consumption.3
A record level of nearly 52 mt of ATS was seized world-
wide in 2007. The amphetamines-group dominates ATS
UNODC estimates that in 2007, amphetamines-group
seizures, but there was also a marked increase in ecstasy-
manufacture amounted to between 230 and 640 metric
group seizures in 2007. Trafficking in ATS substances is
tons. Ecstasy-group manufacture was estimated at
most commonly intraregional, but precursor chemicals
between 72 and 137 mt. Due to the revised methodol-
from which ATS materials are made are trafficked
ogy, estimates are not comparable with previous reports.
throughout the world.
Based on these estimates and reported seizures, the
Clear regional distinctions can be seen in ATS use pat-
global interception range is estimated to range between
terns. In East and South-East Asia, users primarily con-
7% to 19% for amphetamines-group and from 6% to
sume methamphetamine. In the Near and Middle East,
12% for ecstasy.4 Interception rates for regions, subre-
tablets sold as Captagon often contain amphetamine,
gions, and individual Member States vary considerably
and are used throughout the region. In Europe, users
more than the global rates.
primarily consume amphetamine. Worldwide, between
16 and 51 million people aged 15-64 used ampheta-
mines-group substances at least once in 2007, whereas
the number who used ecstasy-group drugs is estimated
3
Previously, UNODC utilized a multiple component model to trian-
at between 12 and 24 million worldwide.
gulate ATS manufacture based on three sub-components: (i) global
seizures of ATS end-products (drug seizures), (ii) seizures of ATS-re-
lated chemical precursor seizures, and (iii) ATS consumption (preva-
1
The amphetamines-group substances include predominately metham-
lence rates). See Ecstasy and Amphetamines - A Global Survey 2003.
phetamine and amphetamine, but also non-specified amphetamines
4
Similar orders of magnitude were identified in a study of interception
(for example, tablets sold as Captagon, methcathinone, fenetylline,
rates in New Zealand (2%-7% for amphetamines-group substances
methylphenidate and others).
and 5%-17% for ecstasy-group substances). See Wilkins, C., Reilly,
2
The ecstasy-group substances include predominately MDMA, MDA
J., Rose, E., Roy, D., Pledger, M., & Lee, A. (2004). The Socio-
and MDEA/MDE. However, limited forensic capacity often leads to
Economic Impact of Amphetamine Type Stimulants in New Zealand.
confusion about the actual content of tablets believed to be “ecstasy”
Centre for Social and Health Outcomes Research and Evaluation
(MDMA).
(Auckland).
115
1. Trends in the world drug markets Amphetamine-type stimulants market
Fig. 68: ATS laboratories (all sizes) reported to UNODC, by type, 1998-2007
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data / DELTA.
18,643
20,000
16,000
12,000
6,990
8,000
4,000
1,868
Laboratory-related incidents (#)
0
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Other synthetics
34
66
19
5
24
69
53
64
30
26
Ecstasy Group
34
62
64
70
58
50
87
62
56
72
Amphetamine (& combinations)
142
257
336
357
376
475
650
529
514
453
Methamphetamine
1,658
7,019
6,609
8,166
9,323
10,664 17,853 12,782
7,649
6,439
Total ATS laboratories
1,868
7,404
7,028
8,598
9,781
11,258 18,643 13,437
8,249
6,990
availability of inexpensive precursor chemicals. These
Europe, with the notable exception of the Czech Repub-
were concentrated in North America (particularly the
lic and neighbouring countries.8 Ecstasy-group manu-
USA), and to a lesser extent Oceania, and Central and
facture appears relatively stable, with a significant albeit
Eastern Europe. Methamphetamine laboratories are also
declining proportion of the world’s manufacture con-
increasingly found in large industrial-sized operations
tinuing to occur in Europe (West and Central subre-
run by large criminal organizations, particularly in East
gions). Outside Europe, significant manufacture of
and South-East Asia and North America, although sig-
ecstasy now occurs in North America, Oceania, and East
nificant operations recently emerged in South Asia.
and South-East Asia, as operations have shifted closer to
those consumer markets.
Amphetamine and ecstasy (MDMA) operations tend to
be fewer in numbers, but have more sophisticated oper-
USA laboratory count drops; driving global decline
ations. They require more specialized equipment, pre-
cursor chemicals and more sophisticated skills.
The majority of global ATS laboratories are metham-
Amphetamine operations are reported from all of
phetamine laboratories reported from North America.
Fig. 69: Number of reported ATS laboratory incidents (all sizes), by notable region, 1998-2007
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data / DELTA.
1,400
18,643
20,000
Total (and USA) ATS laboratories (#)
1,200
15,000
1,000
800
(#)
10,000
600
6,990
400
5,000
200
ATS laboratories in selected regions
-
0
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Oceania
West & Central Europe
East and South-East Asia
East and Southeast Europe
Southern Africa
USA (right-scale)
Global (right scale)
8
One notable exception to this is methamphetamine (Pervitin) manu-
facture located in the Czech Republic and Slovakia, and to a lesser
degree in neighbouring countries.
117
World Drug Report 2009
Fig. 70: Reported seizures of ATS precursors, expressed in metric ton ATS equivalents, 1998-2007
Source: UNODC calculations based on INCB data and conversion factors. (INCB, Precursors and chemicals frequently used in the illicit
manufacture of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances, 2008 (March 2009, and previous years) and UNODC, Annual Reports
Questionnaire Data / DELTA).
180
164
Ecstasy precursors (3,4-MDP-2-P,
150
safrole, isosafrole, piperonal)
Amphetamine precursors (P-2-P,
phenylacetic acid, norephedrine)
120
Methamphetamine precursors
(pseudoephedrine, ephedrine)
ATS Trend
90
60
45
25
30
Precursors in metric ton ATS equivalents
0
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Despite the declining incidents, US laboratories still
to manufacture 417 kg of amphetamine; and
amount to 82% of the total reported in 2007. The count
- small amounts (159 kg) of phenylacetic
of laboratories alone does not provide accurate informa-
acid,13 sufficient to manufac ture some 40 kg
tion on the size of manufacturing given that the scale of
of
amphetamine.
operation may differ between laboratories.9
Ecstasy-group
The most commonly used ATS chemical precursors fall
MDMA (and its analogues)
under international control, and their seizures–reported
- 45,986 l of safrole, sufficient to
to the International Narcotics Control Board (INCB)
manufacture 9.7 mt of MDMA;
ααcan provide some limited indications about manu-
- 2,297 l of 3,4-MDP-2-P14,
facturing trends. Seizures of ATS-related precursor
sufficient to manufacture 1.8 mt of MDMA;
chemicals under international control were 45 mt in
- 2 mt of piperonal which could be
2007,10 which is an increase from 2006, but still a low
converted into 760 kg of MDMA; and
level in a 10-year perspective.11 Global seizures of ATS
- 225 l of isosafrole used in the
precursors in 2007 included:
manufacture of MDMA.
Amphetamines-group
ATS producers adapt to evade law enforcement
Methamphetamine
- 25.3 mt of pseudoephedrine and 22.1 mt
There are signs that criminal organizations are adapting
of ephedrine, sufficient to manufacture
their manufacturing operations to avoid control by: 1)
some 31.7mt of methamphetamine.
utilizing precursor chemicals not under international
Amphetamine
control; 2) moving manufacturing operations to more
- 1.2 mt norephedrine, sufficient to
vulnerable locations; and 3) shifting precursor chemicals
manufacture 770 kg of amphetamine;
and drug trafficking routes to new locations to avoid
- 834 litres (l) of P-2-P,12 sufficient
detection.15
Evidence points to increased frequency of manufactur-
9
As yet, there are no internationally accepted forensic reporting stand-
ing ATS using uncontrolled precursors, most notably
ards for clandestine laboratory operations, their chemical precursors,
synthesis routes, drugs produced, and manufacture capacity (such
tableted pharmaceutical preparations16 containing
as frequency of cycle, amount of output, and purity levels), thus
limiting the overall analytical value of simple counts of laboratory
incidents.
amphetamine, a process more commonly seen in North America and
to a lesser degree in Oceania.
10 Expressed in ATS drug weight equivalents.
13 Phenylacetic acid is used in illicit manufacture to synthesize the
11 International Narcotics Control Board (2009), Precursors and chemi-
amphetamines-group precursor P-2-P and is therefore a ‘pre-precur-
cals frequently used in the illicit manufacture of narcotic drugs and
sor.’
psychotropic substances, 2008. (United Nations publication Sales No.
E.09.XI.4) and prior years.
14 Also known as PMK (piperonyl methyl ketone).
12 P-2-P (1-phenyl-2-propanone) also known as benzyl methyl ketone
15 Amphetamines and Ecstasy: 2008 Global ATS Assessment (United
(BMK), is typically used in the manufacture of amphetamine com-
Nations publication, Sales No. E.08.XI.12).
monly in Europe but can be also used for the manufacture of meth-
16 Pharmaceutical preparations are drugs intended for human or veteri-
118
1. Trends in the world drug markets Amphetamine-type stimulants market
ATS manufacture is rapidly spreading to vulnerable
Fig. 71: Proportion of methamphetamine back-
track investigations involving pharma-
locations
ceutical preparations as the chemical
As awareness, restrictions and enforcement against ATS
precursors for methamphetamine
manufacture increase in known problem areas, manufac-
Source: International Narcotics Control Board, Trafficking in
ture has expanded into vulnerable nearby countries. For
Pharmaceutical Preparations for the Illicit Manufacture of ATS,
presented at the 52nd Commission on Narcotic Drugs (March
example, from the USA manufacture shifted south to
17, 2009, Vienna).
Mexico. As Mexico responded with strong counter-
methamphetamine initiatives manufacturing activities
100%
moved south to Latin America, including Argentina,
83%
Guatemala, Honduras, and Peru. Similar shifts may also
be occurring in South Asia where India and Sri Lanka
75%
reported their first operational methamphetamine labo-
ratories in 2008, and reported seized manufacturing
50%
equipment and chemicals in 2007.21
28%
Trafficking routes are increasingly shifting into places
that lack the stability, enforcement and forensics infra-
25%
11%
structure to detect movement of both precursor chemi-
Investigations involving
cals and finished products. 22
pharmaceutical preparations (%)
0%
Methamphetamine manufacture shifts rapidly
Operation
Operation Ice
Investigations
Crystal Flow
Block (02.01.08-
Post Ice Block
North America, which accounts for most of the reported
(01.01.07-
30.09.08)-40
(01.10.08-
methamphetamine operations globally, saw a decline in
30.06.07)-35
Cases
01.03.09)-41
2007 (17%). The USA accounts for 82% of the total
Cases
Cases
number of methamphetamine laboratories seized in
2007, a figure which has been in decline since nation-
pseudo/ephedrine17 and P-2-P based processes in the
wide pharmaceutical precursor controls were enacted in
manufacture of methamphetamine.18 Tableted pharma-
2005.23 However, preliminary reports for 200824 sug-
ceutical preparations containing pseudo/ephedrine do
gest that manufacture may be rebounding in the USA,
not fall under the same international controls as bulk
as illustrated by increases in US clandestine laboratory
chemicals containing the identical chemicals, and there-
incidents and increased “smurfing” activity.25
fore are more easily accessible.19
The number of laboratories reported by Mexico and
Besides benzaldehyde, a growing number of other
Canada remains comparatively small, although the size
emerging substitute precursor chemicals have been
of the laboratories may on average be larger.26 There is
recently identified related to methamphetamine20 syn-
thesis including: α-phenylacetoacetonitrile (converts
21 UNODC, Global SMART Update 2009, Volume 1 (March). Since
easily into P-2-P), and methyl phenylacetate, ethyl phe-
2003 India has reported several attempts at methamphetamine-
nylacetate, amyl phenylacetate and isobutyl phenylace-
related manufacture, none of which came to fruition.
tate (which can all be converted into phenylacetic
22 Amphetamines and Ecstasy: 2008 Global ATS Assessment (United
acid).
Nations publication, Sales No. E.08.XI.12).
23 Incidents are defined to include all counts of various types of labs (for
example, extraction, manufacturing, cutting and packaging), chemi-
cal dumpsites, and drug processing chemical and glassware seizures.
nary use, presented in their finished dosage form (for example, pills
24 US Department of Justice (2008). National Methamphetamine Threat
and tablets). Over-the-counter cold medicines in pill form or bulk
Assessment 2009 (National Drug Intelligence Center, Product No.
precursors tableted into pill form would be classified as pharmaceuti-
2008-Q0317-006). Johnstown, PA.
cal preparations and are increasingly used in clandestine manufac-
25 Smurfing–unique to methamphetamine manufacture–is a term used
ture.
to describe the emergence of groups who shop multiple pharmacies
17 The term pseudo/ephedrine refers to both or either ephedrine or
making many small purchases of pharmaceutical precursor chemi-
pseudoephedrine.
cals, thereby avoiding sales restrictions and law enforcement atten-
tion. This phenomenon, also known as pill or pharmacy shopping,
18 International Narcotics Control Board, Trafficking in Pharmaceutical
or pseudo-running, and has occurred in other places where over-
Preparations for the Illicit Manufacture of ATS, presented at the 52nd
the-counter pharmaceuticals used in the manufacture in metham-
Commission on Narcotic Drugs (March 17, 2009, Vienna).
phetamine have become restricted (for example, Australia and New
19 In January 2009, Mexican authorities reportedly seized more than 8
Zealand).
million pseudoephedrine tablets (equivalent to 3 mt) aboard a ship
26 The USA reported 11 large to industrial-sized laboratories in 2007,
which embarked from South Korea. (Guadalajara Reporter, Police
while Mexico and Canada reported 22 and 17 laboratories, respec-
seize eight million illegal pills in Manzanillo, 31 January, 2009.)
tively. (US Department of Justice (2008). National Methamphetamine
20 Amphetamines-group substances synthesized via P-2-P can result in
Threat Assessment 2009 (National Drug Intelligence Center, Product
either amphetamine or methamphetamine, but outside of Europe
No. 2008-Q0317-006). Johnstown, PA., and previous years. None of
they more commonly result in methamphetamine.
these were identified as small scale laboratories in the ARQ.
119
World Drug Report 2009
Fig. 72: North America methamphetamine laboratories reported (all sizes), 1998-2007
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data / DELTA
60
18,000
USA laboratories (#)
40
12,000
5,700
20
22
6,000
Laboratories (#)
17
1,604
6
2
-
0
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Canada
Mexico
USA (right-scale)
evidence that Canada-based Asian organized crime
South-East Asia are often significant industrial-sized
groups and outlaw motorcycle gangs have significantly
operations, which have grown in sophistication over the
increased the amount of methamphetamine they manu-
last few years.31 While manufacture has been reported in
facture and export, for the US market, but also for
many countries, operations in China, Myanmar and the
Oceania and East and South-East Asia.27
Philippines account for most of the production.32
Many operations in Mexico were disrupted in 2007 and
China accounts for the majority of reported metham-
as a result, Mexican-based drug cartels have spread their
phetamine laboratories seized in East and South-East
risks by diversifying manufacturing methods28 and
Asia. Seventy-five predominately methamphetamine
moved to other countries in Latin America or back to
laboratories were reported in 2007, an annual increase
the USA.29
of nearly 50% since 2005. The sophistication and size of
these operations are significant, as seen when authorities
Methamphetamine manufacture is increasing
in Guangdong seized one of the largest methampheta-
in other regions
mine laboratories ever discovered, along with 1.7 mt of
Methamphetamine manufacture has also grown consid-
liquefied methamphetamine.33 The increase in Keta-
erably outside of the Americas from 46 laboratories
mine34 manufacture can be seen clearly in the number
reported a decade ago to 700 in 2007,30 with the largest
of clandestine laboratories reported (from 17 in 2006 to
increase in East and South-East Asia, Oceania, Europe,
44 in 2007) as demand for the drug increases through-
and Southern Africa. Laboratory operations in East and
out the region, particularly in Hong Kong, China.
The source for much of the tableted form of metham-
27 US Department of Justice. (2008). National Methamphetamine Threat
phetamine (‘yaba’) found in East and South-East Asia
Assessment 2009 (National Drug Intelligence Center, Product No.
occurs within Myanmar35, as precursors enter from
2008-Q0317-006). Johnstown, PA; Australian Crime Commission
porous borders from India, China and Thailand.
(2009). Illicit Drug Data Report 2006–07 (Revised March 2009);
Recent Illicit Synthetic Drug Smuggling Situation in Japan. Pre-
sented by the Customs and Tariff Bureau, Ministry of Finance, Japan
at the 18th Anti-Drug Liaison Officials’ Meeting for International
31 Amphetamines and Ecstasy: 2008 Global ATS Assessment (United
Cooperation (ADLOMICO), (September, 2008, Busan, Republic of
Nations publication, Sales No. E.08.XI.12).
Korea).
32 Information based on 92 mentions of the origin of seized metham-
28 US Department of Justice. (2008). Changes in Drug Production, Traf-
phetamines. Mentions of Japan as a source country reflects the dif-
ficking, and Abuse, Second Half-Year CY2007 (National Drug Intel-
ficulty in identifying source countries and transiting countries. Japan
ligence Center). Johnstown, PA; US Department of Justice. (2008).
has reported no clandestine manufacture to UNODC.
Emerging Threat Report, Alternative chemicals sought to produce meth-
33 UNODC, Global SMART Update 2009, Volume 1 (March).
amphetamine precursors (Drug Enforcement Administration, DEA
34 Ketamine is a licit pharmaceutical illicitly used as a hallucinogen.
08035, October 2008).
While it is not an ATS it is increasingly encountered in ATS markets,
29 US Department of Justice (2008). National Methamphetamine Threat
either in connection with the “club-drug” scene, or found knowingly
Assessment 2009 (National Drug Intelligence Center, Product No.
or unknowingly as an active ingredient in what is sold on illicit
2008-Q0317-006). Johnstown, PA.
markets as ‘ecstasy’. Ketamine is not currently under international
30 The Republic of Moldova, which reports on average 80 metham-
control.
phetamine laboratories annually (2004-2006), failed to report any
35 There are indications that high potency crystalline methampheta-
drug manufacturing to UNODC in 2007.
mine is also being manufactured there.
120
1. Trends in the world drug markets Amphetamine-type stimulants market
Fig. 73: Sources of seized East and South East
Fig. 74: Number of East and South East Asia
Asia methamphetamine as mentioned
amphetamines-group laboratories
by Member States, 2002-2007
(all sizes), 1998-2007
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data / DELTA.
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data.
120
China (28.3%)
26
Philippines (22.8%)
102
21
100
Myanmar (16.3%)
15
Thailand (14.1%)
13
Malaysia (3.3%)
80
3
Taiwan,
2
Prov. of China (2.2%)
Japan (2.2%)
2
60
Indonesia (2.2%)
2
Lao PDR (2.2%)
2
40
Hong Kong SAR,
1
China (1.1%)
Cambodia (1.1%)
1
16
20
South East Asia
4
(unknown) (4.3%) 0
5
10
15
20
25
30
-
Methamphetamine mentions (#)
Amphetamines-group laboratory incidents (#)
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
Manufacture is allegedly controlled by the United Wa
third consecutive year of increases.40
State Army (UWSA), the Shan State Army-South (SSA-
S)36 and groups in the Kokang Autonomous Region,
Transnational criminal organizations shift operations
and are increasingly trafficked throughout the Greater
to vulnerable areas; size and sophistication increase
Mekong Subregion (GMS).37 In 2007, only five tablet-
Subregional shifts in manufacture to new areas within
ing facilities were reported. However, reports from
the Greater Mekong Subregion and beyond are occur-
neighbouring countries suggest that the number of
ring as criminal syndicates increasingly exploit new vul-
clandestine manufacturing operations is significantly
nerable areas in which to synthesize methamphetamine
higher38 than seizures would suggest.
undetected. For example, significant methamphetamine-
related manufacture was first reported in Cambodia in
The Philippines remains a significant source of high
2007 and Viet Nam in 2005.41
potency crystalline methamphetamine (‘shabu’) used
both domestically and exported to locations in East
Indonesia and Malaysia have reported increasing inci-
and South East Asia and Oceania. Manufacture often
dents, size and sophistication of ATS manufacture.
occurs in industrial-sized laboratories operated by tran-
Operations discovered there are some of the world’s larg-
snational organized crime with most chemists being
est and most sophisticated industrial-sized operations to
foreign nationals.39 In 2007, a notable increase in the
date, both requiring an unprecedented level of logistical
seizure of methamphetamine-related manufacturing
support to fully operate.42 In 2007/08 Indonesian
facilities was reported with nine significant laboratories
authorities reported ketamine findings at several clan-
(and an additional 13 chemical warehouses) seized,
destine methamphetamine laboratories, raising the pos-
increasing in 2008 to 10 laboratories, marking the
sibility that local manufacture of ketamine may also
occur as its use increases.43
36 UNODC Regional Crime Centre for Asia and the Pacific. Patterns
40 Country report by the Philippines (UNODC/HONLAP/2009/32/
and Trends of amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) and other drugs
CRP.6). Thirty-second Meeting of Heads of National Drug Law
abused in East Asia and the Pacific 2005. (Bangkok, June 2006);
Enforcement Agencies, Asia and the Pacific (February 2009, Bang-
UNODC. Amphetamines and Ecstasy: 2008 Global ATS Assessment
kok).
(United Nations publication, Sales No. E.08.XI.12); US Department
41 Amphetamines and Ecstasy: 2008 Global ATS Assessment (United
of State, Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement
Nations publication, Sales No. E.08.XI.12).
Affairs, International Narcotics Control Strategy Report (Washington
D.C., 2009).
42 At the Kulim laboratory—an operation estimated to have a the-
oretical production cycle of 1.4 mt used P-2-P believed to have
37 A region encompassing Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, Thailand,
been manufactured from α-phenylacetoacetonitrile, a chemical not
Viet Nam, and bordering provinces of south China.
under international control, to manufacture methamphetamine.
38 Drug situation 1-15 December 2006, presented to UNODC, Thai-
The National Project Workplan for National Narcotics Board Indo-
land Office of the Narcotics Control Board (ONCB).
nesia: Improving ATS data and information systems, presented at the
39 Philippine Country Report, Current Situation and Recent Trends
Regional ATS forum (August 2007).
in ATS Manufacture and Precursor Diversion. Joint Meeting of 4th
43 Country report by the Indonesia (UNODC/HONLAP/2009/32/
Asian Collaborative Group on Local Precursor Control (ACoG) and
CRP.8). Thirty-second Meeting of Heads of National Drug Law
4th International Forum on Control of Precursors for ATS (IFCP)
Enforcement Agencies, Asia and the Pacific (February 2009, Bang-
12-15 February 2008 Tokyo, Japan.
kok).
121
World Drug Report 2009
Fig. 75: Oceania amphetamines-group laboratories seized (all sizes), 1998-2007
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data / DELTA.
600
518
500
400
300
200
96
100
Amphetamines-group laboratories (#)
-
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Australia
New Zealand
Oceania amphetamines-group laboratory seizures
drine are trafficked from China to New Zealand annually.
stable at high levels
The authorities estimate that it could be used to synthe-
size 630 kg of methamphetamine.48 However, most
Amphetamines-group laboratory seizures in Oceania44
clandestine operations detected appear to be using
have remained at high levels for the past several years.
domestically diverted pharmaceutical precursors.
However, in 2007, there were signs of a moderate
decrease. Australia reported a total of 328 (an 8% decline
There is still a risk that manufacturing could become
from the previous year) amphetamines-group and com-
established in other countries in Oceania, as seven of the
bination ATS-type operations (excluding MDMA only
countries are not yet parties to the 1988 United Nations
operations) and New Zealand reported 190 ampheta-
Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and
mines-group laboratories (10% decrease), each predom-
Psychotropic Substances.49
inantly methamphetamine-related.45
Methamphetamine manufacture in Europe is lim-
Significant methamphetamine precursors continue to be
ited to Central and Eastern Europe
intercepted by customs and law enforcement in both
In Europe, methamphetamine manufacture is largely
countries. In Australia, large quantities of pseudo/ephe-
limited to a number of countries in Central Europe and
drine continue to be imported via air cargo.46 In July
East Europe (405 cases in 2007). Compared to 2006, a
2008, Australian authorities intercepted a single ship-
15% decline was noted in total laboratories reported to
ment of 850 kg of pseudoephedrine trafficked from
UNODC. However, inconsistencies in reporting makes
Thailand.47 Increases were also noted in P-2-P based
it difficult to compare the figures.50 The majority of
precursors.
operations are small scale and the main producing coun-
New Zealand estimates that as many as 10 million phar-
try is the Czech Republic (96%). In 2007, Poland and
maceutical precursors tablets containing pseudoephe-
Portugal also reported methamphetamine manufac-
ture.51
44 Only Australia and New Zealand provide regular reporting of their
drug situations to UNODC.
48 National Drug Intelligence Bureau, Illicit Drug Assessment 2008. Wel-
45 Note these figures include extraction laboratories/operations for the
lington; National Drug Intelligence Bureau, Precursors and Chemicals
manufacture of methamphetamine. Australian Crime Commission
used for Methamphetamine Manufacture in New Zealand. July 2008,
(2009). Illicit Drug Data Report 2006–07 (Revised March 2009).
Wellington.
The figures from Australia include 249 amphetamines-group only
49 These include Kiribati, the Marshall Islands, Nauru, Palau, Papua
laboratories and 79 “other” clandestine laboratories, but exclude
New Guinea, Solomon Islands and Tuvalu.
MDMA only laboratories. The “other” category has historically
50 For example, the Republic of Moldova averaged 80 laboratories per
included cases/ laboratories containing equipment and chemicals
year between 2004-06, but did not provide an ARQ in 2007. The
associated with making unknown ATS, and were therefore included
Russian Federation lists methamphetamine as an end product manu-
in the broader group. See, Australian Crime Commission (2007).
factured domestically, however only seizure of amphetamine labora-
Illicit Drug Data Report 2004–05, and previous years.
tories were reported to UNODC. There are reports of widespread
46 Australian Crime Commission (2009). Illicit Drug Data Report
small scale manufacture in the Ukraine, but laboratories (7) were last
2006–07 (Revised March 2009).
officially reported in 1998.
47 UNODC, Global SMART Update 2009, Volume 1 (March).
51 Amphetamine-type stimulants in the European Union 1998-2007:
122
1. Trends in the world drug markets Amphetamine-type stimulants market
Fig. 76: Czech Republic: illicit methamphetamine laboratories and licit tableted pharmaceutical
precursors sales, 1998-2007
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data / DELTA; Havlíček, S. (2008). Pharmacies and Clandestine Production of Meth-
amphetamine in the Czech Republic, presented at the 2008 Global Conference on Methamphetamine: Science, Strategy, and
Response (September 2008, Prague). Czech Chamber of Pharmacists.
Est. sales of pharmaceutical precursors
450
3,329
3,500
400
Czech Rep.
3,000
(thousands of packages)
Estimated Sales (thousands of PSE packages)
388
350
2,500
300
250
2,000
200
1,500
150
1,000
100
377
500
50
19
Methamphetamine laboratories (#)
-
0
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
The number of Czech Republic methamphetamine
Fig. 77: South Africa: seized methampheta-
(Pervitin) laboratories reported in 2007 (388) suggests
mine and methcathinone laboratories
that a possible stabilization–at a high level–may be
(all sizes), 2002-2007
occurring. In this country, the majority of metham-
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data / DELTA.
phetamine synthesis utilizes tableted pharmaceutical
preparations. This shows in the estimated 82% of
40
domestic pharmaceutical sales which were used for illicit
manufacture.52 New 2009 restrictions limiting the sale
of pharmaceutical preparations containing pseudoephe-
30
drine may impact the methamphetamine production in
the Czech Republic.
20
There are emerging reports of increased methampheta-
13
mine manufacture throughout the Baltic countries.
12
Poland, known as a source of amphetamine, reported its
Seized laboratories (#)
10
first methamphetamine laboratory in 2007. There are
10
also reports of manufacturing of considerable scale in
1
Lithuania.
0
In South Africa, methamphetamine laboratories
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
outpace methcathinone
Methamphetamine
Methcathinone
South Africa dismantled 12 clandestine methampheta-
mine (‘tik’) laboratories in 2007, a decline from 2006
ever, little is seized in relation to illicit activities.54 In an
(17). However, for the first time the number of meth-
effort to stem domestic diversion into illicit drug manu-
amphetamine laboratories seized outpaced those of
facture, the Government in April 2008 amended its
methcathinone (
, 10 reported in 2007).53 While
Medicines and Related Substances Act (1965) to include
declining, South Africa legally imports significant
pharmaceutical preparations containing pseudo/ephe-
amounts of licit ephedrine and pseudoephedrine, how-
drine.
Europol contribution to the Expert Consultations for the UNGASS
assessment. Europol (The Hague, July 2007).
52 Havlíček, S. (2008). Pharmacies and Clandestine Production of Meth-
54 International Narcotics Control Board (2009). Precursors and chemi-
amphetamine in the Czech Republic, presented at the 2008 Global
cals frequently used in the illicit manufacture of narcotic drugs and
Conference on Methamphetamine: Science, Strategy, and Response
psychotropic substances, 2008. (United Nations publication Sales No.
(September 2008, Prague). Czech Chamber of Pharmacists.
E.09.XI.4); US Department of State, Bureau for International Nar-
53 Methcathinone manufacture represents a group of ATS grouped
cotics and Law Enforcement Affairs, International Narcotics Control
under ‘other synthetic stimulants.’ These 10 laboratories represent
Strategy Report Volume I Drug and Chemical Control (Washington
39% of the total for that category (26) reported in 2007.
D.C., 2009)
123
World Drug Report 2009
Number of amphetamine laboratories decline;
Fig. 78: Global amphetamine laboratories
locations may be shifting
reported to UNODC (all sizes),
1998-2007
After methamphetamine, the largest group of ATS
manufacture is for combined amphetamine substanc-
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data / DELTA.
es.55 This group of laboratories represents nearly a third
700
of the total, with 453 reported in 2007. Operations that
600
manufacture only amphetamine declined by 23% to
118 in 2007. Most of these operations are located in
500
453
Europe (81%) followed by the Americas (17%).
400
Over the last decade (1998-2007) Europe has reported
300
the dismantling of 971 clandestine amphetamine labo-
ratories (72% of the global total). The largest numbers
200
142
of dismantled operations were reported by the Russian
100
Federation (61% of the European total), Poland (13%),
Amphetamine laboratories (#)
-
the Netherlands (10%), Germany (4%), the UK (3%),
Belgium and Bulgaria (2% each). For 2007, the largest
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
number of European operations were in the Russian
Amphetamine (only)
Federation (62),56 followed by Poland (13), Belgium (7)
Amphetamine (and other ATS)
and Germany and the Netherlands (5 each).
The low figures reported by Belgium, Netherlands and
Bulgaria and to a lesser degree Turkey are believed to be
Poland may not be indicative of manufacture capacity.
the sources for counterfeit pharmaceuticals sold as
Member States in the ARQ often mention these coun-
Captagon–believed to contain amphetamine–increas-
tries as the source of seized amphetamine.57
ingly reported throughout the Near and Middle East.
There are several indications that undetected ampheta-
P-2-P is the most common precursor chemical used in
mine manufacture may already be occurring in the Near
the illicit manufacture of amphetamine throughout
and Middle East.60
Europe, where it accounted for 93% of the global sei-
zures reported to the INCB in 2007.58 However, total
Significant ecstasy manufacture in Europe, North
P-2-P seized in Europe in 2007 amounted to only 773
America, Oceania, and East and South-East Asia
litres (l), the lowest levels in the new millennium. Only
four countries, Germany (243 l), Poland (241 l), the
Ecstasy-group laboratories totalled 72 in 2007, which is
Russian Federation (191 l) and Estonia (51 l), reported
higher than 2006, but similar to levels seen in recent
seizures. Small amounts of phenylacetic acid (used to
years. Manufacture in 2007 was reported in just eight
make P-2-P) were seized in 2007 by Bulgaria (50 kg)
countries: Australia (19), Indonesia (16), Canada (14),
and Lithuania (106 kg).
USA (12), Netherlands (8), France (1), Mexico (1) and
Spain (1). Operationally, ecstasy manufacture (predomi-
Organized crime operating in the Netherlands and to a
nately MDMA) is more demanding than the manufac-
lesser extent Belgium still dominate the major manufac-
ture of new ATS. It requires increased skills, specialized
ture of synthetic drugs. Greater sophistication of opera-
equipment, and precursor chemicals. Nearly all MDMA
tions has been noted by Europol, as increased laboratory
operations are large enough to be economically profita-
sizes, higher capacity tableting machinery and segrega-
ble, thus the low number of laboratories may not be a
tion of the production cycle to safeguard operations
sign of low production.
become more commonplace.59
The most significant development in ecstasy-group
manufacture has been the shift of operations from West
55 Many countries do not have the forensic capabilities to differenti-
and Central Europe to locations closer to consumers
ate between various types of ATS operations. These counts include
around the world. 2002/03 marked the period when
amphetamine, non-specified amphetamine and those laboratories
that manufactured multiple products, but exclude clearly identified
greater numbers of laboratories were seized in regions
laboratories of methamphetamine, ecstasy (MDMA), and other syn-
thetic (fir example methcathinone) laboratories.
56 Note figures may also include methamphetamine operations.
2007. Europol contribution to the Expert Consultations for the
57 Information based on 321 mentions on the origin of amphetamine
UNGASS assessment (The Hague, July 2007).
seizures between 2002 and 2007.
60 For example, Lebanese authorities in 2007 successfully intercepted
58 International Narcotics Control Board (2009). Precursors and chemi-
laboratory equipment and precursor chemicals for Captagon manu-
cals frequently used in the illicit manufacture of narcotic drugs and
facture smuggled into the country by Bulgarian nationals; in 2007,
psychotropic substances, 2008. (United Nations publication Sales No.
the INCB reported that 75% of licit global trade in the amphetamine
E.09.XI.4)
precursor P-2-P was destined for two countries located in the Near
59 Europol, Amphetamine-type Stimulants in the European Union 1998-
and Middle East allowing for a localized source for diversion.
124
1. Trends in the world drug markets Amphetamine-type stimulants market
Fig. 79: Global ecstasy-group laboratories
Fig. 80: Regional ecstasy-group laboratories
reported to UNODC (all sizes),
reported to UNODC, 1998-2007
1998-2007
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data / DELTA.
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data / DELTA.
70
62
100
60
50
80
72
40
60
30
23
20
10
10
40
34
10
-
20
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Ecstasy-group laboratories seized (#)
Ecstasy-group laboratory incidents (#)
-
North America
Oceania
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
East and South-East Asia
West & Central Europe
outside Europe, most notably North America, Oceania,
been large capacity facilities operated principally by
and East and South-East Asia. Several instances of Euro-
Asian organized crime groups.64 The number of labora-
pean-based criminal expertise (for example, chemists)
tories in the USA appears comparable to other produc-
were also observed in these regions.61
ers, however, US operations tend to be smaller in nature,
providing limited amounts for domestic consumption.
The Netherlands was mentioned most frequently as the
On the other hand operations in West and Central
source country for seized ecstasy (178 mentions or
Europe tend to be larger and more sophisticated, and
38.5%), followed by Belgium (9.5%), Germany (5.2%),
produce higher quality products trafficked around the
and the UK (3.2%). Europe overall accounted for 86%
world. For example, the Netherlands seized two of the
of all mentions, in spite of significant shifts in manufac-
largest MDMA laboratories ever in 2007. In 2008, Bra-
ture to regions outside Europe.
zil’s Federal Police dismantled the country’s first clandes-
Precursors for ecstasy-group substances include safrole
tine MDMA laboratory in the southern state of Paraná,
(and safrole-rich oils), isosafrole, piperonal and 3,4-
again illustrating how ATS manufacture is able to shift
MDP-2-P, which are all under international control. In
closer to its consumers.65
2007, only one country, Thailand, reported significant
safrole seizures. Australia (1,907 l), Canada (370 l), and
the Netherlands (20 l) were the only countries reporting
3,4-MDP-2-P seizures in 2007. The total of 2,297 l is
the lowest level in the new millennium. Mexico reported
a single seizure of 2 mt of piperonal, accounting for
nearly all seized in 2007.62 While many of these seizures
point to locations where MDMA manufacture is likely
significant, their amounts clearly do not reflect the req-
uisite chemicals needed to produce the amount of ecstasy
consumed annually.
In Australia, there is continued evidence of notable
domestic manufacture.63 Canada has grown to be the
most important producer of MDMA for North Amer-
ica, and since 2006, all ecstasy laboratories reported have
61 Europol
(2008).
OCTA 2008, EU Organized Crime Threat Assessment
64 US Department of Justice. (2008). National Drug Threat Assessment
(The Hague 2008).
2009 (National Drug Intelligence Center, Product No. 2008-Q0317-
62 Mexico reported an MDMA laboratory in 2007, the first such report
005). Johnstown, PA.
since 2002.
65 Brazil Federal Police, Relatório annual de atividades – 2008. Divisão
63 Australian Crime Commission (2009). Illicit Drug Data Report
de Controle de Produtos Químicos. Note, the majority of MDMA
2006–07 (Revised March 2009).
consumed in Brazil is believed to originate in Europe.
125
World Drug Report 2009
1.4.3 Trafficking
Global ATS seizures increase in 2007, surpassing
increasing.4 Moreover, the precursor chemicals from
previous records
which ATS materials are manufactured continue to be
trafficked throughout the world. They are often diverted
Global seizures of amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS)1
from licit manufacture in South, East and South-East
have continued to increase, totalling nearly 52 metric
Asia.
tons (mt) in 2007, surpassing their 2000 peak by nearly
3 mt.2 The proportion of Member States that reported
Amphetamine continues to dominate
ATS seizures was 65%, the highest level recorded. The
global ATS seizures
countries also reported an increase in average weight
seized, from 492 kg in 2000 to 555 kg in 2007.3
The amphetamines-group5 dominates ATS seizures,
accounting for 85% of all seizures by volume. However,
Trafficking in ATS substances is most commonly intra-
2007 saw a dramatic jump in ecstasy-group6 seizures
regional – thus crossing fewer international borders –
(15% of all ATS seized), as significant increases were
because manufacture typically occurs near the consumer
noted in several large markets. In 2006, amphetamine
market. This partially explains the relatively low levels of
seizures were higher than methamphetamine. This trend
ATS seized compared to cocaine and heroin seizures.
continued in 2007, when amphetamine accounted for
However, data suggests that interregional trafficking is
46% of all ATS seized.
Fig. 81: Global seizures of amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS), 1990 - 2007
Source: UNODC, Annual Report Questionnaire Data/DELTA; UNODC Drug Information Network for Asia and the Pacific (DAINAP);
Government reports; World Customs Organization (WCO), Customs and Drugs Report 2007 (Brussels, 2008) and previous years.
60
51.6
50
40
30
20
10
0
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
ATS seized (in metric tons equivalents)
Amphetamines Group
Ecstasy Group
1
Amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) are a group of substances com-
prised of synthetic stimulants including amphetamine, metham-
phetamine, methcathinone and ecstasy-group substances (MDMA
and its analogues).
2
To standardize, seizures reported in kilograms, litres and dose/units/
pills/tablets are transformed into kg equivalents: a dose of “ecstasy”
was assumed to contain on average 100 mg of psychoactive ingredient
4
Amphetamines and Ecstasy: 2008 Global ATS Assessment (United
(MDMA); a dose of amphetamine/methamphetamine was assumed
Nations publication, Sales No. E.08.XI.12).
to contain 30 mg of active ingredient; a litre was assumed to equal a
5 The
amphetamines-group substances includes predominately meth-
kilogram. Until 1999 ‘other hallucinogens’ were included in data for
amphetamine and amphetamine, but also includes non-specified
the ecstasy-group substances, but the proportion of ecstasy-group in
amphetamines-group (for example, tablets sold as Captagon, meth-
the total exceeded 90% for most years.
cathinone, fenetylline, methylphenidate and others), however it
3
It is important to note that drug and precursor seizure data are sub-
excludes substances purportedly of the ecstasy-group of substances.
ject to change for a variety of reasons, such as new or late data being
6 The
ecstasy-group substances include predominately MDMA, with
added or revisions in data already provided by Member States. All
MDA and MDEA/MDE. However, limited forensic capacity by
data reported in trafficking reflect the most up-to-date and accurate
Member States often leads to confusion about the actual content of
information available at the time of printing.
tablets believed to be “ecstasy” (MDMA).
126
1. Trends in the world drug markets Amphetamine-type stimulants market
The majority of ATS seizures worldwide occur primarily
Fig. 82: ATS seized, by substance type, 2007
(total: 51.6 mt)
in the four subregions with distinct patterns:
Source: UNODC, Annual Report Questionnaire Data/DELTA;
Near and Middle East (29%)–primarily fake Captagon
UNODC Drug Information Network for Asia and the Pacific
tablets likely containing amphetamine;
(DAINAP); Government reports; World Customs Organization
(WCO), Customs and Drugs Report 2007 (June 2008) and pre-
vious years.
East and South-East Asia (23%)
–primarily methamphetamine;
West and Central Europe (22%)–primarily ampheta-
mine and ecstasy; and
Meth-
amphetamine
North America (18%)–primarily methamphetamine
35%
and ecstasy.
Amphetamine
47%
Each of these subregions is also a significant manufac-
turing area. The one exception is the Near and Middle
Non-specified
East, where no clandestine manufacture has been
Ecstasy-group amphetamine
reported. However, undetected amphetamine manufac-
15%
13.5%
ture may be occurring in the subregion. This is because
ATS are typically manufactured in the subregion in
which they are consumed, and because of several indica-
While drug seizures vary dramatically from year to year,
tors of manufacture in the subregion. For example,
clear increases in the amount of amphetamine seized
Lebanese authorities in 2007 intercepted laboratory
began around 2000, with large increases reported in
equipment and precursor chemicals for Captagon man-
2005. These increases are due, in large part, to intercep-
ufacture; 75% of licit global trade in the Captagon
tions of a fake pharmaceutical marketed as Captagon
precursor 1-phenyl-2-propanone (P-2-P)8 in 2007 was
(amphetamine) in the Near and Middle East.7 Seizures
destined for two countries in the Near and Middle East;
of methamphetamine, until recently the main ATS
and intelligence reports support the assertion that ongo-
seized in East and South-East Asia and North America,
ing manufacturing has been occurring in the Syrian
have declined somewhat since 2005, and remain at some
Arab Republic since at least 2006 (although no labora-
18 mt.
tories have been detected to date).9
Fig. 83: Global ATS seizures, by substance type, 1998-2007
Source: UNODC, Annual Report Questionnaire Data/DELTA; UNODC Drug Information Network for Asia and the Pacific (DAINAP);
Government reports; World Customs Organization (WCO), Customs and Drugs Report 2007 (Brussels, 2008) and previous years
60
50.7
51.6
48.7
47.8
50
44.5
4.9
5.0
7.9
41.9
5.2
39.1
4.7
2.9
1.8
8.2
40
4.9
8.2
4.7
3.2
31.1
2.8
29.8
3.7
4.3
30
3.2
4.6
8.7
21.6
23.6
18.8
1.3
6.9
12.9
4.1
1.6
20
16.3
35.8
4.5
1.0
26.9
25.5
8.0
10
21.1
19.6
16.8
18.1
18.8
18.2
1.8
5.5
0
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
ATS seized (in metric tons equivalents)
Metham phetam ine
Am phetam ine
Non-s pec ified am phetam ines
Ec s tas y Group
9 Lebanon Drug Enforcement Central Bureau, presentation at the
Working Group Meeting on Captagon Smuggling to the Middle East
Region, (December 2008, Beirut); Turkish National Police, Depart-
ment Of Anti-Smuggling And Organized Crime (KOM), Annual
Report 2008. Ministry of the Interior (February 2009, Ankara) and
previous years. International Narcotics Control Board (2009). Precur-
sors and chemicals frequently used in the illicit manufacture of narcotic
7
See special Captagon feature in this chapter.
drugs and psychotropic substances, 2008. (United Nations publication
8
Also know as benzyl methyl ketone (BMK).
Sales No. E.09.XI.4)
127
World Drug Report 2009
Fig. 84: Global ATS seizures, by subregion, 1998-2007
Source: UNODC, Annual Report Questionnaire Data/DELTA; UNODC Drug Information Network for Asia and the Pacific (DAINAP);
Government reports; World Customs Organization (WCO), Customs and Drugs Report 2007 (June 2008) and previous years.
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Seizures of ATS (mt equivalents)
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Eas t and South-Eas t As ia
Wes t & C entral Europe
Near and Middle Eas t
North Am eric a
Oc eania
All other regions
Ten countries in five distinct subregional markets
However 2007 saw a decline of about 2.5 mt over the
accounted for more than 80% of all ATS seized. The
prior year from decreases in the non-specified ampheta-
most significant ATS seizures are reported from Saudi
mines group. The more recent increases have been driven
Arabia (27% of all ATS), China and the USA (12%
primarily by amphetamine in the Near and Middle East,
each), the Netherlands (10%), Canada, the United
Europe and North America, while seizures reported
Kingdom,10 Australia, Indonesia, Thailand and Myan-
from East and South-East Asia–while substantial–have
mar, all with 5% or less.
been on the decline. In 2007, the Near and Middle East
accounted for about a third of global seizures (43.2 mt
Trafficking in amphetamines-group substances
total), followed by East/ South East Asia, West and Cen-
tral Europe, and North America.
Decline in seized amphetamines-group substances;
the Near and Middle East leads in amphetamines-
Trafficking in amphetamine
group seizures
Trafficking in fake Captagon (amphetamine)
Seizures of amphetamines-group substances (that is,
in the Near and Middle East dominates global
amphetamine, methamphetamine and non-specified
amphetamine seizures
amphetamines) have increased considerably since the
mid-1990s, and again beginning in 2002.
The 23.6 metric tons of amphetamine seized in 2007
Fig. 85: Global seizures of the amphetamines-group substances, by region, 1990 - 2007
Source: UNODC, Annual Report Questionnaire Data/DELTA; UNODC Drug Information Network for Asia and the Pacific (DAINAP);
Government reports; World Customs Organization (WCO), Customs and Drugs Report 2007 (Brussels, 2008) and previous years.
50
40
30
20
10
0
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
(in metric ton equivalents)
Eas t and South-Eas t As ia
Wes t & C entral Europe
Near and Middle Eas t /South-Wes t As ia
North Am eric a
Amphetamines-group substances seized
Oc eania
All Others
10 Figures for the UK include England, Wales, Scotland and Northern
Ireland
128
1. Trends in the world drug markets Amphetamine-type stimulants market
Fig. 86: Global amphetamine seizures, by region, 1998-2007
Source: UNODC, Annual Report Questionnaire Data/DELTA; UNODC Drug Information Network for Asia and the Pacific (DAINAP);
Government reports; World Customs Organization (WCO), Customs and Drugs Report 2007 (Brussels, 2008) and previous years.
24
23.6
18
12
equivalents)
6
1.8
0
Amphetamine seized (in metric tons
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Europe
Near and Middle Eas t
Eas t and South Eas t As ia
represents the highest level of seizures ever for this class
the increase in reported seizure weight, the number of
of drug. The Near and Middle East accounted for nearly
individual Captagon (amphetamine) tablets seized in
two thirds of all amphetamine seized, followed by
selected countries also showed significant increases during
Europe with just over a third. Saudi Arabia accounted
the period 1998 to 2007.
for the vast majority. Notable seizures were also reported
from the Syrian Arab Republic, Jordan and the United
Arab Emirates (UAE). West and Central Europe
Fig. 87: Regional shifts in proportion of
accounted for 94% of all of Europe’s seizures, led by the
amphetamine seizures, 2000-2007
Netherlands, the United Kingdom and Germany.
Source: UNODC, Annual Report Questionnaire Data/DELTA;
UNODC Drug Information Network for Asia and the Pacific
Given the significant increases in the Near and Middle
(DAINAP); Government reports; World Customs Organization
East, Europe’s share of global seizures has declined,
(WCO), Customs and Drugs Report 2007 (June 2008) and pre-
despite an increase in the absolute amounts seized in
vious years.
Europe between 2000 and 2007. European seizures
100%
93%
accounted for 93% of all amphetamine seizures in 2000,
compared to 36% in 2007.
80%
The shifts in the Near and Middle East are concentrated
in several key countries and are largely due to fake Capta-
63%
gon – an ATS product unique to the subregion. In 2007,
60%
Saudi Arabia seized a record 13.9 mt of fake Captagon, a
weight near equivalent to all of the UK’s amphetamines-
group seizures since 2000.11 It is likely that the reported
40%
weight of this significant seizure in Saudi Arabia repre-
36%
sents bulk tablet weight, which includes adulterants and
binders. Many of the seizures depart from the Syrian
Amphetamine seizures (%)
20%
Arab Republic, travel by road via Jordan and arrive in
0%
Saudi Arabia. Several other countries in the subregion
0%
have reported dramatic increases in seizures of these tab-
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
lets since 2004, including Jordan, Syria, UAE, and
Yemen, typically via overland routes and often destined
Near and Middle Eas t
for Saudi Arabia’s large domestic market. In addition to
Europe
11 In March 2009, Saudi Arabia arrested 35 drug traffickers believed
part of four different drug networks operating across the country,
along with 3.4 million fake Captagon tablets. Security spokesman of
Ministry of Interior; Riyadh, Saudi Press Agency 8 March 2009
129
World Drug Report 2009
The evolution of Captagon
More recent studies of Captagon seized in Jordan4, Tur-
key5, Serbia6 and Iraq7 demonstrated the presence of
Captagon® was originally the trade name for a pharmaceu-
amphetamine and caffeine in most Captagon tablets ana-
tical preparation containing fenetylline, a synthetic stimu-
lyzed. Tablets that did not contain amphetamine, con-
lant. Today, Captagon accounts for a significant amount of
tained caffeine, ephedrine and/or a quinine. Fenetylline
seized amphetamine-type stimulants in several countries, was not identified.
particularly in the Near and Middle East region. However,
the drug has experienced a number of transitions since it The most recent laboratory data (2008/09) come from an
was first developed for paediatric and geriatric use and analysis of tablets from countries in the Near and Middle
given its trade name in the 1960s
East mainly as part of a feasibility study initiated by Inter-
pol aimed at assisting countries in that region in the iden-
The original Captagon product contained fenetylline, tification of Captagon manufacturing and trafficking
which is metabolized in the human body to amphetamine.
Fenetylline essentially exerts the same effects as ampheta-
trends. The results from a very limited number of tablets
mine and misuse of fenetylline started as early as the 1970s.
from Jordan and Yemen confirm published data in that the
Diversion from legitimate trade constituted the main main active ingredient is amphetamine. 8
source of fenetylline, and as a result of reports of increasing
From the above it is clear that the Captagon market has
misuse, the substance was placed under international con-
experienced a number of transitions, characteristic for
trol in 1986. No licit manufacture has been reported since many transitions of a legitimate pharmaceutical to an
1987.
entirely clandestine product. The limited forensic data
Similar to what has happened with other ATS that have available show that Captagon today does not contain any
been placed under control, counterfeit or fake products fenetylline, but mainly caffeine and a range of other con-
started to appear. In the case of Captagon, pharmaceutical trolled and non-controlled substances. Amphetamine is
companies are reported to have been approached to pro-
the ATS most typically associated with today’s Captagon.
duce counterfeit Captagon tablets. Subsequently, clandes-
The amount of amphetamine found in Captagon, how-
tine operators moved to the production of entirely fake ever, is generally low (below the standard transformation
products that did not contain any fenetylline but combi-
ratio of 30mg per dose, used in most calculations to con-
nations of substances that mimic the effects of the original
vert tablet seizures into units of weight).
product. Such fake products are today predominant on
illicit markets.
The presence of many of the other ingredients cannot be
explained easily based on their pharmacology and that of
Throughout this transition, the original brand name the original drug fenetylline, and remains open to specula-
Captagon and the original physical appearance of tablets tion. Synergistic effects, reputation (for example as sexual
has continued to be used in an attempt by illicit manufac-
stimulant), or contamination from the production process
turers to build on the reputation of the original product.
are all possible explanations.
The primary market for Captagon has traditionally been Regardless of why Captagon tablets nowadays contain such
countries in the Near and Middle East, where it is popular
a variety of ingredients, their systematic forensic examina-
among the younger, affluent population and where it has tion and the collective results, that is, from analysis of the
also enjoyed a reputation as sexual stimulant since the physical appearance (tablet design), the chemical composi-
beginning of the 1980s.
tion (both active ingredients and tableting aids), and the
Today, despite increasing seizures of Captagon, there is still
impurity profile of the amphetamine, provide a wealth of
a lack of information on its chemical composition. What valuable information for drug intelligence. So far, this tool
seems to be clear is that while until the early 1990s seized remains heavily underutilized.
Captagon was found to contain fenetylline, there have not
been any such reports since. The few forensic studies avail-
4 Alabdalla, M.A. (2005), Chemical characterization of counterfeit
able from that time suggest that fake Captagon then con-
Captagon tablets seized in Jordan, Forensic Science International, 152,
sisted mainly of combinations of caffeine, ephedrine and
185-188.
quinine, usually mixed with sugars such as lactose. 5 Turkish Drug Report, 2001
Amphetamine was also occasionally encountered.1 2 3
6 Nevešćanin, M., et al. (2008), Analysis of amphetamines illegally
produced in Serbia, Journal of the Serbian Chemical Society, 73 (7),
691-701.
1 Dimova, D. and Dinkov, N. (1994), Psychotropic Substances
7 Intelligence
alert,
Captagon mimic tablets (containing d,l-amphet-
of the Amphetamine-Type Used By Drug Addicts in Bulgaria,
amine, caffeine, theophylline, and other components) in Al Anbar
UNDCP SCITEC Publication Series, SCITEC/10.
province, Iraq, Micogram Bulletin, 42 (3), March 2009; Note:
2
Al-Gharably, N. and Al-Obaid, A-R. (1994), Journal of the Forensic
Amphetamine calculated as sulfate; diphenhydramine and quinine
Science Society (now: Science & Justice), 34 (3), 165-167.
calculated as hydrochlorides.
3
Al-Hussaini, SR (1996), Counterfeit Captagon: an analytical study,
8 Rainer Dahlenburg, Forensic Expert, Bundeskriminalamt, Ger-
Science & Justice, 36 (3), 139-142.
many, personal communication.
130
World Drug Report 2009
Fig. 89: Amphetamine (with non-specified amphetamines) seized in Europe, 1990-2007
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data.
8.9
9
6
3
0.7
0
Seizures (in metric tons equivalents)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Am phetam ine
Am phetam ine+Non-s pec ified Am phetam ines
Non-s pec ified Am phetam ines
T
T
able 21: op European Countries (rank ordered) in combined amphetamine and non-specified
amphetamine seizures (mt), 1998-2007
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data/DELTA
County (Top 10)
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Total
United Kingdom*
1.81
1.30
2.03
1.85
1.55
1.78
1.49
2.23
1.64
2.07
17.75
Netherlands
1.46
0.85
0.29
0.58
0.48
0.88
0.59
2.03
0.63
2.85
10.64
Belgium
0.45
0.34
0.08
0.08
0.50
0.21
2.54
0.18
0.12
0.48
4.97
Germany
0.31
0.36
0.27
0.26
0.36
0.48
0.56
0.67
0.71
0.81
4.80
Bulgaria
0.00
0.09
0.21
0.06
0.18
0.59
1.46
1.12
0.88
0.12
4.71
Sweden
0.13
0.12
0.10
0.25
0.33
0.33
0.44
0.42
0.42
0.29
2.83
Turkey
0.01
0.04
0.01
0.03
0.26
0.16
0.35
0.27
0.73
0.46
2.32
Poland
0.05
0.05
0.14
0.19
0.16
0.19
0.24
0.46
0.33
0.42
2.25
France
0.20
0.23
0.52
0.06
0.15
0.27
0.08
0.11
0.08
0.31
2.00
Norway
0.21
0.05
0.09
0.09
0.21
0.22
0.23
0.12
0.32
0.39
1.93
Subtotal 4.64
3.43
3.75
3.46
4.18
5.11
7.96
7.60
5.86
8.21
54.20
* England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland.
Trafficking in methamphetamine
Fig. 90: Methamphetamine seizures, by
Methamphetamine markets are concentrated in East
subregion, 2007 (18.2 mt)
and South-East Asia and North America, but more
Source: UNODC, Annual Report Questionnaire Data/DELTA;
countries are reporting seizures
UNODC Drug Information Network for Asia and the Pacific
(DAINAP); Government reports; World Customs Organization
Although the total amount of methamphetamine seized
(WCO), Customs and Drugs Report 2007 (June 2008) and pre-
vious years.
in 2007 has decreased in comparison with previous
years, the increasing number of countries reporting sei-
zures suggest that the market is expanding geographi-
Oceania
cally. The amount of methamphetamine seized in 2007
East and South-East
1.0%
(18.2 mt) represents about half of the amount seized at
Asia
its peak in 2000. In 2007, several countries reported
All others
56.0%
methamphetamine seizures to UNODC for the first
0.4%
time, including Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bosnia and Herze-
West & Central
govina and Kyrgyzstan.14 While the amounts reported
Europe
2.0%
were relatively small, they illustrate the geographical
North America
spread of methamphetamine.
Near and Middle
40.4%
East /South-West
Asia/ North Africa
14 Kyrgyzstan’s seizure was reported in 2008. See UNODC, Global
0.2%
SMART Update 2009, Volume 1 (March).
132
1. Trends in the world drug markets Amphetamine-type stimulants market
T
T
able 22: op countries (rank ordered) in methamphetamine seizures (mt), 1998-2007
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data/DELTA
Top Member
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Total
State/Territory
China
1.61
16.06
20.90
4.84
3.19
5.83
2.75
6.76
6.07
6.09
74.10
Thailand
3.01
4.52
10.08
8.34
8.63
6.51
2.12
0.79
0.51
1.29
45.78
USA
0.00
2.64
0.00
2.86
1.11
3.86
5.74
6.24
7.61
4.89
34.94
Taiwan,
0.89
1.22
0.84
1.16
1.30
3.98
3.17
1.73
0.20
0.12
14.59
Prov. of China
Philippines
0.00
0.94
1.02
1.71
0.91
3.12
3.73
0.10
0.77
0.37
12.68
Mexico
0.00
0.36
0.64
0.40
0.46
0.73
0.95
0.90
0.75
0.92
6.11
Myanmar
0.00
0.89
0.81
0.99
0.42
0.10
0.00
0.39
0.58
0.52
4.70
Japan
0.00
0.00
1.03
0.42
0.44
0.49
0.51
0.13
0.15
0.36
3.53
Indonesia
0.01
0.22
0.01
0.00
0.05
0.02
0.03
0.26
1.24
1.23
3.07
Canada
0.00
0.00
0.02
0.05
0.03
0.02
0.05
0.06
0.06
1.54
1.82
Subtotal
5.52
26.84
35.35
20.76
16.53
24.67
19.04
17.35
17.93
17.34
201.31
Percent of global
100.0%
99.7%
98.8%
98.5%
98.5%
96.7%
96.9%
95.9%
95.3%
95.2%
seizures
The subregions of East and South-East Asia (56%) and
weight. In 2004, tableted methamphetamine (yaba)
North America (40%) continue to account for most of
seizures began increasing in Cambodia, Lao PDR, and
the world’s seized methamphetamine, with relatively low
Viet Nam, suggesting that trafficking routes shifted to
seizures reported elsewhere. Over the last decade, 10
the Mekong River. These shifts have accompanied
Member States (or their territories) accounted for more
increased use in the general population
than 95% of all reported seizures.
Trafficking outside the subregion has also increased.
Over the last decade, several changes have occurred. In
Historically, trafficking of methamphetamine was intra-
1998, 10 Member States (or territories) accounted for all
regional, with laboratories manufacturing for the nearby
global seizures of methamphetamine. In 2007, the same
domestic market. However, over the last few years,
10 Member States accounted for 95%, suggesting that
organized crime groups have increased their involve-
other countries have emerged in the market. Canada
ment, bringing improved logistics, sophistication and
increased its prominence in 2007, linked to increased
production capacity, a more varied product line, and the
manufacture and export by organized crime groups. The
ability to quickly move manufacture to geographic areas
USA saw significant declines in methamphetamine
with weak control regimes.17 Interregional trafficking
seized in 2007.
routes have been identified from Myanmar to Bangla-
desh and India; from Hong Kong, China, to Australia,
Methamphetamine trafficking shifts quickly,
Indonesia, Japan and New Zealand; from the Philip-
with devastating effects
pines to Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the USA;
The Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS),15 where some
and from East and South-East Asia into the Islamic
of the largest single methamphetamine seizures in the
Republic of Iran, Saudi Arabia and the UAE.
world have occurred, is central to methamphetamine
Methamphetamine trafficked from Mexico drops
manufacture, trafficking and use. Thailand, the largest
in 2007, but may be temporary
market in the GMS, significantly increased law enforce-
ment efforts in 2003/04 in response to widespread
Most methamphetamine trafficking in North America
methamphetamine use. As a result, illicit trafficking in
supplies demand in the USA. Methamphetamine manu-
the GMS has relocated from the Golden Triangle16 into
facture in Mexico, and increasingly Canada, represent
neighbouring countries, including Cambodia, Lao Peo-
the bulk of methamphetamine trafficked into the USA.
ple’s Democratic Republic and Viet Nam.
Following consistent increases for several years, 2007
marked the first decline in methamphetamine seized by
Emerging trends can be more clearly seen when measur-
the US authorities along the border with Mexico. This
ing the number of tablets seized, instead of the total
trend was reversed however in 2008, with a return to an
increase in border seizures,18 probably due to increasing
15 A region encompassing Cambodia, Lao People’s Democratic Repub-
lic, Myanmar, Thailand, Viet Nam, and bordering provinces of south
China.
17 Amphetamines and Ecstasy: 2008 Global ATS Assessment (United
16 The Golden Triangle is an area overlapping the borders of Lao PDR,
Nations publication, Sales No. E.08.XI.12).
Myanmar and Thailand.
18 USA National Drug Intelligence Center, National Methamphetamine
133
World Drug Report 2009
Fig. 91: Seized methamphetamine-related tablets, by select country, 2001–2007
Source: UNODC, Annual Report Questionnaire Data/DELTA; UNODC Drug Information Network for Asia and the Pacific (DAINAP);
Viet Nam Country Report from the Joint Meeting of the Fourth Asian Collaborative Group on Local Precursor Control and Fourth
International Forum on Control of Precursors for ATS Meetings (Tokyo, February 2008).
5,000,000
4,500,000
4,000,000
3,500,000
3,000,000
2,500,000
2,000,000
Tablets seized
1,500,000
1,000,000
500,000
-
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
L ao ATS-related tablets
C am bodia ATS-related tablets
Viet Nam ATS-related tablets
methamphetamine manufacturing capacity and sophis-
Fig. 92: USA seizures of methamphetamine
tication in Mexico. Another reason for increases in the
near the Mexico border versus sei-
USA is related to growing ‘smurfing’ activity, where
zures of large to industrial scale USA
criminal groups obtain precursor chemicals used in
clandestine methamphetamine manu-
manufacture through small purchases from multiple
facture, 2001-2008*
pharmacies, avoiding sales restrictions and law enforce-
Source: USA National Drug Intelligence Center, National Meth-
ment attention.19 In Mexico, drug cartels also utilize
amphetamine Threat Assessment 2009 (and previous years);
non-pseudo/ephedrine based precursor processes and
USA Drug Enforcement Administration, Office of Diversion
Control. *Data as of November, 2008
have the capacity to shift operations further south to
other Latin American countries in order to acquire tra-
3,000
300
ditional chemical precursors.
245
250
Canada-based organized crime groups’ participation in
2,006
the methamphetamine trade has grown significantly
2,000
200
since 2003. By 2006, law enforcement intelligence noted
that Asian organized crime and traditional outlaw
1,314
150
motorcycle gangs operating in Canada had increased the
amount of methamphetamine they manufactured and
1,000
100
exported, primarily into the USA, but also to Oceania
and East and South-East Asia.20 For example, Australia
50
identified that methamphetamine from Canada
14
Large/ Industrial Laboratories (#)
accounted for 83% of total seized imports by weight,
Methamphetamine border seizures (kg)
0
-
for Japan the figure was 62%.21 Although only 5% of
2001
2003
2005
2007
domestically manufactured methamphetamine was
USA - Mexico border seizures (kg)
exported in 2006, by 2007 that figure was 20%.
USA based large to industrial sized laboratories (#)
Threat Assessment 2009.
The geographic spread of methamphetamine
19 This phenomenon, also known as ‘pill or pharmacy shopping’or
increases
‘pseudo-running’, is also observed in other countries where over-the-
counter pharmaceuticals used in the manufacture of methampheta-
The increased reports of methamphetamine use outside
mine are restricted (for example, Australia and New Zealand).
East and South-East Asia and North America are also
20 USA National Drug Intelligence Center, National Methamphetamine
reflected in the growing number of countries and terri-
Threat Assessment 2009.
tories reporting seizures. In 2007, only 10% of reporting
21 Australian Crime Commission (2009). Illicit Drug Data Report
2006-07 (Revised March 2009); Recent Illicit Synthetic Drug Smug-
countries outside East and South-East Asia reported
gling Situation in Japan. Presented by the Customs and Tariff Bureau,
seizures of methamphetamine. This figure increased to
Ministry of Finance, Japan at the 18th Anti-Drug Liaison Officials’
25% in 2007. Countries are also reporting larger average
Meeting for International Cooperation (ADLOMICO), (Pusan,
Republic of Korea, 2008).
seizures than in the past. As trafficking routes shift into
134
1. Trends in the world drug markets Amphetamine-type stimulants market
new countries, spillover drug use in the general popula-
Fig. 93: Islamic Republic of Iran: seizure
tion and subsequent uptake can quickly occur.
of crystalline methamphetamine,
2004-2008
Although the Near and Middle East subregion has a
well-established amphetamine market (fake Captagon),
Source: Policies Achievements Ongoing Programs and Future
Plans, Islamic Republic of Iran, Drug Control Headquarters
there is increasing evidence that methamphetamine
(Tehran, 2007); Drug Control in 2008: Annual report and rapid
(including the crystalline form) is also trafficked there.
situation assessment. Islamic Republic of Iran, Drug Control
In 2008, the Islamic Republic of Iran reported its largest
Headquarters (Tehran, 2009); UNODC, Field Office Report
(2005).
seizure of crystalline methamphetamine (150 kg),
whereas in 2004, there were no reports of metham-
160
150
phetamine. This is consistent with reports of increased
use.22 Significant seizures have also been reported in
Saudi Arabia,23 including a 23 kg methamphetamine
shipment originating in the Syrian Arab Republic.24
120
80
40
No
Crystalline methamphetamine seized (kg)
report
0
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
22 Drug Control in 2008: Annual report and rapid situation assessment.
Islamic Republic of Iran, Drug Control Headquarters (Tehran,
2009).
23 Amphetamines and Ecstasy: 2008 Global ATS Assessment (United
Nations publication, Sales No. E.08.XI.12).
24 World Customs Organization (WCO), Annual Customs and Drugs
Report 2007 (Brussels, 2008).
135
World Drug Report 2009
Fig. 94: Global seizures of amphetamines(a), 1997-2007
50
)
40
(b
30
20
Metric ton equivalents
10
0
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Year
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006 2007
Metric ton
15
15
34
44
26
23
37
36
43
46
44
equivalents(b)
SEIZURES OF AMPHETAMINE-GROUP SUBSTANCES (a) in % of world total and
-
2,000
4,000
kg equivalents (b)
6,000
8,000
10,000
12,000
HIGHEST RANKING COUNTRIES - 2007
14,000
16,000
Saudi Arabia (32%)
13,900
China (14%)
6,142
USA (12%)
5,045
Netherlands (7%)
2,855
(c)
United Kingdom (4%)
1,765
Canada (4%)
1,540
Thailand (3%)
1,338
Indonesia (3%)
1,230
SEIZURES OF AMPHETAMINE-GROUP SUBSTANCES
Myanmar (3%)
1,159
(a) in kg equivalents (b) and in % BY REGION - 2007
Mexico (2%)
947
Near and Middle East /South-West Asia
14,841
Germany (2%)
820
(34%)
Nigeria (2%)
700
East and South-East Asia (25%)
10,940
Norway (1%)
560
West & Central Europe (19%)
8,505
Belgium (1%)
509
North America (17%)
7,532
Turkey (1%)
461
Poland (1%)
429
West and Central Africa (2%)
700
Philippines (0.8%)
369
Southeast Europe (1%)
601
Syria (0.8%)
363
Oceania (0.5%)
198
Japan (0.8%)
359
East Europe (0.4%)
Sweden (0.8%)
342
194
Jordan (0.7%)
318
South America (0.1%)
65
France (0.7%)
308
39
South Asia (0.1%)
Scotland (0.6%)
283
(d)
Southern Africa (0%)
18
Australia (0.4%)
158
(a) Amphetamine-group substances are amphetamine, methamphetamine and related non-specified amphetamines (excludes
ecstasy-group substances).
(b) 1 dosage unit is assumed to be equal to 30 mg; 1 litre is assumed to be equal to 1 kg.
(c) Data refer to England and Wales only.
(d) Total seizures reported by national as well as state and territory law enforcement agencies which may result in double counting.
136
1. Trends in the world drug markets Amphetamine-type stimulants market
Fig. 95: Interception of amphetamines-group substances, 1997-2007
AMPHETAMINES INTERCEPTED - WORLD: 1997-2007
AMPHETAMINES INTERCEPTED - ASIA: 1997-2007
50
40
s
40
30
30
equivalents
equivalent 20
n
n
o
o
20
tric t
t
ric t
e
e 10
10
M
M
0
0
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
AMPHETAMINES INTERCEPTED - AMERICAS: 1997-2007
AMPHETAMINES INTERCEPTED - EUROPE: 1997-2007
12
10
s
10
8
8
6
6
4
4
Metric ton equivalent
Metric ton equivalents
2
2
0
0
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
AMPHETAMINES INTERCEPTED - AFRICA: 1997-2007
AMPHETAMINES INTERCEPTED - OCEANIA: 1997-2007
3
1.4
s
1.2
1.0
2
equivalent
0.8
n
0.6
tric to
1
e
M
0.4
Metric ton equivalents
0.2
0
0.0
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
137
World Drug Report 2009
Trafficking in ecstasy-group substances
Fig. 97: Proportion of ecstasy-group sub-
stance seizures, by subregion, 2007
Ecstasy seizures increase in most regions
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire data
Ecstasy-group seizures increased by 62% in 2007 to a
total of 7.9 mt. Notable increases were reported in sub-
regions with significant trafficking activity: West and
Central Europe, Oceania, East and South-East Asia, and
Oceania
North America. Six countries accounted for more than
Southeast
25%
Europe
80% of reported seizures, with the largest amounts
North
2%
reported by the Netherlands (25% of total), followed by
America
Australia, USA, Canada, the UK25 and China.
25%
East and
South-East
Asia
Fig. 96: Global ecstasy-group substance
9%
seizures, 1998-2007
West &
Others
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data / DELTA.
Central
3%
Europe
9
36%
7.9
8
6
place outside of Europe, it remains the main illicit man-
ufacturing region. Customs interceptions in 2007 were
most commonly reported in the Netherlands (88 cases)
5
and Belgium (22 cases).27 Increased European seizures
in 2007 are likely related to increases in MDMA avail-
3
ability as seen in forensic profiling. Large numbers of
tablets containing very high levels of MDMA were also
(in metric tons equivalents)
reported. Following temporary shortages of MDMA
2
1.0
Ecstasy-group substances seized
after the dismantling of one of the largest MDMA labo-
ratories ever discovered in the Netherlands in 2005,28
markets appeared to rebound by 2007, with MDMA
0
content of ‘ecstasy’ tablets returning to previous, or
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
higher, levels. Additionally, there were reports of high
content (100-125 mg) MDMA mixed with alcohol
Seizures reported from Europe account for the majority
called “Original 69” and “Dance Love Sex” appearing
(39%) of global seizures, as significant manufacturing
on the market.29
continues in the West and Central subregion, most
Although notable domestic manufacture of MDMA
notably in the Netherlands and Belgium. However,
occurs in countries in other regions, such as Australia, it
around 2002/03 subregions outside of Europe began
is clear that exports from West and Central Europe and
reporting increased domestic manufacture.
East and South-East Asia continue to play a significant
In 2007, 52% of Member States reported seizures of
role in domestic market supply. West and Central
ecstasy-group substances in 2007, almost double that of
Europe, for example, was the source of a record intercep-
1998 (27%). The average amount reported seized per
tion of ecstasy in Australia in June 2007.30
country increased five-fold, from about 21 kg in 1998
to 115 kg in 2007.
West and Central Europe remains a dominant
27 World Customs Organization (WCO), Annual Customs and Drugs
source for ecstasy
Report 2007 (Brussels, 2008).
28 In May 2007, police in Veldhoven, Netherlands, seized a warehouse
Although more ecstasy-group manufacture is taking
with one of the largest drug caches ever discovered, reportedly con-
taining 780 kg of MDMA and 3.5 million ecstasy tablets.
29 The Netherlands Drug Situation 2008: Report to the EMCDDA by the
Reitox National Focal Point, Trimbos Institute, Utrecht, Netherlands,
25 Data for the UK (England and Wales) reported in the 2007 ARQ
2009.
are placeholders from 2006, as reporting is delayed. UK data include
30 Australian authorities completed a year-long controlled delivery of
Scotland and Northern Ireland figures from 2007.
nearly 15 million tablets, with a total weight of 4.42 mt, which
26 A reported tablet of “ecstasy” was assumed to contain on average 100
departed from Italy. Australian Crime Commission (2009). Illicit
mg of MDMA.
Drug Data Report 2006–07, Revised March 2009.
140
1. Trends in the world drug markets Amphetamine-type stimulants market
Fig. 98: Ecstasy-group tablets seized in Japan
Fig. 99: Ecstasy-group tablets seized in Brazil:
and Indonesia, 1998-2007
1998-2007
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire data
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire data
1,500
250,000
211,145
200,000
1,000
150,000
500
100,000
Tablets (in thousands)
Tablets seized (#)
50,000
-
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
No
report
0
Indonesia Ecstasy (MDA, MDEA, MDMA) tablets
Japan Ecstasy (MDA, MDEA, MDMA) tablets
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Since 2003/04 Canada has emerged as the primary
In Latin America, there remains concern that ecstasy-
source of ecstasy-group substances for North American
groups drugs, sourced from West and Central Europe
markets, and increasingly for other regions. As of 2007,
are increasingly being used, particularly among young,
identified ecstasy laboratories were large-capacity facili-
affluent urban dwellers. There are few ATS-related traf-
ties primarily controlled by Asian organized crime
ficking data available in the region, partly due to the fact
groups, utilizing precursor chemicals trafficked from
that law enforcement focusses on coca-based substances.
China in sea containers. In 2007, it was estimated that
However, data from Brazil clearly indicate that increas-
50% of domestically produced ecstasy was trafficked
ing numbers of tablets are being intercepted, with more
outside of Canada. Most of this was thought to be des-
than 210,000 seized in 2007.32 The increase may also be
tined for the USA, Australia and Japan.
related to domestic manufacture of ecstasy as the first
clandestine laboratory was discovered in 2008.
Japan, Indonesia and other countries in East and South-
East Asia have reported significant trafficking of ecstasy.
Unlike Indonesia, Japan has no domestic ATS manufac-
ture, so increases in ecstasy are all from imports, often
via organized crime groups. In 2007, Japan identified
Canada as the single biggest source for seized ecstasy
tablets, followed by the Netherlands, Germany, and
Belgium.31
32 In February 2009, Brazil Federal Police arrested 55 people nation-
wide that were part of an international drug trafficking ring. The
members–mostly young and middle-class–would traffic cocaine from
31 Recent illicit Synthetic Drug Smuggling Situation in Japan. Presented
South America to Europe in return for ecstasy to sell in Brazil.
by the Customs and Tariff Bureau, Ministry of Finance, Japan at the
“Ecstasy Ensnares Upper-Class Teenagers in Brazil,” New York
18th Anti-Drug Liaison Officials’ Meeting for International Coop-
Times, 15 February 2009, www.nytimes.com/2009/02/15/world/
eration (ADLOMICO), (Pusan, Republic of Korea, 2008).
americas/15ecstasy.html.
141
World Drug Report 2009
Fig. 100: Global seizures of ecstasy-group(a) substances, 1997-2007
9,000
8,000
7,000
(b)
6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
Kilogram equivalents
2,000
1,000
0
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
(a) Includes substances believed to be ecstasy (eg, MDMA, MDA, MDE) and may not have been confirmed by forensic
testing. Separate reporting of 'Ecstasy' seizures only started with the new ARQ. Before, Ecstasy seizures were included
under the category of 'hallucinogens'. Trend data shown above refer to the broader category for 1997-1999 and for
Ecstasy for 2000-2007. Over the 2000-2007 period, Ecstasy accounted for 93% of the broader category.
(b) 1 unit is assumed to be equivalent to 100mg of MDMA.
Year
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Kilogram
equivalents
2,227
958
4,661
5,003
4,597
6,916
4,903
8,245
5,180
4,897
7,948
SEIZURES(a) OF ECSTASY-GROUP SUBSTANCES in kg equivalents and in % of world total
HIGHEST RANKING COUNTRIES - 2007
0.000
500.000
1000.000
1500.000
2000.000
2500.000
Netherlands (27%)
2,162
(b)
Australia (25%)
1,970
USA (13%)
1,002
Canada (12%)
985
China (3%)
222
Malaysia (2%)
183
Indonesia (2%)
150
SEIZURES(a) OF ECSTASY-GROUP SUBSTANCES
France (2%)
136
in kg equivalents and in % BY REGION - 2007
Japan (2%)
129
West & Central Europe (37%)
2,924
Israel (2%)
124
Turkey (1%)
North America (25%)
1,987
110
Germany (1%)
99
Oceania (25%)
1,970
(c)
United Kingdom (1%)
95
East and South-East Asia (9%)
739
Poland (0.9%)
68
Near and Middle East /South-West
Belgium (0.7%)
54
132
Asia (2%)
Italy (0.6%)
50
Southeast Europe (2%)
122
Spain (0.6%)
49
East Europe (0.5%)
39
Hungary (0.6%)
46
Russian Federation (0.4%)
35
South America (0.3%)
27
reported
by
** data refer to
Ireland (0.4%)
35
Southern Africa (0.1%)
5
2003. Thailand (0.4%)
28
Central America (0%)
2
Brazil (0.3%)
21
(a) Seizures as reported (street purity); units converted into weight equivalents (100mg / unit)
(b) Total seizures reported by national as well as state and territory law enforcement agencies which may result in double counting.
(c) Data refer to England and Wales only.
142
World Drug Report 2009
1.4.4 Consumption
Amphetamine-type stimulant
data gaps and quality) and are presented in ranges rather
consumption
than absolute numbers. Because of this revision, previ-
ous point estimates are not comparable to the current
The number of ATS consumers is very uncertain
ones.
In 2007, there were between 16 and 51 million people
Amphetamines-group drug consumption
aged 15-64 who consumed amphetamines-group sub-
Many countries do not differentiate the type of ATS
stances (annual prevalence 0.4%-1.2%). Ecstasy-group
consumed (methamphetamine, amphetamine or other
users numbered between 12 and 24 million worldwide
synthetic stimulants) so only broad estimates of use of
(annual prevalence 0.3%-0.5%). The width of these
specific types can be made, based upon reports and sei-
ranges is far greater than for cocaine and heroin.
zure data reported by Member States.
Illicit drug use is difficult to assess accurately, but ATS
UNODC estimates that methamphetamine users
use even more so, for a variety of reasons. These include
account for 54%-59% of global amphetamines-group
the speed with which ATS markets can appear and
substances consumers; amphetamine users account for
expand, the fact that ATS can be manufactured any-
32%-35%; and an additional 8%-11% use other non-
where in the world, the general confusion about what
specified illegal synthetic stimulants (such as methcathi-
users actually consume, and the high reliance upon lim-
none, pharmaceutical stimulants, et cetera).
ited or non-existent country reporting1. This year, sig-
nificant revisions were made to the approach taken in
Amphetamines-group users in East and South-East Asia
making global and regional estimates of the number of
consume primarily methamphetamine. Tablets sold as
people who use drugs. The new estimates reflect the
Captagon often contain amphetamine and are used
uncertainties surrounding these data (which exist due to
throughout the Near and Middle East. In Europe, users
Fig. 101: Annual prevalence of amphetamine-type stimulant use, by drug group
(in numbers and prevalence of population)
Source: UNODC estimate.
Number of users
Prevalence in per cent of population
60
1.5
e
g
51
1.2
n
a
50
R
c
e
40
s
)
1.0
n
evalen
illio
30
24
r
Pr
e
m
0.5
p
(
in
Range (%)
20
p
0.5
r
/
U
16
e
10
12
0.4
Lower/ Upper Prevalence
w
o
0.3
L
0
0.0
Global Amphetamines-
Global Ecstasy-Group
Global Amphetamines-
Global Ecstasy-Group
Group
Group
Note: 2007 estimates cannot be compared to previous UNODC estimates.
1
Amphetamines and Ecstasy: 2008 Global ATS Assessment (United
Nations publication, Sales No. E.08.XI.12).
144
1. Trends in the world drug markets Amphetamine-type stimulants market
primarily consume amphetamine, with a few exceptions,
There is more certainty in estimates for the Americas,
notably the Czech Republic and some neighbouring
Europe and Oceania. Oceania had the highest estimated
countries where methamphetamine use is predomi-
annual prevalence in the general population aged 15-64
nant.
(2.6%). The total number of amphetamines-group users
in North America is estimated at around 3.8 million
About half of stimulant users in North America use meth-
people, or some 1.3% of the population aged 15-64. Latin
amphetamine. In Latin America, amphetamines-group
America (including Central America, the Caribbean and
use was historically thought to be diverted pharmaceuti-
South America subregions) had an estimated two million
cals, but increasing incidents of ATS manufacture suggest
users. In Europe, the number of users is estimated between
that this is changing. Use of amphetamines-group sub-
2.4 and 3.1 million (0.4-0.6% of the population).
stances in South Africa2 is believed to be predominately
methamphetamine; while in Western, Central and East-
Africa is estimated to have between 1.4 and 4.1 million
ern Africa and some parts of Southern Africa the amphet-
users. However, subregional estimates could only be
amines-group markets are thought to consist of various
calculated for two of the four subregions (North and
pharmaceuticals. Finally, users in Oceania are thought to
Southern Africa). For much of Africa, little information
primarily use methamphetamine.
related to ATS consumption is available, which explains
Uncertain number of ATS users in Asia;
the greater levels of uncertainty reflected in the preva-
South-East Asia probably has the most users
lence estimates for the region.
in the region
The highest annual prevalence ranges in the Oceania
At least half of the world’s amphetamines-group users
region are reported by Australia; in North America, by
– between 5.8-37.0 million – live in Asia. Most of these
the USA; and in Europe, by Scotland (UK) and Estonia.
are methamphetamine users in East and South-East
In Asia, the highest prevalence ranges are found in the
Asia, which account for between 52-79% of estimated
Philippines; in the Caribbean, in the Dominican Repub-
users in the region.3
lic; in Central America, in El Salvador;4 in South Amer-
ica, in Brazil; and in Africa, in Nigeria and South Africa.
The substantial uncertainty in this region is related to
the unknown number of users in China and India. Due
to a lack of country-level prevalence estimates, subre-
gional estimates cannot be calculated for South Asia,
Central Asia, or the Near and Middle East.5
Fig. 102: Estimated amphetamines-group users in the past year by region, 2007
Sources: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire; Government reports; reports of regional bodies; and UNODC estimates.
Estimated number of users
Estimated annual prevalence
60
3.0
50
2.5
40
2.0
30
1.5
(in Millions)
Range (%)
20
1.0
10
Lower/ Upper Prevalence
0.5
Lower/ Upper Prevalence Range
0
0.0
Asia
Asia
Global
Africa
Africa
Europe
Global
Europe
Americas
Oceania
Oceania
Americas
2 Methcathinone–another ATS–is also commonly used in South
Africa.
3 The criteria to calculate subregional estimates include recent (since
1998) representative prevalence estimates from at least two countries
4
The prevalence estimates for El Salvador may also include non-ATS
in a subregion that, combined, account for at least 20% of the sub-
stimulants (for example, diet/slimming pills or caffeine pills) used
region’s total population aged 15–64 years.
without a prescription.
145
World Drug Report 2009
T
Estimated number of people who used amphetamines at least once in the past year and
able 23:
proporton of population aged 15-64, by region, 2007
Sources: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire; Government reports; reports of regional bodies; and UNODC estimates.
Estimated
Estimated
Percent of
Percent of
Region/subregion
number of users
number of users
population aged
population aged
(Amphetamines-group)
annually (lower)
annually (upper)
15-64 (lower)
15-64 (upper)
Africa
1,390,000
4,090,000
0.3
0.8
North
Africa
240,000
510,000
0.2
0.4
West and Central Africa
Subregional estimate cannot be calculated
Eastern
Africa
Subregional estimate cannot be calculated
Southern
Africa
210,000
650,000
0.2
0.6
Americas
5,650,000
5,780,000
0.9
1.0
North
America
3,760,000
3,760,000
1.3
1.3
Central
America
310,000
310,000
1.3
1.3
The
Caribbean
120,000
250,000
0.5
1.0
South
America
1,450,000
1,460,000
0.6
0.6
Asia
5,780,000
37,040,000
0.2
1.4
East/South East Asia
4,600,000
20,560,000
0.3
1.4
South
Asia
Subregional estimate cannot be calculated
Central
Asia
Subregional estimate cannot be calculated
Near and Middle East
Subregional estimate cannot be calculated
Europe
2,430,000
3,070,000
0.4
0.6
Western/Central
Europe
1,590,000
1,690,000
0.6
0.6
East/South East Europe
840,000
1,380,000
0.3
0.5
Oceania
570,000
590,000
2.6
2.6
Global
15,820,000
50,570,000
0.4
1.2
Expert perceptions: ATS growth in developing
Fig. 103: ATS use trends as perceived by
countries outpacing developed countries
experts of developed (OECD) and
developing (non-OECD) countries,
A review of changes in expert perception data5 in the
1998-2007 (baseline: 1998 = 100)
individual regions between 1998 and 2007 finds contin-
ued increases in ATS use. Beginning around 2000, the
Sources: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data,
UNODC Field Offices, UNODC’s Drug Use Information
rate of increases perceived by experts between developed
Network for Asia and the Pacific (DAINAP).
and developing countries diverged, as developing coun-
tries, particularly those in Asia and the Americas, more
105
104.6
often perceived significant increases in ATS use.6
Nearly half of experts from 86 countries perceived that
103.9
104
the ATS situation had worsened in their country over
the past year, whereas 14% identified some improve-
ment.7 The proportion of countries reporting a perceived
103
102.5
5 Expert perception data is derived from the ARQ, and is unweighted.
102
The following points are allocated if experts perceive: ‘strong increase’
2; ‘some increase’: 1; stable: 0; ‘some decline’ -1; ‘strong decline’ -2. If
Baseline 1998 = 100
all countries had reported ‘some increase’, the global trend line would
have increased by one point each year and would have reached 109 by
101
2007.
6 OECD Member countries include: Australia, Austria, Belgium,
Canada, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany,
Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, Mexico,
100
Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Republic of
Korea, Slovakia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the United
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Kingdom and the USA.
Global
7 Increases and decreases were coded from some to strong increase/
decrease, and represent the unweighted number of Member States
Developed Countries (OECD)
and territories responding.
Developing Countries (non-OECD)
146
1. Trends in the world drug markets Amphetamine-type stimulants market
T
Expert per
able 24:
ception of changing amphetamine-type stimulant use, by region, 2007
Sources: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire data.
Member
Percent use
Use
Percent use
Use
Percent use
Use problem
Region
States
problem
problem
problem
problem
problem
increased*
responding
increased
stable
stable
decreased*
decreased
Europe
34
14
41%
16
47%
4
12%
Americas
16
7
44%
8
50%
1
6%
Asia
25
14
56%
6
24%
5
20%
Oceania
0
0
0
0
Africa
11
5
45%
4
36%
2
18%
Global
86
40
47%
34
40%
12
14%
* Identifies increases/ decreases ranging from either some to strong, unweighted by population.
Fig. 104: Thailand, number of methamphetamine treatment admissions and arrests, 1998-2007
Sources: Office of the Narcotics Control Board, Thailand Narcotics Annual Report 2003; UNODC, Improving ATS Data and Informa-
tion Systems Project; UNODC, Drug Use Information Network for Asia and the Pacific (DAINAP).
90,000
203,072
83,649
75,000
60,000
41,420
45,000
30,000
14,529
15,000
Arrests data for methamphetamine unavailable
0
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Methamphetamine arrests (#)
Methamphetamine treatment (#)
increase in ATS use–predominately methamphetamine–
phetamine use in 2003/04, recent trends indicate a
was highest in Asia (56%). Subregionally, experts per-
resurgence of use.10 The 2007 general population esti-
ceived a worsening ATS problem in three distinct areas:
mates suggest that lifetime methamphetamine preva-
central Asia (for example Azerbaijan and Georgia);
lence is 1,7%, and annual prevalence 1.4%. This is
countries and territories on the east coastal area of Asia
reflected in treatment and enforcement data. Between
(for example, China, Republic of Korea and Viet Nam);
2004 and 2007, the number of people seeking treatment
and the Near and Middle East and its close neighbours
has more than doubled, while arrests for methampheta-
(for example, Cyprus, Jordan, Lebanon, Oman, Pakistan
mine-related offenses increased to their highest level ever
and Qatar).
in 2007.
Methamphetamine was identified as the “most used”
Methamphetamine use is spreading throughout
illicit drug in Cambodia, Japan, Lao People’s Demo-
the South and South-East Asia
cratic Republic, the Philippines, the Republic of Korea
and Thailand.8 Thailand has the largest market for
The routes supplying Thailand with methamphetamine
methamphetamine in South-East Asia’s Greater Mekong
changed markedly after 2003/04, with increased use of
Subregion.9 After some apparent reductions in metham-
the Mekong River. This led to drugs transiting through
8 The most recent data reported for Cambodia and Lao PDR is for
10 Among other things, the ‘Thai war on drugs’ had the effect of reduc-
2006 (UNODC, Patterns and Trends of Amphetamine-Type Stimulants
ing self-reporting of illicit drug use in surveys; results between 2003
and Other Drugs of Abuse in East Asia and the Pacific 2006 (June
and 2006 indicate low lifetime prevalence rates . Under-reporting of
2007)). The data for the Republic of Korea do not include cannabis.
methamphetamine use in Thailand probably continues. See World
9
Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, Thailand, Viet Nam and bordering
Drug Report 2008 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.08.
provinces of south China.
XI.1).
147
World Drug Report 2009
and into Cambodia, Lao PDR and Viet Nam.11 Rapid
provinces also showed that the use of methampheta-
increases in methamphetamine tablets and high purity
mine has spread to many rural provinces of the
crystalline methamphetamine uptake soon occurred
country,15 possibly related to domestic manufacture of
across Cambodia. In 2007, there were 1,719 drug users
methamphetamine, first reported in 2006 and more
admitted to government-operated centres for drug users,
significantly again in 2007. Similar changes have
a 58% increase over 2006.12 The majority of users were
been reported to varying degrees in neighbouring coun-
admitted for methamphetamine. A recent study of 12
tries.
Asia: ATS use appears to be incr
easing, but by how much?
There are no national prevalence estimates of ATS consumption in China and India. These gaps are major given the
size of these countries’ populations (0.95 billion persons aged 15-64 years in China, and 0.73 billion persons aged
15-64 years in India). Such gaps have an enormous impact upon the level of certainty of both regional and global ATS
use estimates.
Furthermore, with increases in both population and disposable income, their position next to several significant
manufacturing countries, and expanding domestic manufacture, both countries face substantial risks related to growing
ATS use.
India: India last performed a household survey in 2000/01, but questions specific to various types of ATS consumed
were not included. Due to a lack of data for India, estimates cannot be calculated for the South Asia subregion. How-
ever, given India’s population, its contribution to annual prevalence estimates for Asia (using other regional estimates)
may be 29%, which represents millions of potential users.
The last assessment of India’s treatment facilities was conducted in 2001. It found that 0.2% of treatment was for ATS.
The South Asia subregion is highly vulnerable to an increase in problems related to ATS, however, and it is likely that
the extent of use and problems related to use of ATS have increased since that time. First, key ATS precursor chemicals
are readily available and significant ATS manufacture is already taking place. Second, the region is home to a large
youth population of potential consumers with increasing disposable income. Third, the region’s prevention and treat-
ment regimes are largely focused on other drug types. Finally, the geographic location between the significant ATS
markets in the Near and Middle East and East and South-East Asia, make the countries particularly vulnerable.
In India and Bangladesh, methamphetamine trafficking via the border with Myanmar, the source of much of Asia’s
methamphetamine, is increasing. The threat to South Asia was highlighted in May 2008 when a large sophisticated
methamphetamine laboratory was seized in Kosgama, Sri Lanka , and in November 2008 when the first operational
methamphetamine laboratory was seized in Vadodara, India, along with significant amounts of methamphetamine. In
December 2008, an industrial-scale pseudoephedrine extraction operation with nearly 5 metric tons of methampheta-
mine precursor chemicals was reportedly discovered in Mumbai.
China: China’s experts report strong increases in the use of methamphetamine, which coincide with increased domes-
tic manufacture and trafficking, and a year-on-year declines in heroin seizures. In just three years (2004–07), the
proportion of registered drug users for ATS increased more than fivefold, from less than 2% to 11% of registered drug
users by 2007.13 In 2008, China reported that 19.1% of its registered drug users nationwide used “new types” of
drugs–predominately ATS-related14–higher than in previous years. However, no general population estimates of the
extent of use of ATS have ever been reported.
In China, methamphetamine in both crystal and tablet forms is trafficked from Myanmar directly or by transiting Lao
PDR or Viet Nam. Significant methamphetamine manufacture takes place within China using precursor chemicals
diverted from industry or by extracting precursor chemicals from pharmaceutical products. The risk to China was
highlighted by very recent large- scale methamphetamine manufacture found using sophisticated methods that do not
require controlled precursors. Of note are increasing seizures of ketamine, which although not an ATS is marketed as
an ATS-type drug, either by itself, or mixed with other drugs like methamphetamine and sold as ecstasy.
11 Amphetamines and Ecstasy: 2008 Global ATS Assessment (United
Nations publication, Sales No. E.08.XI.12).
14 International Cooperation Division, Narcotics Control Bureau,
Ministry of Public Security, presentation entitled ‘Drug data collection
12 Cambodian National Authority for Combating Drugs (2008). Report
in China’, 4th International Forum on the Control of Precursors for
on illicit drug data and routine surveillance systems in Cambodia 2007.
ATS (Tokyo, 2008).
13 UNODC, Development of Community-Based Drug Use Counsel-
15 Methamphetamine, ecstasy, ketamine, phencyclidine, and benzo-
ling, Treatment and Rehabilitation Services in Cambodia: Com-
diazepine derivatives. Office of China National Narcotics Control
mune-based Baseline Behaviour Survey in 60 Communes in 12
Commission, Annual report on drug control in China 2009 (and
Provinces in Cambodia (May 2008).
previous years) (Beijing, 2009).
148
1. Trends in the world drug markets Amphetamine-type stimulants market
Fig. 105: Saudi Arabia (Dammam) amphetamines-group treatment admissions, 1998-2006
Source: Abu Madini M. S., Rahima S. I. A., Al-Zahrani M. A. & Al-Johi A. O. (2008). Two decades of treatment seeking for substance
use disorders in Saudi Arabia: Trends and patterns in a rehabilitation facility in Dammam. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 97(3), pp
231-236.
73%
900
75%
63%
800
56%
52%
52%
700
771
60%
600
652
38%
35%
45%
500
508
520
400
25%
26%
458
30%
300
admissions (#)
309
200
admissions (%)
246
15%
Amphetamines-Group
100
88
138
Percent of all treatment
0
0%
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Amphetamines-Group Admissions
Percent of amphetamines-group admission relative to all admissions
Data from East Asia suggest some
sold as Captagon – over the last few years. Saudi Arabia,
reductions in use
the largest market, has seen increases in problem use that
coincide with significant increases in region-wide sei-
The Japanese population has experienced several cycles
zures. One specialized drug treatment hospital found
of stimulant use since the end of the Second World War.
that between 1998-2006, treatment admissions for
However, accurately and reliably assessing use in the
amphetamines-group use increased nine-fold, and the
country’s general population presents particular chal-
proportion of amphetamines-group treatment relative to
lenges, since typical household-type surveys tend to have
all admissions tripled (from 25% to 73%).19
extremely low response rates and there may be sensitivity
around disclosure of use. Trends in administrative data
The Islamic Republic of Iran’s recent rapid situation
since 1998/99 suggest that problematic methampheta-
assessment of drug users in treatment centres, prisons,
mine use may be declining: the number of stimulant
and of homeless persons found that approximately
abuse/dependence cases reported by psychiatric facilities
3.6% of these groups of these groups primarily used
declined 11% from 1999 to 2005, but still account for
crystalline methamphetamine, whereas no use was
over half of reported cases.16 Methamphetamine-related
reported in 2004/5.20 Iran has reported yearly increases
arrests continue to decline, yet account for more than
in methamphetamine seizures, suggesting that availabil-
three-quarters of all drug-related arrests.17
ity is increasing.
The Philippines’ recent (2007) household survey con-
In Europe, amphetamine use stable or decreasing;
cluded that annual prevalence of methamphetamine use
methamphetamine pockets persist
in the general population declined from 6% (in 2004)
to between 1.9-2.4%. Treatment admissions for meth-
European amphetamines-group use appears stable, with
amphetamine have also declined from 6,195 in 2003 to
West and Central European countries reporting stability
2,562 in 2007, but still account for 60% of new admis-
or some decline. Perceived increases were subregional,
sions.18 Significant manufacturing and trafficking of
with some increase in central Europe (Switzerland, Aus-
ATS continue to be problematic for the country.
tria, Slovakia, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova)
and northern areas (Estonia, Latvia, Norway and
Some Near and Middle East countries emerge
Sweden).
as significant amphetamine consumers
Annual prevalence continues to decline in the United
The Near and Middle East has been reporting dramatic
Kingdom, historically Europe’s most significant amphet-
increases in ATS–predominately fake pharmaceuticals
amine market. The annual prevalence rate of 1.0% in
16 Ministry of Health and Social Welfare, General situation of adminis-
trative measures against drug abuse (2007).
19 Abu Madini M. S., Rahima S. I. A., Al-Zahrani M. A. & Al-Johi A.
17 Amphetamines and Ecstasy: 2008 Global ATS Assessment (United
O. (2008). Two decades of treatment seeking for substance use disorders
Nations publication, Sales No. E.08.XI.12).
in Saudi Arabia: Trends and patterns in a rehabilitation facility in
18 Treatment data are those provided by the public health system and do
Dammam. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 97(3), pp 231-236.
not include treatment provided by non-government and faith-based
20 Drug Control in 2008: Annual report and rapid situation assessment.
treatment providers.
Islamic Republic of Iran, Drug Control Headquarters (Tehran, 2009).
149
World Drug Report 2009
Fig. 106: England and Wales: Annual prevalence
Fig. 107: Czech Republic first-time treatment
of amphetamine use among the gener-
demand for methamphetamine use,
al population (aged 16-59), 1998-2008
1998-2007
Source: Kershaw, C., Nicholas, S., & Walker, A. (2008). Crime
Source: The Czech Republic - 2007 Drug Situation (2008).
in England and Wales 2007/08: Findings from the British
Czech National Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug
Crime Survey and police recorded crime. Home Office Statisti-
Addiction (Prague, 2008).
cal Bulletin (ISBN 978-1-84726-753-5)(London, 2008).
3,000
70%
3.0
3.0
2,685
2,605
2,528
2,749
methamphetamine (%)
First-time admission for
2,389
2,500
2,281
2.5
2,177
2,042
2,000
1,880
1,969
64%
62%
60%
2.0
60%
1,500 58%
59%
1.5
56%
1.0
54%
1,000
50%
1.0
52%
500
0.5
First-time admission for
methamphetamine(#)
47%
Annual prevalence (%)
46%
-
40%
-
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
1998
2000
2001/02
2002/03
2003/04
2004/05
2005/06
2006/07
2007/08
Methamphetamine
Methamphetamine (%)
2007/08 in England and Wales is one third of the level
South African ATS use shows signs of stabilization,
one decade ago. However, the same reduction did not
but little is known about the rest of the continent
take place in Scotland, as rates of annual amphetamine
Most subregions of Africa lack basic data on ATS use,
use increased from 0.5% in 2000 to 2.2% in 2006.21
making it difficult to assess its extent or provide subre-
However, some countries in Eastern Europe have wit-
gional estimates of use. However, ATS consumption has
nessed increases in amphetamines-group drug use. The
been reported in several African countries, including
Czech Republic is central to Europe’s methampheta-
Burkina Faso, Côte d’Ivoire, Egypt, Ghana, Nigeria,
mine use, with most of the methamphetamine sourced
Senegal, Sierra Leone and South Africa.
from domestic clandestine laboratories. Although
South Africa is one of the most significant metham-
younger metropolitan users account for the majority,
phetamine markets in Africa and is one example of the
increased use is occurring in small towns and rural are-
rapid increase that can occur in ATS use. In Cape Town
as.22 First-time treatment demand for methampheta-
and the surrounding area, where most of the country’s
mine continues to grow, accounting for nearly two thirds
methamphetamine use currently occurs, demand for
of all drug treatment. Many of the country’s “problem
methamphetamine treatment was non-existent before
drug users” inject methamphetamine.
2002. By 2008, it accounted for 36% of treatment,
Similarly, experts in the Ukraine are reporting increased
although recent data suggest that use among youth may
injecting drug use, particularly ATS: crude home-made
be on the decline.24
synthetic stimulants such as methamphetamine, meth-
Egypt has some history of problematic synthetic stimu-
cathinone and cathinone are often shared by groups of
lant use (Maxiton Forte25), however, recent seizure data
young injecting drug users.23
show that little is currently seized. Recent research on
ATS use suggests that 2.2% of state university students
across the country had ever used stimulants, of whom
approximately one third admitted current use.26 In a
2005/06 national survey assessing drug use in eight
21 Brown, M. & Bolling, K. (2007). Drugs misuse in Scotland: Findings
from the 2006 Scottish crime and victimization survey. BMRB Social
Research, Edinburgh; National Advisory Committee on Drugs and
Public Health Information and Research Branch (2008). Similar
24 Plüddemann, A., Parry, C., Bhana, A., & Fourie, D. (2008).
patterns were also noted for ecstasy-group substance use for Scotland
South African Community Epidemiology Network on Drug Use
and Northern Ireland.
(SACENDU) Update (18 November 2008).
22 The Czech Republic - 2007 Drug Situation (2008). Czech National
25 Maxiton Forte, was the trade name for a pharmaceutical preparation
Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (Prague, 2008).
containing dexamphetamine, but is no longer manufactured. There
23 Pavlenko,
V.
(2008).
Peculiarities of stimulators using in Ukraine by the
have been indications that methamphetamine is being sold in Egypt’s
example of Donetsk region, presented at the Global Methamphetamine
illicit markets under this brand name, however, to date there is still
Conference, Prague (September, 2008). International Charitable
insufficient information about the actual content of this product and
Foundation/ International HIV/AIDS Alliance in Ukraine; Zeziulin,
its source of manufacture.
O., Dumchev, K., & Schumacher, J. (2008). Injection stimulant use
26 Yousuf J. Egypt, Use of Neuroactive Substances among university stu-
and HIV risk in Ukraine, presented at the Global Methamphetamine
dents: Preliminary Indicators, National Council for the Control of
Conference, Prague (September, 2008).
Treatment and Addiction (Cairo, 2007).
150
1. Trends in the world drug markets Amphetamine-type stimulants market
Fig. 108: South Africa (Cape Town area): proportion of methamphetamine as primary substance
for treatment, 1998-2008**
Source: South African Community Epidemiology Network on Drug Use (SACENDU). Monitoring Alcohol & Drug Use Trends in South
Africa (July 1996 – June 2008). Research brief, 11(2) (December 2008).
*
45
39.8
38.4
35.8
30.4
30
15.0
15
Primary drug (%)
2.3
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.6
0
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008**
*Beginning mid-2006 totals included treatment in Cape Town, Atlantis and Worcester. **Figures represent data from the first half of 2008.
regions, 10% of the population aged 15 and older had
In Nigeria, Africa’s most populous country, metham-
ever used drugs, with 0.5% admitting to having ever
phetamine use was previously reported in the northern
used stimulants.27
parts of the country. More recent research however has
identified significant use by young people (age 10-19;
The existence of unregulated (parallel) pharmaceutical
6.7% lifetime prevalence) and university students (2.1%
markets28 throughout Africa is believed to be a signifi-
lifetime prevalence) in the south-western city of Ilorin
cant source of ATS.29 These markets exist in large part
and its surrounding catchment area.33
due to limited access to health-care facilities, the high
cost of drugs, a need for privacy, a general lack of public
Methamphetamine use may be declining
awareness, overly strict drug control regimes, and to
in parts of North America
meet consumer demand for drugs.30 According to
North America continues to lead the western hemi-
WHO, between 25-50% of medicines consumed in
sphere in ATS use. Recent data, however, suggest
developing countries are counterfeit, and include ATS.31
declines, particularly in methamphetamine use in
Burkina Faso has significant seizures of (non-specified)
Canada and the USA. Since 1999, Canadian (Ontario)34
ATS pharmaceuticals termed ‘médicaments de rue’.
and US students have reported declining methampheta-
Although representative data on ATS use in Burkina
mine use, but actual use is probably underreported as
Faso is non-existent, authorities in 2005 indicated that
young people are increasingly using ‘ecstasy’ sourced
the most significant (and increasing) drugs of use were
from Canada which often contains methamphetamine
ATS. The same year, a report on psychiatric hospital
as the primary psychoactive ingredient.35
treatment data in the capital Ouagadougou found that
28% of treatment episodes were primarily for ampheta-
Data from the USA household survey of the general
mines-group substances, the highest of any drug group
population (12 and older) show that in 2007, the first
apart from cannabis.32
notable decline in illicit amphetamines-group use took
place, driven by declines in methamphetamine use.36
27 Ghaz
I.H.,
National Study of Addiction Prevalence of the Use of Drugs
and Alcohols in Egypt (2005 – 2006), Studies of the National Centre
for Social and Criminal Research Fund for the Control and Treat-
au Burkina Faso. Université de Ouagadougou.
ment of Addiction and Abuse (Cairo, 2007).
33 Makanjuola A.B., Daramola T.O. & Obembe A.O. (2007). Psycho-
28 Unlicensed individuals and/or business entities that trade in drugs
active substance use among medical students in a Nigerian university.
that they are not authorized or entitled to deal with or in contraven-
World Psychiatry, 6(2): 112–114; Abdulkarim A.A., Mokuolu O.A.
tion of the applicable laws, regulations and norms. These may include
& Adeniyi A. (2005). Drug use among adolescents in Ilorin, Nigeria.
real or often counterfeit pharmaceuticals.
Tropical Doctor, 35(4), pp 225-228.
29 These may also include non-ATS stimulants (for example, slimming/
34 These data reflect Ontario students, which have drug use characteris-
diet pills and ephedrine).
tics that are notably different from other provinces and territories. See
30 International Narcotics Control Board (2007). Report of the Interna-
Centre for Addiction and Mental Health. Drug Use Among Ontario
tional Narcotics Control Board for 2006. (United Nations publication
Students, 1977-2007: Detailed OSDUHS findings (Toronto, 2007).
Sales No. E.07.XI.11)
35 Amphetamines and Ecstasy: 2008 Global ATS Assessment (United
31 World Health Organization, “Counterfeit medicines”, Fact Sheet No.
Nations publication, Sales No. E.08.XI.12).
275, February 2006.
36 Office of National Drug Control Policy. Making the drug problem
32 Ouedraogo, A. (2007). Demandes de traitement pour abus de drogues
smaller 2001-2008. Executive Office of the President (Washington,
151
World Drug Report 2009
Fig. 109: Percent methamphetamine treatment in Canada, USA and Mexico (NGO): 1998 – 2007
Source: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Office of Applied Studies. Treatment Episode Data Set (TEDS)
2007; National Center of Epidemiology Surveil ance and Disease Control, El Sistema de Vigilancia Epidemiológica de las Adicciones
(SISVEA), report presented at NIDA’s CEWG June 2008; Centre for Addiction and Mental Health (CAMH). Drug and Alcohol Treat-
ment Information System (DATIS) Ontario, Canada (August 2008).
25%
USA (Publicly Funded Treatment-
primary methamphetamine,
20%
excludes alcohol only treatment)
15%
Mexico (NGO Funded Treatment-
primary methamphetamine,
includes alcohol only treatment)
10%
Canada (Ontario, Publicly Funded
5%
Treatment- patients presenting
using meth/amphetamine,
includes alcohol only treatment)
as a proportion of all treatment (%)
0%
Treatment related to methamphetamine
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Treatment admissions data from Canada (Ontario)37,
Fig. 110: USA: Annual prevalence of stimulants
the USA and Mexico suggest that there has been stabili-
and methamphetamine use among the
zation–at high levels–or perhaps varying degrees of
population (12 and older), 2002-2007
decline in the proportions of patients with problematic
Source: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Adminis-
methamphetamine use.38
tration. Results from the 2007 National Survey on Drug Use
and Health: National Findings. Office of Applied Studies,
Similar declines in methamphetamine use were reported
NSDUH Series H-34, DHHS Publication No. SMA 08-4343
in non-representative workplace drug testing, which
(Rockville, Maryland, 2008).
recorded its lowest levels (0.1%) since 2002.39 However,
2.0
stimulant substitution may be occurring in the USA, as
amphetamines-group stimulants overall continued to
1.5
climb among the general workforce and are at signifi-
1.4
1.4
1.5
1.3
1.3
cantly higher levels than a decade ago. This is consistent
1.2
with increases in the use of psychostimulants such as
methylphenidate40 in the USA, which have increased
1.0
0.8
dramatically since the 1990s.41
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.8
0.5
DC, 2009).
0.5
Annual prevalence (%)
37 The data for Canada (Ontario) represent clients that may report
up to five presenting problem substances at admission (of which
methamphetamine may not necessarily be the primary problem drug
0.0
of use). Data include clients presenting for both amphetamine or
methamphetamine (the methamphetamine category was added in
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
June 2006). Data are reported on a fiscal year, from April – March.
38 Caution should be exercised as these system are funded differently
Stimulants (all types)
and data are captured differently. Additional y, while decreases were
Methamphetamine
noted in methamphetamine as the primary drug for the USA and
Mexico, methamphetamine is commonly associated with poly-drug
users, thus secondary or tertiary methamphetamine use may br
Risks are increasing in Latin America
masked.
39 Quest Diagnostics, Drug Testing Index (May 2009); US Department
Experts in Mexico and the countries on Mexico’s south-
of Justice. (2008) National Methamphetamine Threat Assessment
ern border (for example, Guatemala and El Salvador)
2009 (National Drug Intelligence Center, Product No. 2008-Q0317-
006, December 2008); Office of National Drug Control Policy,
continue to indicate worsening ATS use problems, pos-
Making the drug problem smaller 2001-2008. Executive Office of the
sibly related to shifts in manufacture.42 Further south,
President (Washington, DC, 2009).
experts from Argentina, Brazil, Ecuador and Paraguay
40 Methylphenidate is an amphetamine-type stimulant typically prescribed
for Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) in youth. Substance Abuse and
Mental Health Services Administration, Office of Applied Studies. The
DAWN Report–Emergency Department Visits Involving ADHD Stimulant
Substances: Statistics for 2007 (United Nations publication Sales No.
Medications Issue 29, 2006 (Rockvil e, Maryland, 2006).
E/F/S.09.XI.3)
41 International Narcotics Control Board (2009). 2008 Psychotropic
42 Annual Reports Questionnaire.
152
1. Trends in the world drug markets Amphetamine-type stimulants market
also perceive increasing ATS use.43 Historically, stimu-
While the overall numbers suggest a possible decline
lants originated primarily from licit channels, often
over the last several years, use by problematic drug users
through over-prescription or unregulated parallel mar-
and the associated impacts on public health may be
kets. In 2007, Argentina and Brazil had the second and
increasing. For example, in Australia, data from detain-
third highest calculated rates of consumption of Sched-
ees suggest increasing use of high potency crystalline
ule IV stimulants in the world.
methamphetamine and an increase in injecting meth-
amphetamine.49 New Zealand’s frequent methampheta-
Between 2001 and 2005, Brazil reported that lifetime
mine users were more likely to have used an ambulance
use of amphetamines-group ssubstances in the general
and/or hospital emergency room services, or have con-
population in urban areas more than doubled from
tacted a drug counsellor or general practitioner in rela-
1.5% to 3.2%, driven in part by comparatively high
tion to their problematic methamphetamine use in
secondary student use (3.4%).44 ATS consumption rates
2007, over prior years.50
tend to be significantly higher for youth than for the
general population. For example, the annual prevalence
Although UNODC receives no systematic data from the
rates for the amphetamines-group substances for Colom-
other Oceania countries, there have been sporadic
bian secondary school students was 3.5% in 2004/05, a
reports of amphetamines-group substances being used
rate seven times that of the estimate for the general
throughout the many island nations. For example, crys-
population in 2005. (see special features section for fur-
talline methamphetamine use has been reported in sev-
ther information)
eral cities of Papua New Guinea. Moreover, a large
number of traffickers were recently sentenced for moving
Oceania: Use high, though reductions may be
significant amounts of methamphetamine into French
occurring; island nations under threat
Polynesia.51 Of the 12 countries worldwide which are
Amphetamines-group use in Oceania may be declining
not yet parties to the 1988 Convention Against Illicit
overall. However, the trend reflects only the populations
Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances,
of Australia and New Zealand.45 Australian household
seven are in the Oceania region, leaving the region vul-
surveys (aged 14 and above) appear to show a steady
nerable to manufacturing, trafficking, and use.
decline of methamphetamine use from an annual preva-
lence rate of 3.7% in 1998 to 2.3% in 2007.46 New
Fig. 111: Australia/New Zealand annual
Zealand household surveys (aged 15 to 45) showed a
prevalence of amphetamines-group
similar decrease since the peak of 2001.
use, 1998-2007
Both countries also collect methamphetamine use data
Source: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare 2008. 2007
National Drug Strategy Household Survey: Drug statistics, 22.
on recent detainees (arrestees) through various drug
Canberra: AIHW. Wilkins C. & Sweetsur P. (2008) Trends in
monitoring programs.47 In Australia, there has been a
population drug use in New Zealand: Findings from national
decline of detainees testing positive for methampheta-
household surveying of drug use in 1998, 2001, 2003 and
2006. New Zealand Medical Journal, 121, 61-71.
mine to 24% in 2007, with little change in New Zea-
land levels (which are half of those among Australian
6%
detainees).48
5% 3.7%
4%
3.4%
2.3%
3%
2.9%
2%
43 Only experts from the Dominican Republic noted a perceived decline
in ATS use.
1%
44 II Levantamento Domiciliar Sobre o Uso de Drogas Psicotrópicas no
Annual Prevalence Rate (%)
0%
Brasil: Estudo Envolvendo as 108 Maiores Cidades do País 2005.
CEBRID - Centro Brasileiro de Informação sobre Drogas Psicotró-
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
picas: UNIFESP - Universidade Federal de São Paulo. (São Paulo,
Brazil, 2006).
Aus tralia (aged 14+)
New Z ealand (aged 15-45)
45 There have been only sporadic ARQ reports from a small number
Pacific Island Member States over the last decade.
46 It must be noted that the underlying methodology for the surveys
changed substantially between 1998 and the 2001, thus a direct com-
parison of the household survey data in Australia could be potentially
49 National Alcohol and Drugs Research Centre, University of New
misleading.
South Wales - presentation to UNODC, ‘Australian Drug Monitoring
47 Drug Use Monitoring in Australia (DUMA) and the New Zealand
Systems: Overview of IDRS and EDRS’ (Sydney, Australia, 2007).
Arrestee Drug Use Monitoring (NZ-ADAM) program assess drug use
50 Wilkins, C., Girling, M. & Sweetsur, P. Recent Trends in Illegal
via urine analysis of recent arrestees in select sites.
Drug use in New Zealand, 2005-2007: Findings from the 2005, 2006
48 Includes the first two quarters of 2007 only. There were however,
and 2007 Illicit Drug Monitoring System (IDMS). Centre for Social
significant increases in positive tests for amphetamine reported
and Health Outcomes Research and Evaluation, Massey University
(unweighted multi-site average, 2.7% in 2005 to 13.5% in 2007),
(Auckland, New Zealand, 2008).
possibly reflecting some shift in ATS use.
51 UNODC
Global SMART Update 2009, Volume 1 (March).
153
World Drug Report 2009
Fig. 112: Estimated ecstasy-group users, by region (in numbers and annual prevalence)
Sources: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire; Government reports; reports of regional bodies; and UNODC estimates.
Estimated number of users
Estimated prevalence
25
4
20
3
15
2
10
(in Millions)
1
5
Lower/ Upper Prevalence Range
0
0
Lower/ Upper Prevalence Range (%)
Asia
Asia
Global
Africa
Africa
Europe
Global
Americas
Oceania
Oceania
Europe
Americas
Ecstasy-group drug consumption
Expert perceptions: Growth in ecstasy-group
drug use in developing countries outpacing that
Globally, ecstasy-group52 substances (primarily MDMA)
of developed countries
are consumed by between 11.6-23.5 million people aged
15-64, or 0.3-0.5% of the population. As a proportion
The unweighted expert perception trends between 1998
of the population, Oceania accounts for the highest
and 2007 reflect continued increases in ecstasy-group
annual prevalence of any region (3.6-4.0% of the gen-
use.53 Country experts in developed countries have per-
eral population), but has the fewest users in absolute
ceived a stable or slightly declining trend since 2004,
numbers. The region with the highest number of users
about the time when developing countries (particularly
is Asia, with an estimated range between 3.6-13.6 mil-
in Eastern Europe and Latin America) perceived more
lion annual users, aged 15-64. Most are living in the
frequent and more significant increases in their use.54
East and South-East Asia subregion. Due to a lack of
In 2007, experts from 63 Member States responded,
country-level prevalence estimates, subregional estimates
with 32 identifying a stable ecstasy-group trend over
cannot be calculated for South Asia, Central Asia, or the
2006, and 9 identifying a decrease.55 Decreases in devel-
Near and Middle East.
oped countries were driven in part by North America
and West and Central Europe.
Ecstasy-group use concentrated in Western Europe
and North America
The most recent student surveys in the USA (2008) and
Canada (Ontario, 2007) show that little change in annual
UNODC estimates that there are about 2.6 million
prevalence of ecstasy-group use has occurred since 2003.
ecstasy-group users in North America, with the majority
However, in the USA and Canada ‘ecstasy’ is sourced
living in the USA. North America’s annual prevalence
primarily from Canadian-based operations, which
for the general population is about 0.9%, similar to that
increasingly cut it with other psychoactive ingredients.
of West and Central Europe. There are between 3.8 and
(see special features section for further information)
4.0 million ecstasy-group users in Europe. Drug use in
West and Central Europe appears largely stable but con-
tinues to increase in several East and South-East Euro-
53 Expert perception data is derived from the ARQ, and is unweighted.
pean countries, particularly among young people.
The following points are allocated if experts perceive: ‘strong increase’
2; ‘some increase’: 1; stable: 0; ‘some decline’ -1; ‘strong decline’ -2. If
all countries had reported ‘some increase’, the global trend line would
have increased by one point each year and would have reached 109 by
2007.
54 The criteria to calculate subregional estimates include recent repre-
sentative prevalence estimates (since 1998) from at least two Member
52 Reports show that unbeknown to many ecstasy users, what is sold to
States that combined account for at least 20% of the subregion’s
them as ecstasy (MDMA) is often a combination of many psychoac-
population aged 15-64.
tive substances, such as methamphetamine and ketamine. Ampheta-
55 Increases and decreases were coded from strong increase/decrease or
mines and Ecstasy: 2008 Global ATS Assessment (United Nations
some increase/decrease, and represent the unweighted number of
publication, Sales No. E.08.XI.12).
Member States responding.
156
1. Trends in the world drug markets Amphetamine-type stimulants market
T
Estimated number of people who used ecstasy at least once in the past year and
able 25:
proporton of population aged 15-64, by region, 2007
Sources: Annual Reports Questionnaire data, various Government reports, reports of regional Bodies, UNODC estimates
Estimated
Estimated
Percent of
Percent of
Region/Subregion
number of users
number of users
population age
population age
(Ecstasy-group)
annually (lower)
annually (upper)
15-64 (lower)
15-64 (upper)
Africa
340,000
1,870,000
0.1
0.4
North
Africa
Subregional estimate cannot be calculated
West and Central Africa
Subregional estimate cannot be calculated
Eastern
Africa
Subregional estimate cannot be calculated
Southern
Africa
210,000
400,000
0.2
0.4
Americas
3,130,000
3,220,000
0.5
0.5
North
America
2,560,000
2,560,000
0.9
0.9
Central
America
20,000
30,000
0.1
0.1
The
Caribbean
30,000
130,000
0.1
0.5
South
America
510,000
510,000
0.2
0.2
Asia
3,550,000
13,580,000
0.1
0.5
East/South East Asia
2,250,000
5,950,000
0.2
0.4
South
Asia
Subregional estimate cannot be calculated
Central
Asia
Subregional estimate cannot be calculated
Near and Middle East
Subregional estimate cannot be calculated
Europe
3,750,000
3,960,000
0.7
0.7
Western/Central
Europe
2,110,000
2,120,000
0.8
0.8
East/South East Europe
1,640,000
1,830,000
0.6
0.6
Oceania
810,000
880,000
3.6
4.0
Global
11,580,000
23,510,000
0.3
0.5
Fig. 113: Ecstasy-group use trends as perceived by experts, by OECD and non-OECD countries,
1998-2007 (baseline: 1998 = 100)56
Note: Ecstasy-group trends were systematically collected only as of 2000, and thus pre-2000 data represent ATS data used as a
proxy. Sources: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data, UNODC Field Offices, UNODC’s Drug Use Information Network for Asia
and the Pacific (DAINAP).
103.9
104
103
103.2
102
OECD
Non-OECD
101
Baseline 1998 = 100
Global
100
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
T
Expert per
able 26:
ception of changing ecstasy-group use, by region: 2007
Sources: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data
Member
Use
Percent use
Use
Percent use
Use
Percent use
Region
States
problem
problem
problem
problem
problem
problem
responding
increased*
increased
stable
stable
decreased*
decreased
Europe
30
11
37%
15
50%
4
13%
Americas
13
3
23%
10
77%
0
0%
Asia
15
6
40%
5
33%
4
27%
Oceania
0
0
0
0
Africa
5
2
40%
2
40%
1
20%
Global
63
22
35%
32
51%
9
14%
* Identifies increases/decreases ranging from either some to strong, unweighted by population.
157
World Drug Report 2009
Increases still reported in South American
Worsening ecstasy situation in parts of Asia may
countries56
reflect other drugs
In Latin America, only Colombia has annual prevalence
For 2007, 40% of experts perceived a growing ecstasy-
rates of ecstasy-group use similar to North America. The
group use problem in Asia. Of these, most were situated
rate among urban secondary students in Colombia was
in East and South-East Asia, including China, Indone-
3.0% in 2004/05.57 This is nearly double the rate (1.6%)
sia, Thailand and Viet Nam. However, like other regions,
from surveys of secondary school students conducted
a lack of forensic capacity means that it is not known
just three years earlier.58 Prior to 2001, there were no
whether ecstasy-group substances actually contain
indications of measurable ecstasy-group drug use among
MDMA or other psychoactive ingredients. “Club drugs”
students.
are increasingly being replaced by other substances, such
as ketamine.61 For example, in Hong Kong, China, the
Stabilization in large parts of Europe,
market has changed rapidly and dramatically since 2000,
with possible shifts detected
as ketamine–nearly unheard of in 1998–has supplanted
Data continue to suggest stabilization in Europe, due in
ecstasy use. The number of reported drug registry cases
large part to stable use in West and Central Europe.
for ketamine doubled between 2005 and 2007, and now
Most notable are the trends from the UK, for many
accounts for 29% of all newly reported cases in Hong
years Europe’s largest ecstasy market, and Spain. Begin-
Kong, China. Ketamine use has been noted in neigh-
ning around 2001, annual prevalence trends showed
bouring areas and follows reports of significant illicit
decreases in the general population in England and
manufacturing operations and seizures throughout the
Wales (aged 16-59) and Spain (aged 15-64).
subregion.
Between 1999 and 2007, European students (aged
15-16) reported increased lifetime use of ecstasy-group
Fig. 114: Annual prevalence of ecstasy-group
use among secondary students in
substances. However, there were diverging trends by
select South American countries (rank
subregion. Students in West and Central Europe59 have
ordered), 2004/05
reported relatively stable unweighted lifetime use since
Source: Oficina de las Naciones Unidas contra la Droga y el
2003. In contrast, students from Eastern Europe60
Delito (ONUDD) y la Comisión Interamericana para el Control
reported nearly 1.5% higher lifetime prevalence rates
del Abuso de Drogas (CICAD/OEA) (2006). Jóvenes y drogas
than their West and Central European counterparts. (see
en países sudamericanos: Un desafio para las políticas públi-
cas: Primer estudio comparativo sobre uso de drogas en pob-
Special Features section for further information)
lación escolar secundaria de Argentina, Bolivia, Brasil,
Colombia, Chile, Ecuador, Paraguay, Perú y Uruguay.
Consistent with these data, expert perception in 2007
(Lima, 2006).
showed 11 experts reporting increasing ecstasy-group
use, of which nearly two thirds were from East and
Colombia
3.0%
South-East European countries.
Chile
1.6%
Ecuador
1.1%
56 Ecstasy-group trends were systematically collected only as of 2000.
There are indications from several countries that late 1990s ATS and
Peru
0.6%
ecstasy-group trends followed similar patterns, and thus pre-2000
data represent ATS data used as a proxy.
Bolivia
0.5%
57 Oficina de las Naciones Unidas contra la Droga y el Delito (ONUDD)
y la Comisión Interamericana para el Control del Abuso de Drogas
(CICAD/OEA) (2006). Jóvenes y drogas en países sudamericanos: Un
Paraguay
0.4%
desafio para las políticas públicas: Primer estudio comparativo sobre
uso de drogas en población escolar secundaria de Argentina, Bolivia,
Brasil, Colombia, Chile, Ecuador, Paraguay, Perú y Uruguay (Lima,
0%
1%
2%
3%
4%
September 2006).
58 The Inter-American Drug Abuse Control Commission. Multilateral
Evaluation Mechanism (MEM): Colombia country report 2001-2002.
(Organization of American States (OAS), 2008).
59 Students of West and Central Europe include: Austria, Belgium
(Flanders), Cyprus, Denmark, Faroe Islands, Finland, France, Ger-
many (6 states), Greece, Greenland, Iceland, Ireland, Isle of Man,
61 Ketamine is a licit pharmaceutical illicitly used as a hallucinogen
Italy, Malta, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland
most often found in powder or liquid form that is increasingly
and the United Kingdom.
encountered on ATS markets, either in connection with the “club-
60 Students of Eastern Europe include: Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Repub-
drug” scene, or found as an active ingredient in what is sold on illicit
lic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Russian
markets as ‘ecstasy’. Ketamine is not currently under international
Federation, (Moscow), Slovakia, Slovenia, and the Ukraine.
control.
158
1. Trends in the world drug markets Amphetamine-type stimulants market
Fig. 115: England and Wales (UK) and Spain:
Fig. 116: Hong Kong, China ecstasy-group
Annual prevalence of ecstasy-group
and ketamine drug registry cases,
use among the general population,
1998-2007
1998-2007/08
Source: Central Registry of Drug Abuse. Narcotics Division
Source: Kershaw, C., Nicholas, S., & Walker, A. (2008). Crime
(ND), Security Bureau, the Hong Kong Special Administrative
in England and Wales 2007/08: Findings from the British
Region, China.
Crime Survey and police recorded crime. Home Office Statisti-
3,982
cal Bulletin (ISBN 978-1-84726-753-5) (London, 2008);
4,000
Informe de la encuesta domiciliaria sobre alcohol y dogas en
España (EDADES) 2007/08. Delegación del gobierno para el
plan nacional sobre drogas. (Madrid, 2008).
3,000
2.5
2,000
2.0
1.5
1.5
1.5
1,000
1.1
Drug registry persons (#)
901
1.0
0.8
0
Annual prevalence (%)
0.5
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Ketamine
Ecstasy-group
-
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007/08
England & Wales (age 16-59)
rates reflect some of the highest reported annual preva-
Spain (age 15-64)
lence of use. Annual use in Australia remained stable
since 2004, contrary to increases in New Zealand.
High use levels in Oceania, but the ecstasy
used may vary
However, due to some of New Zealand’s apparent
increase may not be of MDMA-containing pills. Until
Given that the Australian population comprises the
2008, New Zealand had a substantial legal “party-pills”
majority of population in Oceania, what occurs in Aus-
market which sold, inter alia, benzylpiperazine (BZP), a
tralia de facto "drives" trends in Oceania. Both Australia
drug with effects similar to MDMA (ecstasy). A 2006
and New Zealand have reported increased annual preva-
household survey found that 15.3% of New Zealanders
lence of ecstasy-group among the general population
(aged 13-45) had used “party-pills” in the past year. In
since 1998, and the most recent studies find that their
some cases these “party-pills” were sold as “ecstasy”.
Fig. 117: Australia and New Zealand: Annual prevalence of ecstasy use, 1998-2007
Source: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare 2008. 2007 National Drug Strategy Household Survey: detailed findings. Drug
statistics series no. 22. Cat. no. PHE 107. Canberra: AIHW. Wilkins C. & Sweetsur P. (2008) Trends in population drug use in New
Zealand: Findings from national household surveying of drug use in 1998, 2001, 2003 and 2006. New Zealand Medical Journal,
121, 61-71. A216
3.9%
4%
3.5%
3%
2.4%
2%
1.5%
1%
Annual Prevalence Rate (%)
0%
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Australia (aged 14+)
New Zealand (aged 15-45)
159
2. Confronting unintended consequences:
DRUG CONTROL AND THE CRIMINAL BLACK MARKET
2.0 Confronting unintended consequences:
Drug control and the criminal black market
Last year’s World Drug Report reviewed 100 years of drug
2.1 Why illicit drugs must remain illicit
control efforts, documenting the development of one of
the first international cooperative ventures designed to
Oddly, of all areas of international cooperation, drug
deal with a global challenge. This pioneering work
control is uniquely subject to calls that the struggle
brought together nations with very different political
should be abandoned. Despite equally mixed results in
and cultural perspectives to agree on a topic of consider-
international interventions,1 no one advocates accepting
able sensitivity: the issue of substance abuse and addic-
poverty or war as inevitable. Not so with drugs, where a
tion. Despite wars, economic crises, and other cataclysmic
range of unintended consequences have led some to
events of state, the global drug control movement has
conclude that the only solution is to legalise and tax
chugged steadily forward, culminating in a framework
substances like cannabis, cocaine, ecstasy, methampheta-
of agreements and joint interventions with few prece-
mine, and heroin.
dents or peers in international law.
The strongest case against the current system of drug
Today, a number of substances are prohibited in the
control is not the financial costs of the system, or even
domestic legislation of almost every country. As dis-
its effectiveness in reducing the availability of drugs.2
cussed below, this unanimity has created a bulwark
The strongest case against drug control is the violence
shielding millions from the effects of drug abuse and
and corruption associated with the black market. The
addiction. In the past, many of these substances were
main problem is not that drug control efforts have failed
legally produced and, in some cases, aggressively mar-
to eliminate drug use, an aspirational goal akin to the
keted, to devastating effect. The collective nations of the
elimination of war and poverty. It is that in attempting
world have agreed that this state of affairs was unaccept-
