World Drug Report 2008
2008
WORLD DRUG REPORT
Acknowledgements
This Report was produced in the Policy Analysis and Research Branch under the supervision of Sandeep Chawla, by
the Statistics and Survey Section (headed by Angela Me) and the Studies and Threat Analysis Section (headed by
Thibault le Pichon).
Core Team: Coen Bussink (maps), Philip Davis (data analysis), Laureta Kazanxhiu (maps), Suzanne Kunnen (graphic
design and desktop publishing), and Kristina Kuttnig (graphic design and desktop publishing), Theodore Leggett
(editorial assistance), Matthew Nice (ATS trends and statistical assistance), Thomas Pietschmann (estimates, trends,
market and global analysis, Chapter 2), Catherine Pysden (interactive data), Martin Raithelhuber (coca, opium and
cannabis production data and analysis), Wolfgang Rhomberg (database management), Ali Saadeddin (data entry and
statistical assistance), Melissa Tullis (project management, global analysis, editorial assistance).
The Report also benefited from the work and expertise of many other UNODC staff in Vienna and around the world.
UNODC reiterates its appreciation and gratitude to States Members for the reports and information that provided
the basis of this edition of the World Drug Report as well as to the International Narcotics Control Board (INCB)
and the European Monitoring Centre on Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA).
UNODC would like to thank the Government of Sweden for its continued financial support to the World Drug Report.
The boundaries, names and designations used in all maps in this book do not
imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.
This publication has not been formally edited.
United Nations Publication
Sales No. E.08.XI.1
978-92-1-148229-4
CONTENTS
Preface
1
Introduction
3
Explanatory notes
5
Executive Summary
7
1. TRENDS IN WORLD DRUG MARKETS
1.1
Overview
1.1.1
Global
evolution
25
1.1.2 Global outlook
34
1.2 Opium / Heroin market
1.2.1
Summary
Trend
Overview
37
1.2.2
Production
38
1.2.3
Trafficking
45
1.2.4
Consumption
55
1.3 Coca / Cocaine market
1.3.1
Summary
Trend
Overview
65
1.3.2
Production
66
1.3.3
Trafficking
72
1.3.4
Consumption
84
1.4
Cannabis
market
1.4.1
Summary
Trend
Overview
95
1.4.2
Production
96
1.4.3
Trafficking
102
1.4.4
Consumption
111
1.5 Amphetamine-type stimulants market
1.5.1
Summary
Trend
Overview
123
1.5.2
Production
124
1.5.3
Trafficking
137
1.5.4
Consumption
153
2. A CENTURY OF INTERNATIONAL DRUG CONTROL
2.1 Origins: The development of the opium problem in China
173
2.2 The foundation of an international drug control system
177
2.3 Drug control under the League of Nations, 1920-1945
192
2.4 Development of the present system under the United Nations
196
2.5 Achievements and unintended consequences of the international drug control system
212
CONTENTS
3. STATISTICAL ANNEX
3.1
Production
3.1.1
Afghanistan
225
3.1.2
Bolivia
233
3.1.3
Colombia
237
3.1.4
Lao
PDR
242
3.1.5
Myanmar
244
3.1.6
Peru
249
3.2
Seizures
253
3.3 Seizures of illict laboratories
254
3.4
Prices
3.4.1 Opiates: Wholesale, street prices and purity levels
255
3.4.2 Cocaine: Wholesale, street prices and purity levels
260
3.4.3 Cannabis: Wholesale, street prices and purity levels
264
3.4.4 Amphetamine-type stimulants: Wholesale, street prices and purity levels
269
3.5
Consumption
3.5.1
Annual
Prevalence
3.5.1.1
Opiates
273
3.5.1.2
Cocaine
275
3.5.1.3
Cannabis
276
3.5.1.4 Amphetamine-type stimulants (excluding ecstasy)
278
3.5.1.5
Ecstasy
280
3.5.2.
Treatment
Demand
3.5.2.1 Primary drugs of abuse among persons treated
for drug problems in Africa
281
3.5.2.2 Primary drugs of abuse among persons treated
for drug problems in America
282
3.5.2.3 Primary drugs of abuse among persons treated
for drug problems in Asia
283
3.5.2.4 Primary drugs of abuse among persons treated
for drug problems in Europe
284
3.5.2.5 Primary drugs of abuse among persons treated
for drug problems in Oceania
285
4. METHODOLOGY
289
Preface
Indicators of the world drug situation remain favourable
where it already exists (mostly in developed countries) and
over the long-term, but there are recent warning signs that
create new markets for some of the world’s deadliest sub-
must be heeded.
stances (mostly in developing countries).
A global and long-term perspective reveals that illicit drug
Progress is needed in three areas.
use has been contained to less than 5% of the adult popula-
First, public health – the first principle of drug control –
tion (yearly incidence rate for people aged 15-64). In other
should be brought back to centre stage. Currently, the
words, less than one in every twenty people used illicit drugs
amount of resources and political support for public secu-
at least once in the past 12 months. Problem drug users
rity and law enforcement far outweigh those devoted to
(people severely drug dependent) are limited to less than one
public health. This must be re-balanced. Drug dependence
tenth of this already low percentage: there may be 26 million
is an illness that should be treated like any other. More
of them, about 0.6% of the planet’s adult population.
resources are needed to prevent people from taking drugs,
This is an impressive achievement when considered in the
to treat those who are dependent, and to reduce the adverse
historical perspective of a century of drug control (reviewed
health and social consequences of drug abuse.
in Chapter 2), or the decade since a special session of the
Second, drug control should be looked at in the larger con-
United Nations General Assembly (UNGASS) in 1998
text of crime prevention and the rule of law in order to cut
which motivated countries to be more proactive in reducing
links between drug trafficking, organized crime, corruption
drug supply and demand. It is also an undeniable success
and terrorism. Some of the world’s biggest drug producing
when compared to the consumption of tobacco or alcohol,
regions (in Afghanistan, Colombia, and Myanmar) are out
addictive psychoactive drugs that are used by at least one
of the control of the central government. Drug trafficking is
quarter of the world’s adult population, and cause millions
undermining national security (for example in parts of Cen-
of deaths every year. In the absence of the drug control
tral America, the Caribbean, Mexico, and West Africa).
system, illicit drug use may well have reached such levels,
Drug money is used as a lubricant for corruption, and a
with devastating consequences for public health. In short, in
source of terrorist financing: in turn, corrupt officials and
terms of reducing demand, national and multilateral drug
terrorists make drug production and trafficking easier.
control seem to be working.
Third, protecting public security and safeguarding public
On the supply side, the story is different. This Report pro-
health should be done in a way that upholds human rights
vides evidence of a surge in the supply of illicit drugs in
and human dignity. This year’s 60th anniversary of the Uni-
2007. Afghanistan had a record opium harvest, and world
versal Declaration of Human Rights provides us with a
opium production (because of higher yields) almost dou-
useful reminder of the inalienable rights to life and a fair
bled between 2005 and 2007. Coca cultivation increased in
trial. Although drugs kill, we should not kill because of
the Andean countries last year, although cocaine production
drugs. As we move forward, human rights should be a part
remained stable because of lower yields per hectare. In the
of drug control.
cannabis market, there are two worrying trends: Afghani-
stan has become a major producer of cannabis resin; in
In short, to hold the line and to further reduce the threat
developed countries, indoor cultivation is producing more
posed by drugs, more attention must be devoted to reducing
potent strains of cannabis herb.
demand for drugs, promoting security and development in
the world’s major drug producing regions, assisting states
The past few World Drug Reports have stated that the world
caught in the cross-fire of drug trafficking, and stemming
drug problem is being contained in the sense that it had
the spread of drugs into countries in transition.
stabilized. This year’s Report shows that containment is
under threat. Urgent steps must be taken to prevent the
unravelling of progress that has been made in the past few
decades of drug control. Furthermore, containment should
not be seen as an end in itself. Real success will only come
when supply and demand actually go down (rather than
level off ), across the world. The current upsurge in supply
Antonio Maria Costa
together with the development of new trafficking routes
Executive Director
(mostly through Africa) could eventually strengthen demand
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
1
Introduction
The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
The Report continues to provide in depth trend analysis
(UNODC) is a global leader in the multilateral effort
of the four main drug markets in its first section. In
against illicit drugs and international crime. The three
addition, to mark the one hundred year anniversary of
pillars of its work programme are:
the Shanghai Opium Commission, and one hundred
years of international drug control, the Report contains
•
Research and analytical work to increase knowledge
an in-depth look at the development of the international
and understanding of drugs and crime issues and ex-
drug control system. The Report also contains a small
pand the evidence-base for policy and operational
statistical annex which provides a detailed look at pro-
decisions;
duction, prices and consumption.
•
Normative work to assist States in the ratifi cation
As in previous years, the present Report is based on data
and implementation of the international treaties, the
obtained primarily from the annual reports question-
development of domestic legislation on drugs, crime
naire (ARQ) sent by Governments to UNODC in 2007,
and terrorism, and the provision of secretariat and
supplemented by other sources when necessary and
substantive services to the treaty-based and govern-
where available. Two of the main limitations herein are:
ing bodies; and
(i) that ARQ reporting is not systematic enough, both
•
Field-based technical cooperation projects to en-
in terms of number of countries responding and of con-
hance the capacity of States Members to counteract
tent, and (ii) that most countries lack the adequate
illicit drugs, crime and terrorism.
monitoring systems required to produce reliable, com-
Recognizing the importance of comprehensive, factual
prehensive and internationally comparable data. National
and objective information in the field of international
monitoring systems are, however, improving and
drug control, as well as the need to improve the evidence
UNODC has contributed to this process.
base available for policy making, the General Assembly
Electronic copies of the World Drug Report 2008 Report
entrusted UNODC with the mandate to publish “com-
can be accessed via www.unodc.org.
prehensive and balanced information about the world
drug problem” in 1998. UNODC has published such
Comments and feedback on the Report are welcome
assessments annually since 1999.
and can be sent to: RAS@unodc.org.
This year, the Report retains the one-volume format
introduced in 2007. Under the more synthetic format,
the detailed seizures tables are available on UNODC’s
website. A PDF file containing the detailed seizure tables
is available for review and downloading at: www.unodc.org.
The detailed seizure tables are also available on CD by
request. CDs can be ordered via the following e-mail
address: RAS@unodc.org
3
Explanatory notes
This Report has not been formally edited.
The following abbreviations have been used
in this Report:
The designations employed and the presentation of the
material in this publication do not imply the expression
ARQ annual reports questionnaire
of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat
ATS amphetamine-type
stimulants
of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any
CICAD Inter-American Drug Abuse
country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or
Control Commission
concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or bounda-
CIS Commonwealth of Independent States
ries. Countries and areas are referred to by the names
DEA United States of America,
that were in official use at the time the relevant data
Drug Enforcement Administration
were collected.
DELTA UNODC Database on Estimates and
Terms: Since there is some scientific and legal ambiguity
Long Term Trend Analysis
about the distinctions between drug 'use', 'misuse' and
DUMA Drug Use Monitoring in Australia
'abuse', this Report uses the neutral terms, drug 'use' or
EMCDDA European Monitoring Centre
'consumption'.
for Drugs and Drug Addiction
ESPAD European School Sur vey Project
Maps: The boundaries and names shown and the desig-
on Alcohol and other Drugs
nations used on maps do not imply official endorsement
F.O. UNODC Field Office
or acceptance by the United Nations. A dotted line rep-
resents approximately the line of control in Jammu and
Govt. Government
Kashmir agreed upon by India and Pakistan. The final
ICMP UNODC Global Illicit Crop
status of Jammu and Kashmir has not yet been agreed
Monitoring Programme
upon by the parties. Disputed boundaries (China/India)
IDU Injecting drug use
are represented by cross hatch due to impossibility of
INCB International Narcotics Control Board
detail.
INCSR United States of America, International
Narcotics Control Strategy Report
The data on population used in this Report comes from:
Interpol International Criminal Police
United Nations, Department of Economic and Social
Organization
Affairs, Population Division (2007). World Population
LSD lysergic acid diethylamide
Prospects: The 2006 Revision.
NAPOL National
Police
In various sections, this Report refers to a number of
PCP
phencyclidine
regional designations. These are not official designa-
THC tetrahydrocannabinol
tions. They are defined as follows: West and Central
UNAIDS Joint and Co-sponsored United Nations
Europe: EU 25, EFTA, San Marino and Andorra; East
Programme on Human
Europe: European CIS countries; South East Europe:
Immunodeficiency
Virus/
Turkey and the non-EU Balkan countries; North Amer-
Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome
ica: Canada, Mexico and the United States of America.
UNODC United
Nations
Office on Drugs and Crime
WCO World Customs Organization (also
WHO World Health Organization
Weights and measurements
u. Unit
lt. Litre
kg Kilogram
ha Hectare
mt Metric
ton
5
Executive Summary
1. Trends in World Markets
1.1 Overview
ture and fortify the downward trend.
The long-term stabilization of world drug markets con-
The containment of illicit drug use to less than 5% of
tinued into 2007, although notable exceptions occurred
the world population aged 15 to 64 (based on annual
in some critical areas. As long term trends are obviously
prevalence estimates, see Figure below) is a considerable
more meaningful and indicative than short term fluc-
achievement, documented historically in the pages of
tuations, these limited reversals do not appear to negate
this report. The achievement is manifest on the two
the containment of the drug markets recorded since the
scales of time considered here: the century since the
late 1990s.
beginnings of the international drug control system (the
subject of Chapter 2); or the decade since UNGASS in
On the supply side, despite cultivation increases for both
1998.
coca and opiates in 2007, the overall level of cultivation
remained below the one recorded at the beginning of the
In general, containment of the illicit drug problem to a
UNGASS process (1998) and well below annual peaks
relatively small fraction of the world population (aged
in the last two decades (1991 for opium and 2000 for
15 to 64) begins to look like an even more important
coca). In 2007, opium cultivation increased in both
achievement when considered in the light of three other
Afghanistan and Myanmar: coupled with higher yields,
estimates. First, problem drug use has been contained to
especially in southern Afghanistan, this generated much
a marginal fraction of the world population (0.6%) aged
greater world output. With regard to cocaine, cultiva-
15 to 64. Secondly, the consumption of tobacco, an
tion increased in Bolivia, Peru and especially Colombia,
addictive, psychoactive drug that is sold widely in open,
but yields declined, so production remained stable.
albeit regulated markets, affects as much as 25% of the
world adult population. Thirdly, mortality statistics
On the demand side, despite an apparent increase in the
show that illicit drugs take a small fraction of the lives
absolute number of cannabis, cocaine and opiates users,
claimed by tobacco (about 200,000 a year for illicit
annual prevalence levels have remained stable in all drug
drugs versus about 5 million a year for tobacco).
markets. In other words, as the number of people who
have used a particular drug at least once in the past 12
Global trends in Drug Production
months has risen at about the same rate as population,
drug consumption has remained stable in relative
The total area under opium cultivation rose to 235,700
terms.
ha in 2007. This increase of 17% from 2006 puts global
cultivation at just about the same level, though still
Given these yearly changes, the containment of world
marginally lower, than the 238,000 ha recorded in 1998.
drug markets - recorded in these reports over the last few
Although there was some growth in South-East Asian
years - appears confirmed but under strain. Further con-
poppy cultivation, the global increase was almost entirely
solidation, in 2008 and beyond, will mean tightening
due to the 17% expansion of cultivation in Afghanistan,
overall market containment and addressing slippage in
which is now 193,000 ha. With Afghanistan accounting
areas where some expansion was registered in 2007. On
for 82% of world opium cultivation, the proportion of
the supply side this dictates two critical priorities: lower-
South-East Asian expansion in overall cultivation was
ing opium poppy cultivation, especially in Afghanistan;
small. It is not unimportant, however, as it reverses six
and returning to the path of steadily declining coca cul-
straight years of decline. Opium poppy cultivation in
tivation registered in the first few years of this century.
Myanmar increased 29%, from 21,500 ha in 2006 to
On the demand side, more effectively containing the
27,700 ha, in 2007. Afghanistan’s higher yielding opium
number of drug users, particularly in developing coun-
poppy led to a second year of global opium production
tries, has to become a critical priority; and more atten-
increases. Opium production almost doubled between
tion should be given to prevention, treatment and
2005 and 2007, reaching 8,870 mt in 2007, a level
reducing the negative consequences of drug abuse. Rich
unprecedented in recent years. In 2007, Afghanistan
countries' drugs markets fluctuate, mostly sideways and
alone accounted for over 92% of global opium produc-
occasionally downwards: it is equally important to nur-
tion.
7
World Drug Report 2008
Global drug seizures (excluding cannabis): 2005 -2006
3,304
Coca leaf
3,209
705
Cocaine
743
384
Opium
342
58
Heroin
58
46
Morphine
32
19
Amphetamine
21
16
Methamphetamine
17
4
Ecstasy
5
5
Methaqualone
1
1
Depressants
1
0
200
400
600
800
1,000
3,000
Metric ton equivalents
2005
2006
Coca cultivation increased in Colombia, Bolivia, and
seized grew 12% to 5,200 mt in 2005, while the quan-
Peru in 2007. In Colombia, the area under cultivation
tity of resin seizures declined by roughly 25% - most
expanded 27% to 99,000 ha. Increases for Bolivia and
likely still reflecting a decline in production in Morocco.
Peru were much smaller: 5% and 4% respectively. In
Cannabis herb seizures, however, were 27% down com-
total, coca cultivation increased 16% in 2007. Crops,
pared to 2004 (their post-1998 peak). A significant
however, were either not well tended or planted in poor
decline in cannabis plants seized was recorded in 2006.
yielding areas, as potential cocaine production only grew
by 1% overall to 992 mt.
Seizures of opium and morphine grew 10% and 31%
respectively in 2006, reflecting continued production
Estimates of cannabis herb production show a slight
increases in Afghanistan. Heroin seizures, however, sta-
decline for the second straight year in 2006, seeming to
bilized in 2006. Following five straight years of expan-
reverse the upward trend that began in the early 1990s.
sion, the quantity of cocaine seized fell by 5% in 2006.
Global cannabis herb production is now estimated to be
This is consistent with the stabilization of overall cocaine
41,400 mt, down from 42,000 mt in 2005 and 45,000
production in the 2004 to 2006 period. The quantities
in 2004. Cannabis yields continue to vary considerably
of amphetamine, methamphetamine and ecstasy seized
and extremely high yielding hydroponically grown can-
were all down between 8% and 15% from 2005 to
nabis continues to be a cause for concern. Global can-
2006. Overall ATS seizures increased by 2% reflecting
nabis resin production estimates fell around 10% from
seizures of non specified ATS, including "captagon"
6,600 mt in 2005 to 6,000 mt in 2006 (midpoint esti-
tablets.
mates). Global annual prevalence remained almost
unchanged, going from 3.8% to 3.9% between 2005/06
and 2006/07.
Global cocaine seizures: 1996- 2006
ATS production has remained in the range of 450-500
800
mt since in 2000. In 2007 global ATS production
700
increased slightly to 494 mt. There has been a decline in
ecstasy production (from 113 mt in 2005 to 103 mt in
600
2006), and a decrease in methamphetamine production
500
(from 278 mt to 267 mt) which is again compensated
by an increase in global amphetamine production (from
400
88 mt to 126 mt). The global annual prevalence rate
300
remained 0.6% for amphetamines and 0.2% for
ecstasy.
Metric ton equivalents
200
100
Global trends in Drug Trafficking
0
Only seizures for cannabis herb and the opiates grew
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
year on year in 2006. The quantity of cannabis herb
8
Executive Summary
Global opiate seizures, expressed in heroin
Illicit drug use at the global level (2006/2007)
equivalents, by substance: 1996 - 2006
150
Total world population:
6,475 million people
World population age:
120
15-64: 4,272 million
Non-drug using
90
population age:
15-64: 4,064 million (95.1%)
Annual prevalence
of drug use: 208 million
60
(4.8%)
Monthly prevalence of
drug use: 112 million (2.6%)
Metric ton equivalents 30
Problem drug use (age 15:64) :
26 million people (0.6%)
0
Extent of drug use (annual prevalence*)
estimates 2006/07 (or latest year available)
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Opium
Morphine
Heroin
Global trends in Drug Consumption
1.2 Opium/Heroin Market
The proportion of drug users in the world population
In 2007, the opium/heroin market continued to expand
aged 15 to 64 has remained stable for the fourth straight
on the strength of cultivation increases in Afghanistan
year. It remains near the upper end of the 4.7% to 5.0%
which pushed up the area under illicit opium poppy
range it has stabilized at since the late 1990s. Approxi-
cultivation worldwide by 17%. However, cultivation
mately 208 million people or 4.9 % of the world’s
also increased in South-East Asia, where it went up after
population aged 15 to 64 have used drugs at least once
six consecutive years of decline.
in the last 12 months. Problem drug use remains about
0.6% of the global population aged 15 to 64.
The area under opium poppy cultivation in Afghanistan
With the exception of ATS, each market has seen some
rose by 17% in 2007 to 193,000 ha. This was the largest
increase in the absolute numbers of drug users, but
area under opium poppy cultivation ever recorded in
prevalence rates, where they have increased, have only
Afghanistan, surpassing the 2006 record cultivation
done so marginally. The global annual prevalence rates
figure. The increase itself was less pronounced than in
for 2006/07 over 2005/06 were as follows: cannabis
2006, when the increase was 33%. Similar to the year
went from 3.8% to 3.9%, cocaine from 0.34% to
before, Afghanistan accounted for 82% of the global
0.37%, opiates from 0.37% to 0.39%, heroin from
area under opium poppy in 2007. Over two thirds of
0.27% to 0.28% and amphetamines from 0.60% to
the opium poppy cultivation was located in the south-
0.58%.
ern region of the country, where the southern province
Extent of drug use (annual prevalence*) estimates 2006/07(or latest year available)
Amphetamine-type stimulants
Canna-
of which
Cocaine
Opiates
bis
is Heroin
Amphetamines
Ecstasy
Number of abusers
165.6
24.7
9
16
16.5
12.0
(in millions)
in % of global population
3.9%
0.6%
0.2%
0.4%
0.4%
0.3%
age 15-64
*Annual prevalence is a measure of the number/percentage of people who have consumed an illicit drug at least
9
Executive Summary
Global illicit opium poppy cultivation (hectares), by region: 1990 – 2007
300,000
250,000
200,000
150,000
Hectares
100,000
50,000
0
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
Afghanistan
Myanmar
Lao PDR
Rest of the World
of Hilmand alone accounted for 53 % of total cultiva-
increased significantly. In Lao PDR cultivation remained
tion. Encouragingly, the number of provinces which
at a low level.
were free of poppy in Afghanistan went up from 6 in
2006 to 13 in 2007.
The opium poppy grown in Afghanistan has a higher
yield than that of Myanmar. It is therefore mainly the
After six years of decline, opium poppy cultivation in
cultivation increase in Afghanistan which led to the
South-East Asia increased by 22%, driven by a 29%
record high of opium production in 2007. Global opium
cultivation increase in Myanmar. Despite this recent
production increased for a second year in a row to 8,870
increase, opium poppy cultivation in South-East Asia
mt, more than ever recorded in recent years. Global
has decreased by 82% since 1998. While some areas in
opium production has doubled since 1998 due to the
Myanmar such as the Wa region remained opium poppy
shift to these higher yielding plants. In 2007, Afghani-
free, cultivation in the East and South of the Shan State,
stan alone accounted for 92 % of global production,
where the majority of opium cultivation takes place,
producing 8,200 mt of opium at an average opium yield
Global illicit opium production, by region: 1990 - 2007
9,000
8,000
7,000
6,000
5,000
4,000
Metric tons
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
Afghanistan
Myanmar
Lao PDR
Rest of the World
11
Executive Summary
Global coca cultivation (hectares), by region: 1990-2007
225,000
200,000
175,000
150,000
125,000
Hectares
100,000
75,000
50,000
25,000
0
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Colombia
Peru
Bolivia
of 42.5 kg/ha. In Myanmar, opium production increased
cultivation in Colombia rose to 99,000 ha in 2007. This
by 46 % to 460 mt, but was still 65% lower than it was
was mainly due to an increase in the Pacific and Central
in 1998.
regions, which were responsible for over three quarters
of the total area increase. Pacific was the largest coca
Market consumption patterns appear to have remained
region in 2007 with 25,960 hectares.
largely the same – with the majority of opiates on the
market in Europe, the Near and Middle East and Africa
In 2007, coca cultivation in Peru increased by 4 % to
continuing to come from Afghanistan, those on the
53,700 ha. Despite having experienced the second con-
market in Asia sourced from Myanmar and those on the
secutive increase in two years, coca cultivation remained
market in North and South America from Mexico and
well below the levels registered in the mid 1990s, when
Colombia. The largest seizures of heroin and morphine
Peru was the world’s largest cultivator of coca bush.
occurred in Pakistan, Iran and Turkey with seizure levels
Bolivia, the third largest producer of coca leaf, still trails
increasing in 2006.
behind Colombia and Peru. For a second consecutive
year, coca cultivation increased in Bolivia, and amounted
Opiates remain the main problem drug in terms of treat-
to 28,900 ha in 2007, an increase of 5%.
ment. This, combined with the enormous increases in
production we are now witnessing, necessitate the rigor-
With less coca being grown in high yielding regions,
ous monitoring of demand in the opiate market. While
there was a stabilisation in Colombian cocaine produc-
demand has been relatively stable at the global level, the
tion despite the large increase in cultivation. Global
countries surrounding Afghanistan continue to experi-
potential cocaine production has remained stable over
ence increasing levels of use. Increases were also recorded
the last few years, reaching 994 mt in 2007, almost the
for most countries of East and Southern Africa. Con-
same as in 2006 (984 mt). The majority of this, 600 mt
sumer markets in Western and Central Europe seem to
in 2007, comes from Colombia.
be largely stable. Opiates use also remains stable in
The cocaine market is concentrated in the Americas,
North America.
although increases in both distribution and use continue
1.3 Coca/Cocaine Market
to occur in Western Europe and West Africa. The recent
increases in both seizures and use in West Africa appear
In 2007, the total area under coca cultivation in Bolivia,
to reflect the development of new distribution routes
Colombia and Peru increased 16% to 181,600 ha. This
through West Africa to Western Europe. This has led to
was driven mainly by a 27% increase in Colombia, but
a large increase in seizures in both regions. Consump-
cultivation also increased, at much lower rates, in Bolivia
tion continues to increase both at destination and along
and Peru. Despite these recent increases, the global area
the route. A contraction in the consumer markets of
under coca cultivation continues to be lower than in the
North America has led to a strong decline in seizures in
1990s and 18% below the level recorded in 2000
North America. In the USA, the proportion of the
(221,300 ha). Colombia continued to account for the
workforce testing positive for cocaine declined by 19%
majority of cultivation. At 55 % of the global total,
in 2007, and by 36% since 1998. Cocaine use, however,
continues to increase in South America.
13
World Drug Report 2008
Global cocaine production*, by region: 1990-2007
1,200
1,000
800
600
Metric tons
400
200
0
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Colombia
Peru
Bolivia
1.4 Cannabis Market
age THC levels of cannabis on the US market almost
doubled between 1999 and 2006, from 4.6% to 8.8%.
Cannabis continues to dominate the world’s illicit drug
markets in terms of pervasiveness of cultivation, volume
The extent of cannabis cultivation in Afghanistan
of production, and number of consumers. Cannabis
appears to be approaching that of Morocco. In 2007,
production was identified or reported in 172 countries
the area under cannabis in Afghanistan was equivalent
and territories. The broad levels of use of this drug and
to more than a third of the area under opium cultiva-
its increasing potency make the long term containment
tion. UNODC estimates suggest that cannabis cultiva-
of the market especially important. Global cannabis
tion in Afghanistan increased from 30,000 ha in 2005
herb production is estimated to have stabilized at around
to 50,000 ha in 2006 and 70,000 ha in 2007. Tentative
41,400 mt in 2006. Production in 2006 was almost
estimates suggest that 6,000 mt of cannabis resin were
equal to that of 2005, and 8% lower than 2004. The
produced in 2006, down from 6,600 mt in 2005 and
decline in global cannabis herb seizures between 2004
7,500 mt in 2004. After many years of uninterrupted
increases, global cannabis resin production appears to
and 2006 was even more pronounced (-27%).
have been contained.
In 2006, most cannabis herb was produced in the Amer-
Both cannabis herb seizures ( -27%) and cannabis resin
icas (55%) and in Africa (22%), followed by Asia and
seizures (- 30%) declined over the 2004-2006 period,
Europe. The cannabis market is characterized by a high
reversing the previous upward trend. Close to 60% of
degree of local and intra regional production and distri-
global cannabis herb seizures were made in North
bution. Countries producing for export remain limited:
America (58%) in 2006, notably by Mexico (1,893 mt)
a number of African countries (including South Africa,
and the United States (1,139 mt). Seizures in North
Nigeria, Ghana and Morocco) and few Asian countries
America remained basically stable in 2006 as compared
(including Afghanistan, Pakistan and Kazakhstan).
to a year earlier but were 8% lower than in 2004.
Changes in the regional breakdown between 2004 and
2006 suggest that cannabis production increased in
The consumer market for cannabis dwarfs those for the
Europe (offsetting some of the decline of cannabis resin
other drug groups. UNODC estimates suggest that
exports from Morocco), Asia and South America
some 166 million people used cannabis in 2006, equiv-
(including Central America and the Caribbean). Pro-
alent to 3.9 percent of the global population age 15-64.
duction appears to have declined in Africa from the
The prevalence rates are still highest in Oceania (14.5%
peak in 2004. Production also appears to have declined
of the population age 15-64), followed by North Amer-
in North America.
ica (10.5%) and Africa (8%). The highest rates in Africa
are found in West and Central Africa (12.6%) and
The ongoing increase in THC levels is changing the
southern Africa (8.4%). Cannabis use declined in Oce-
cannabis market. In Canada and the USA, where large-
ania and stabilized in Western Europe as well as in
scale eradication efforts have been successful, the growth
North America, despite an increase in Mexico. Large
of THC levels likely reflects the ongoing shift towards
increases in use have been reported from South America,
indoor production of high potency cannabis. The aver-
West and Central Africa.
14
World Drug Report 2008
1.5 Amphetamine-type Stimulants
America is estimated at around 3.7 million people or
Market
15% of global users. Europe accounts for 10% of all
users or 2.7 million people.
The ATS market continues to stabilise over the medium
term. UNODC estimates that ATS manufacture world-
2. A Century of International
wide could have ranged between 330 mt to 770 mt in
Drug Control
2006, with a mid-point estimate of 494 mt.
Nearly 100 years ago, the international community met
It appears that global manufacture may be increasing
in Shanghai to discuss the single largest drug problem
somewhat for the amphetamines group and decreasing
the world has ever known: the Chinese opium epidemic.
for the ecstasy group. In 2006, it is estimated that meth-
At its peak, tens of millions of Chinese were addicted to
amphetamine accounted for 68% of the amphetamines
the drug, and nearly a quarter of the adult male popula-
group.
tion used it. The mighty Chinese Empire had seen its
ATS manufacture is regionally specific, related both to
massive foreign reserves dwindle as drug imports reversed
demand and to the availability of precursor chemicals.
its longstanding favourable trade balance with the
Methamphetamine is manufactured throughout East
West.
and South-East Asia, North America, and Oceania,
Prior to the 1909 Shanghai Opium Commission, there
where precursors are more readily available and demand
was a global free market in addictive drugs, the conse-
is high. Amphetamine continues to be manufactured
quences of which were disastrous. National govern-
largely in Europe. Ecstasy is manufactured primarily in
ments and state-sponsored monopolies played an active
North America, Western Europe and Oceania, though
role in peddling opium across borders. The profits to be
there is some production in East and South-East Asia.
made were enormous, generating as much as half of the
Following consistent increases in the number of ATS
national revenues of some island states serving as redis-
laboratories detected globally throughout the 1990s –
tribution centres. Even a country the size of British
peaking at 18,639 in 2004 – detections fell to 8,245 in
India derived 14% of state income from its opium
2006. Though the number of laboratories seized world-
monopoly in 1880. China had unsuccessfully fought
wide has dropped dramatically, there is no commensu-
two wars against the British Empire to stop opium
rate reduction in methamphetamine manufacture,
importation. When forced at gunpoint to legalise the
which is increasingly being done in large ‘super-labs’.
drug, China too took to cultivation. It was able at once
Seizures of ATS increased again in 2006, reaching 47.6
to halt currency outflows and create a huge source of tax
mt, just short of their 2000 peak. While trafficking in
revenue, deriving at least 14% of its income from the
ATS end-products remains primarily an intra-regional
drug by the time of the Shanghai Commission.
affair, there is evidence of increasing inter-regional traf-
Thus, there were large political and economic interests
ficking. ATS precursor trafficking continues to be pre-
vested in maintaining the status quo, which makes all
dominantly inter-regional – with the majority of
the more remarkable the efforts of campaigners to bring
precursors trafficked out of South, East, and South-East
the world around a table to confront the damage caused
Asia.
by the opium trade. The Shanghai Commission repre-
An estimated 24.7 million people in the world, equiva-
sents one of the first truly international efforts to con-
lent to 0.6% of the population age 15-64 consumed
front a global problem. The mere fact of being called to
amphetamines in 2006.1 UNODC estimates ecstasy
account caused many governments to initiate reforms in
users to number approximately 9 million world-wide
advance of the Commission. But the declaration of the
(0.2%). Neither estimate has changed substantially
Shanghai Commission was a non-binding document,
compared to last year or the beginning of the new mil-
negotiated by delegates lacking the power to commit on
lennium. Together, these figures exceed use levels for
behalf of their states. Hammering out a body of inter-
cocaine and heroin combined.
national law to deal with the global drug problem would
take over a dozen agreements and declarations issued
Nearly 55% of the world’s amphetamines users (14 mil-
over the better part of the next one hundred years.
lion) are estimated to be in Asia. Most of them are
methamphetamine users in East and South-East Asia.
The players, the rules, and the substances concerned
Ninety seven per cent of all amphetamines used in Asia
would change over time. The first efforts to stop the
are consumed in the East and South-East sub-region.
opium trade attracted an unusual coalition of support-
The total number of amphetamines users in North
ers, including conservative religious groups, Chinese
isolationists, and left-wing critics of globalising capital-
1 The
amphetamines group includes methamphetamine, amphetamine,
ism. After World War I, the cause was championed by
and non-specified amphetamine (e.g., fenetylline, methylphenidate,
phenmetrazine, methcathinone, amfepramone, pemoline, phenter-
the League of Nations, which passed Conventions in
mine), but excludes ecstasy group drugs.
1925, 1931, and 1936. Its efforts were substantially
18
Executive Summary
hampered, however, by the fact that some key powers
The problem of opium production for recreational use,
were not members. After World War II, the United
which the system was originally designed to control, has
Nations took up the torch, with Opium Protocols in
almost entirely been confined to five provinces of a
1946, 1948, and 1953 before in 1961 the Sngle Conven-
single, war-torn country. Despite recent booms in pro-
tion was passed that changed forever the way the world
duction in Afghanistan, long term illicit opiate produc-
dealt with controlled substances.
tion and use are in decline. No one can know for sure
what the world would have looked like without the
The drugs evolved as quickly as the international system.
international drug control system, but it was initiated in
Opium fell out of fashion in many parts of the world,
response to a profound humanitarian crisis, and that
eclipsed by more modern extractions of the drug, first
crisis has largely been resolved. New drugs have emerged
morphine and then heroin. Cocaine also emerged in
global geopolitics – few remember the time when Java
and taken their toll, but what damage could they have
outpaced South America as a source of coca leaf. Out of
caused if they were allowed to proliferate in a free market,
concern for the situation in Africa, cannabis was added
the way opium was spread in 19th century China?
to the list of internationally controlled substances in
1925. With the exception of synthetic opiates, the 1961
Convention did not cover the synthetic drugs which
proliferated in the decade that followed its adoption,
and so a second convention became necessary ten years
later, the Convention on Psychotropic Substances (1971).
Finally, the 1988 United Nations Convention against
Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Sub-
stances consolidated and rationalised a number of agree-
ments and declarations into a coherent system of
international controls.
Today, these Conventions enjoy near universal adher-
ence – over 180 countries are parties to the Conven-
tions. Getting the diverse peoples of the world to agree
on anything represents a substantial achievement, but
this commonality is all the more remarkable given the
highly contentious nature of the subject matter. Of
course, the international drug control system has its crit-
ics. It remains a work in progress, continually adapting
to address changing global circumstances and unfortu-
nately producing some unintended consequences.
The first and most significant of these is the creation of
a lucrative and violent black market. Secondly, the focus
on law enforcement may have drawn away resources
from health approaches to what, ultimately, is a public
health problem. Thirdly, enforcement efforts in one geo-
graphic area have often resulted in diversion of the prob-
lem into other areas. Fourthly, pressure on the market for
one particular substance has, on occasion, inadvertently
promoted the use of an alternate drug. Finally, use of
criminal justice system against drug consumers, who
often come from marginal groups, has in many instances
increased their marginalisation, diminishing capacity to
offer treatment to those who need it most.
These unintended consequences represent serious chal-
lenges as the international drug control system faces its
next century, but they should not overshadow its sig-
nificant achievements. Under the current system of
controls, it is highly unlikely that the world will ever face
a drug problem like the one that confronted China 100
years ago.
21
World Drug Report 2008
Fig. 1:
Estimates of annual prevalence of opiate use, 1907/08 and 2006
4.0%
3.3%
3.0%
2.0%
1.5%
1.0%
0.24%
0.25%
0.0%
ASIA
WORLD
1907/08
2006
Sources: UNODC calculations based on International Opium Commission, Shanghai, February 1909.
Fig. 2:
Global licit and illicit opium production, 1906/07 – 2007
45,000
≈ 41,600
Illegal opium production
40,000
Opium production not
35,000
officially reported
s
≈ 30,000
n
30,000
Legal poppy straw
c
to
production**
25,000
tri
e
'Legal' opium production*
M
20,000
≈ 16,600
≈ 12,600
15,000
≈ 8,870
10,000
≈
5,000
3,420
≈ 300
-
1906/07
1909
1934
2007
* Legal status of opium production before 1912 must be differentiated from opium after 1964
( when Single Convention came into force )
** converted into opium equivalents
Sources: International Opium Commission, Shanghai, INCB, UNODC.
22
1.1 Overview
1.1.1 Evolution of the World Drug Problem
Vigilance is needed to respond to year-on-
decline. Opium poppy cultivation in Myanmar increased
year expansion in some market sectors
29%, from 21,500 ha in 2006 to 27,700 ha, in 2007.
The long-term stabilization which occurred in drug
Afghanistan’s higher yielding opium poppy led to a
markets continued into 2007, although some expansion
second year of global opium production increases.
occurred in critical areas. This year-on-year growth,
Opium production almost doubled between 2005 and
however, does not negate the containment of the mar-
2007, reaching 8,870 mt in 2007, a level unprecedented
kets recorded since 1990: long term trends are obviously
in recent years. In 2007, Afghanistan alone accounted
more meaningful and indicative than short term fluc-
for over 92% of global opium production.
tuations. Despite cultivation increases for both coca and
Although the absolute numbers of opiate users increased,
opium, the overall level of cultivation remained below
the global annual prevalence rate for opiates and heroin
1998 levels and well below annual peaks in the last two
remained unchanged at 0.4% and 0.3% respectively.
decades (1991 for opium and 2000 for coca). Similarly,
despite an apparent increase in the absolute number of
Coca cultivation expands on the strength of a 27%
cannabis, cocaine and opiates users, there was little
increase in Colombia
change in global annual prevalence rates (the number of
people who have used a particular drug at least once in
Coca cultivation increased in Bolivia, Colombia and
the 12 months preceding the survey).
Peru in 2007. In Colombia, the area under cultivation
expanded 27% to 99,000 ha. Increases for Bolivia and
In 2007 opium cultivation increased in both Afghani-
Peru were much smaller: 5% and 4% respectively. In
stan and Myanmar, and coca cultivation increased in
total, coca cultivation increased 16% in 2007. Crops,
Bolivia, Colombia and Peru, though cocaine production
however, were either not well tended or planted in poor
remained more or less stable. Overall production of opi-
yielding areas, as potential cocaine production only grew
ates increased, as did absolute numbers of opiate, cocaine
by 1% overall to 994 mt. The global annual prevalence
and cannabis users. Annual prevalence levels have
of cocaine use increased slightly from 0.34% in 2005/06
remained relatively stable in all drug markets.
to 0.37% in 2006/07.
Large increase in opium production in 2007
Cannabis market stable
The steady increase of opiate output in Afghanistan
Estimates for the production of cannabis herb show a
continues to buck the trend of overall stabilization. Such
slight decline for the second straight year in 2006, seem-
marked expansion over a five year period apparently
ing to reverse the upward trend that began in the early
defies even normal parameters of supply and demand –
1990s. Global cannabis herb production is now esti-
as it seems to have led to a large surplus of opiates.
mated to be 41,400 mt, down from 42,000 mt in 2005.
Production is now mainly concentrated in the South of
Cannabis yields continue to vary considerably and
the country.
extremely high yielding hydroponically grown cannabis
The total area under opium cultivation rose to 235,700
remains a cause for concern. Global cannabis resin pro-
ha in 2007. This increase of 17% from 2006 puts global
duction is estimated to have fallen around 10% from
cultivation at just about the same level, though still
6,600mt in 2005 to 6,000mt in 2006 (midpoint esti-
marginally lower, than the 238,000 ha recorded in 1998.
mates). Global annual prevalence remained almost
Although there was some growth in South-East Asian
unchanged, increasing from 3.8% to 3.9% between
poppy cultivation, the global increase was almost entirely
2005/06 and 2006/07.
due to the 17% expansion of cultivation in Afghanistan.
ATS market stable
The area under cultivation in Afghanistan is now
193,000 ha. With Afghanistan accounting for 82% of
Amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) production has
the area under cultivation, the proportion of South-East
remained in the range of 450-500 mt since 2000. In
Asian expansion in overall cultivation was small. It is not
2007 global production of ATS increased slightly to 496
unimportant, however, as it reverses six straight years of
mt. There was a decline in ecstasy production (from 113
25
World Drug Report 2008
Fig. 1:
Breakdown of seizure cases by
Fig. 2:
Global cannabis seizures: 2005-2006
substance: 2006 (N = 1.65 million)
Opiates
5,230
Cannabis herb
14%
4,657
Coca
1,312
9%
Cannabis plant
3,790
Depressants
2%
Ecstasy
1,025
Cannabis resin
2%
1,286
Amphetamines
Cannabis
5%
2
65%
Cannabis oil
Other
1
3%
0
1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000
2005
2006
Metric ton equivalents
Source: UNODC, Government reports.
Source: UNODC, Government reports.
mt in 2005 to 103 mt in 2006), and a decrease in meth-
such as methaqualone, khat, various synthetic narcotics,
amphetamine production (from 278 mt to 267 mt)
LSD, ketamine, various non-specified psychotropic sub-
which is again compensated by an increase in global
stances, and inhalants were 3% of overall seizures. Some
amphetamine production (from 88 mt to 126 mt). The
of these substances (such as khat and ketamine) are not
global annual prevalence rate remained 0.6% for
under international control, but are under national con-
amphetamines and 0.2% for ecstasy.
trol in several States Members.
Largest quantities of drugs seized are cannabis, cocaine
Drug seizure cases remain relatively stable
and opiates
States Members reported 1.6 million drug seizure cases
The largest seizures worldwide are for cannabis (herb
to UNODC for the year 2006, over 1.5 million cases a
and then resin), followed by cocaine, the opiates and
year earlier. At 65% of the total, cannabis accounted for
ATS. Seizures for cannabis herb, the opiates and ATS
the overwhelming majority of all seizure cases in 2006.
grew year-on-year in 2006. The quantity of cannabis
Opiates accounted for 14%, coca for 9% and ATS for
herb seized grew 12% to 5,200 mt in 2005, while the
7% of global seizures. Other drugs, including substances
quantity of resin seizures declined by roughly 25% -
Fig. 3:
Global drug seizures, excluding cannabis: 2005-2006
Coca leaf
3,304
3,209
705
Cocaine
743
384
Opium
342
58
Heroin
58
46
Morphine
32
19
Amphetamine
21
16
Methamphetamine
17
4
Ecstasy
5
5
Methaqualone
1
1
Depressants
1
0
200
400
600
800
1,000
3,000
2005
2006
Metric ton equivalents
Source: UNODC, Government reports.
26
Overview
Fig. 4:
Trends in the world seizures, 1996-2006
OPIUM
HEROIN AND MORPHINE
450
120
400
100
350
s
300
n
80
s
n
250
c
to
c
to
60
200
metri
150
metri
40
100
20
50
0
0
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
COCAINE
CANNABIS HERB
800
8,000
700
7,000
600
6,000
s
s
n
500
n 5,000
c
to
c
to
400
4,000
metri
300
metri 3,000
200
2,000
100
1,000
0
0
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
CANNABIS RESIN
AMPHETAMINES
1,600
60
1,400
50
s 1,200
n
40
1,000
c
to
quivalents
800
30
metri
600
ton e 20
400
metric 10
200
0
0
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
most likely still reflecting a decline in production in
used in the refining of heroin, as well as overall opiate
Morocco. Cannabis herb seizures, however, were 27%
supply outstripping demand. Following five straight
down compared to 2004 (their post 1998 peak). A sig-
years of expansion, the quantity of cocaine seized fell by
nificant decline in cannabis plants seized was recorded
5% in 2006. This is consistent with the stabilization of
in 2006.
overall cocaine production over the 2004 to 2006
Seizures of opium and morphine grew 10% and 31%
period. The quantities of amphetamine, methampheta-
respectively in 2006, reflecting continued production
mine and ecstasy seized were all down between 8% and
increases in Afghanistan. There has, however, been a
15% from 2005 to 2006. Overall ATS seizures, however
stabilization in heroin seizures in 2006. This may be the
rose by 2%, reflecting seizures of non-specified ATS and
result of effective control of the precursor chemicals
"captagon" tablets (which may contain amphetamine).
27
World Drug Report 2008
Fig. 5:
Global drug seizures in ‘unit equivalents’: 1985 - 2006
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
In unit equivalents (Billions)
0
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Cannabis Group
Coca-Group
Opiate Group
ATS Group
Others
Source: UNODC, Government reports.
Drug seizures in unit terms continue their decline in
in the opiates group, where seizures in unit equivalents
2006
have risen slightly, most other drug categories are stable
or declining.
As the quantities of different drugs are not directly com-
Cannabis makes up the largest proportion of drug sei-
parable, it is difficult to draw general conclusions on
zures in unit equivalents, accounting for 67% of all sei-
overall drug trafficking patterns from them. Since the
zures. The coca group accounts for 17% of drug seizures
ratio of weight to psychoactive effects varies greatly from
in unit equivalents. Coca seizures remain larger, on aver-
one drug to another (the use of one gram of heroin is
age, than seizures for the opiates or ATS group. The
not equivalent to the use of one gram of cannabis herb),
trade in this market is led by highly organized large
the comparability of the data is improved if the weight
criminal groups, enabling the trafficking of larger quan-
of a seizure is converted into typical consumption units,
tities of product through well established routes and
or doses, taken by drug users. Typical doses tend, how-
using modern infrastructure. This enables efficiency
ever, to vary across countries (and sometime across
gains which can then be attached to profit, or which can
regions within the same country), across substances
supplement product loss. One of the ways to understand
aggregated under one drug category (e.g. commercial
the behaviour of criminal markets and transit and traf-
and high-grade cannabis herb), across user groups and
ficking patterns is to look closely at how this indicator
across time. There are no conversion rates which take all
develops for each of the four main drug markets.
of these factors into account. Comparisons made here
Fig. 6:
Breakdown of seizures ‘in unit
are based on global conversion rates, of milligrams per
equivalents’: 2006 (N = 30.9 billion units)
dose,1 found in scientific literature or used among law
enforcement agencies as basic rules of thumb. The result-
ing estimates should be interpreted with caution.
Coca-Group
17%
On this basis, global seizures were equivalent to some 31
billion units in 2006, down from 32.5 billion units a
year earlier (-5%). The World Drug Report 2007 argued
that the decline of seizures in unit equivalents could not
Opiate Group
be attributed to reduced law enforcement activity but
11%
could probably be explained by the stabilization in
global drug production and consumption. Data from
Cannabis Group
ATS Group
2006 seem to bear this out. With the exception of drugs
67%
3%
Others
1
For the purposes of this calculation, the following typical consump-
2%
tion units (at street purity) were assumed: cannabis herb: 0.5 grams
per joint; cannabis resin: 0.135 grams per joint; cocaine: 0.1 grams
per line; ecstasy: 0.1 grams per pill, heroin: 0.03 grams per dose;
amphetamines: 0.03 grams per pill; LSD: 0.00005 grams (50 micro-
grams).
Source: UNODC, Government reports.
28
Overview
Fig. 7:
Regional breakdown of drug seizures in ‘unit equivalents’: 1985-2006
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
In unit equivalents (Billions)
0
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Europe
North America
Asia
South/ Central America
Africa
Oceania
Source: UNODC, Government reports.
Fig. 8:
Drug dosage units seized per inhabitant: 2006
20
18.9
16
12.2
12
9.1
8
4.7
3.2
4
1.9
1.7
0
North America
South
Europe
Global
Africa
Oceania
Asia
Americas*
* South America, Central America, and the Carribean.
Source: UNODC, Government reports.
The bulk of all seizures remain concentrated in North
Fig. 9:
Use of illicit drugs compared to the use
America (27%), followed by Europe (23%), Asia (21%)
of tobacco (in % of world population age
and South America, Central America and the Caribbean
15-64)
(18%). Seizures declined in Europe and rose very slightly
30%
in Asia between 2005 and 2006.
25%
Per capita patterns have also remained the same year on
20%
year. The largest amounts of drugs per inhabitant are
seized in North America (19 doses per inhabitant), fol-
lowed by South America (including Central America
and the Caribbean) (12.2 doses) and Europe (9 doses).
10%
The global average is 4.7 doses per inhabitant per year.
4%
Africa, Oceania and Asia are all below the global aver-
1%
age.
0%
Tobacco
Cannabis
ATS, cocaine,
World population aged 15-64 (%)
opiates
combined
Source: UNODC, World Health Organization (WHO)
29
World Drug Report 2008
Fig. 10: Illegal drug use at the global level (2006/2007)
Total world population:
6,475 million people
World population age:
15-64: 4,272 million
Non-drug using
population age:
15-64: 4,064 million (95.1%)
Annual prevalence
of drug use: 208 million
(4.8%)
Monthly prevalence of
drug use: 112 million (2.6%)
Problem drug use (age 15:64) :
26 million people (0.6%)
Extent of drug use (annual prevalence*)
estimates 2006/07 (or latest year available)
Annual prevalence of drug use stable at the
from 0.34% to 0.37%, opiates from 0.37% to 0.39%
global level
and heroin from 0.27% to 0.28%. None of these changes
were statistically significant.
The proportion of drug users in the world population
aged 15 to 64 has remained basically stable for the fourth
Cannabis, consumed by close to 166 million persons,
continues to be the most prevalent of all illegal drugs
straight year. It remains near the top end of the 4.7% to
used. While there was a year-on-year increase in the
5.0% range it has stabilized at since the late 1990s.
absolute number of drug users in this market, there was
Approximately 208 million people or 4.9% of the world’s
only a slight increase in the global annual prevalence rate
population aged 15 to 64 have used drugs at least once
(from 3.8% to 3.9% age 15 – 64).
in the last 12 months. Problem drug use remains at
about 0.6% of the global population aged 15 to 64.
There was no growth in the overall demand for amphet-
amines, the second most widely consumed group of
With the exception of ATS, each market has seen some
substances. Over the 2006/07 period 25 million people
increase in the absolute numbers of drug users, but
are estimated to have used amphetamines (including
prevalence rates, where they have increased, have only
methamphetamine) at least once in the previous 12
done so marginally. The global annual prevalence rates
months, about the same as a year earlier. An estimated 9
for 2006/07 and 2005/06 were as follows: cannabis went
million people used ecstasy over the 2006/7 period, up
from 3.8% to 3.9%, ATS from 0.60% to 0.58%, cocaine
from 8.6 million in 2005/06.
Fig. 11: Prevalence of global drug use in the population age 15-64, late 1990s-2006/07
250
6.0%
200
205
200
208
4.8% 4.7% 4.9% 5.0% 4.8% 4.9%
200
180
185
5.0%
4.0%
150
3.0%
100
2.0%
prevalence in %
million drug users
50
1.0%
-
0.0%
late
1990s
late
1990s
2001/02
2003/04
2004/05
2005/06
2006/07
2001/02
2003/04
2004/05
2005/06
2006/07
No. of illicit drug users
Prevalence in % of population age 15-64
30
Overview
Fig. 12: Comparison of UNODC estimates of illicit drug use: late 1990s to 2006/2007
3.9%
180
160.1 162.4
165.6
158.9
150
144.1 146.2
ons
illi 120
(
m
90
users
0.6%
b
0.4%
0.4%
60
0.2%
0.3%
24.2 29.6 26.2 25 24.9 24.7
Drug a
30
14.0
16.0
13.5
16.5
8.6
14.3
15.8
9.0
11.3 11.2 12.0
4.5 8.3
13.3
15.2
7.9
13.7
15.9
9.7
13.4
15.9
9.2 9.2 10.6
0
Cannabis
Amphetamines
Ecstasy
Cocaine
Opiates
Heroin
Drug users in the late 1990s
Drug users in 2001/02
Drug users in 2003/04
Drug users in 2004/05
Drug users in 2005/06
Drug users in 2006/07
Sources: UNODC, Government reports, EMCDDA, CICAD, local studies.
Table 1:
Extent of drug use (annual prevalence*) estimates: 2006/07(or latest year available)
Canna-
Amphetamine-type stimulants
of which
Cocaine
Opiates
bis
is Heroin
Amphetamines
Ecstasy
Number of abusers
165.6
24.7
9
16
16.5
12.0
(in millions)
in % of global population
3.9%
0.6%
0.2%
0.4%
0.4%
0.3%
age 15-64
*Annual prevalence is a measure of the number/percentage of people who have consumed an illicit drug at least once in the 12-month
period preceding the assessment.
Sources: UNODC, Government reports, EMCDDA, CICAD, local studies.
The number of opiates users rose to 16.5 million per-
Fig. 13: Drug treatment per million inhabitants:
sons in 2006/07 due to higher estimates for Asia. The
2006 (N = 4.9 million)
annual prevalence rate remained 0.4% of the global
4,000
population aged 15 to 64. Out of these 16.5 million
3,970
persons, 12 million or 0.3% of the population used
heroin.
3,000
The number of cocaine users increased in 2006/07 to 16
2,784
million persons, raising the prevalence rate from 0.34%
2,000
to 0.37% per cent at the global level.
912
1,000
739
Treatment demand continues to be highest in North
Per million inhabitants
America
115
36
0
The demand for drug abuse treatment is an important
indicator for assessing the world drug situation because
Asia
it reveals the drugs categories which place the largest
Africa
burden on national health systems. It should also be
Americas
Oceania
Europe
Global
Average
noted, however, that drug treatment, as a whole, remains
Source: UNODC, Government reports.
under resourced or simply non-existent in most of the
world. Drug users treated within comprehensive health
reasonably be related to a decline in use; however, in
and social welfare programmes remain the minority
most of Asia and almost all of Africa, where treatment
among the overall drug using population. The decline in
services are rare, treatment data would not be as strongly
treatment demand in North America, for example, could
correlated with use.
31
Overview
Fig. 14: Proportion of people in drug related treatment, by specifi c substance: 1997/98 and 2006*
OPIATES
COCAINE
63%
South
54%
Asia
73%
America
65%
60%
North
31%
Europe
72%
America
42%
33%
10%
Oceania
Africa
66%
10%
16%
9%
Africa
Europe
8%
3%
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
1997/98 (WDR 2000)
2006* (WDR 2008)
1997/98 (WDR 2000)
2006* (WDR 2008)
CANNABIS
ATS
64%
Africa
19%
61%
Asia
12%
47%
Oceania
13%
18%
Oceania
13%
North
35%
h America
America
23%
North
13%
America
South
America
5%
31%
h America
America
15%
5%
Africa
19%
Europe
3%
10%
12%
12%
Asia
Europe
9%
8%
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
1997/98 (WDR 2000)
2006* (WDR 2008)
1997/98 (WDR 2000)
2006* (WDR 2008)
* 2006 or latest year available; calculated as the unweighted average of countries reporting in a specific region; information based on
reports from 40 countries in Asia; 38 countries in Europe, 27 countries in Africa; 24 countries in South America, Central America and
the Caribbean, 3 countries in North America and 2 countries in the Oceania region.
Sources: UNODC, Government reports, EMCDDA, CICAD.
33
1.1.2 Outlook for the World Drug Markets
Long term stabilization
the impact will be muted if the stabilization does not
extend into the medium term. With the number of
While there is every indication that all four drug mar-
provinces where opium is cultivated decreasing, special
kets have been contained over the long term, sustaining
attention should be paid to containing cultivation within
this will require increased international vigilance. There
the country.
are many possible areas where this containment is vul-
nerable: a lessening of the vigilance and control provided
While there is a likelihood that demand will increase in
by law enforcement, an expansion of supply and market-
the short term, especially in the counties neighbouring
ing techniques by organized criminal groups, insuffi-
Afghanistan and along some of the main trafficking
cient prevention and treatment services provided by
routes, it is unlikely to keep pace with the expansion of
States Members. The list, in fact, could be quite exten-
supply. We have seen some price responsiveness in the
sive, which is why, following this period of stabilization,
local market, but it is too early to gauge the affect on
it is important to look to the elements which will make
farmers’ planting decisions in the next season.
it sustainable.
Cocaine
Addressing the cultivation and production of opiates in
Afghanistan is a long-term effort. The growth of opium
In the short term there is a danger that the increase in
in the southern part of the country has been extremely
cultivation in 2007 could lead to an increase in produc-
rapid and now there are indications that the cultivation
tion in 2008. As farmers try to increase yields on low
of cannabis is increasing. Not much is known about this
yielding areas, new fields may be better attended in the
latest trend but, should it prove lucrative (price indica-
future. The cocaine market is forecast to stabilize in the
tors are that it approaches opium in places) the country
medium term as production levels and consumption
already has the markets and techniques to support a
continues to decline or flatten in the main markets of
thriving industry. While there are early indications that
North America and Western Europe.
the level of opium cultivation may decrease somewhat in
However, as demand in North America and Europe
2008, this is not the time for complacency at the national
contracts there may be a development of new markets.
or international level.
These could develop along new trafficking routes, for
example in West Africa, or in the South and Central
Although annual prevalence levels for all drugs are stable
American countries close to both transit areas and
at the global level, patterns of abuse are shifting and
supply. Consumption of cocaine is still extremely lim-
consumption could increase in areas which are least
ited in Asia, though it appears to be going up as levels of
equipped to deal with the associated costs and harms of
affluence increase. If availability increases in this region
abuse. It is likely that as new drug trafficking routes
there is a danger that use could increase.
develop, new markets will develop alongside. There are
indications that such routes have developed over the
Cannabis
course of the last few years in West Africa, for example.
Also, surpluses in supply – Afghan opiates being the
The cannabis market will continue as the predominant
predominant example – could create new preferences
illicit drug market. This market has an extremely wide
and new users. Local consumption of opiates, both in
range of consumers, in terms of age, income, lifestyle,
Afghanistan and Myanmar and their neighbouring
ethnicity, and nationality. This comprehsiveness proba-
countries, should receive greater attention in this
bly will help the market to rebound if a contraction of
respect.
demand were to take place in the main cannabis mar-
kets, as public messages and treatment demand increase
Opiates
the perception of risks associated with cannabis use.
This is likely to happen, particularly amongst North
For the medium term, the opiates market is going to
American and European youth,
continue expanding and contracting on the basis of
production in Afghanistan. While there are early signs
Unfortunately, even this is unlikely to stop increases in
that cultivation in Afghanistan may stabilize in 2008,
cannabis use in developing countries. Use in South West
34
Overview
Asia is likely to expand if resin production in Afghani-
stan continues to increase. The economic incentive to
cultivate cannabis is increasing in Afghanistan. It is
likely that in the medium term, with no countervailing
measures, cannabis resin from Afghanistan may pick up
some of the demand in Europe left short by the contrac-
tion of Moroccan supply.
ATS
The ATS market is likely to remain stable in the short
term as demand reduction efforts continue in North
America, South-East Asia and Europe, and as precursor
control programmes are expanding. The market is vul-
nerable, however, in the medium to long term if produc-
tion structures change significantly. As domestic and
international law enforcement pressure increase, both
small kitchen laboratories, which reduce risk through
low investment, and large super labs, which increase
profit through high volume production, could have an
increasingly challenging time manufacturing. One way
they could mitigate this is for distribution to become
more organized and for manufacture and trafficking to
become more sophisticated. This could lead to several
new phenomena and the entrenchment of existing prac-
tice: i.e. the consolidation of smaller established con-
sumer markets into larger units; increased multi-tiered,
multi-ethnic supply and transit partnerships; the
increased ability to access precursor chemicals; the clan-
destine manufacture of precursors out of legally available
pre-precursors; and the expansion into markets with few
resources to either detect or counter expansion.
35
1.2 Opium / Heroin market
1.2.1 Summary Trend Overview
The opium/heroin market continues to expand on the
Global opium production also reached record levels in
production side. Demand is stable overall but increases
2007. Led by production in Afghanistan, it increased to
have occured in important areas. Overall, global cultiva-
the highest annual level of production recorded in the
tion remains just below 1998 levels.
last two decades. The contribution of Myanmar to over-
all production continued to be small due to a much
The total area under illicit opium poppy cultivation
lower yielding opium poppy. The total farmgate value of
increased by 17% in 2007 fuelled by increases in both
opium production in Afghanistan rose 32% to US$1
Afghanistan and Myanmar. The cultivation increase in
billion in 2007. The total export value of opiates to
Afghanistan continued a six year trend and that of
neighbouring countries is estimated to be around US$ 4
Myanmar reversed a six year trend. Both are cause for
billion. The total potential production value of opium
concern.
production in Myanmar increased 67% to US$120 mil-
The opium/heroin market continues to be dominated
lion in 2007.
by the large levels of cultivation and production in
As opium production shifts towards the southern prov-
Afghanistan. While the very positive contraction in the
inces of Afghanistan, it has become less convenient for
number of opium producing provinces continued in
traffickers to move opiates via the Silk route and traf-
2007, market trends are not yielding much good news.
ficking along this route is declining while trafficking
In fact, the trends appear to indicate two negative devel-
along the Balkan route has increased. Within the Euro-
opments including, first, some adaptation in trafficking
pean part of the Balkan route close to 60% of all heroin
routes to the concentration of cultivation in the South
and morphine seizures in 2006 were made in countries
of Afghanistan and second, an increase in opiate con-
located along the West Balkan route, up from 8% in
sumption in and around Afghanistan.
1996.
The expansion of opium poppy cultivation brought the
Although there has been significant growth in the pro-
total area under cultivation in Afghanistan to a new high
duction of opiates in recent years, global consumption
of 193,000 ha. At 17%, the year-on-year increase was
remains relatively stable, with only a marginal increase
less pronounced than in 2006. The number of house-
in annual prevalence: from 0.37 % of the population age
holds involved in opium cultivation is estimated to have
15-65 in 2005 to 0.39% in 2006. Use continues to be
increased 14% to 509,000. Between 2006 and 2007 the
fairly stable in Europe and continues to decline in North
number of provinces affected by poppy cultivation fell
America. Expansion has, however, been seen very clearly
from 28 to 21. In 2007, over two thirds of the opium
in the consumer markets in and bordering Afghanistan,
poppy cultivation was located in the southern region of
and, to a certain extent along trafficking routes. In some
the country and 53% of it occured in the southern prov-
of these markets injecting drug use is very prevalent and
ince of Hilmand alone. The six provinces which were
could pose a future challenge to resource strapped public
free of poppy in 2006 remained so through 2007, during
services.
which an additional seven were identified, bringing the
number of poppy-free provinces to 13.
With Afghanistan accounting for 82% of the global area
under opium poppy cultivation, the contribution of the
increase of cultivation in Myanmar to global levels was
relatively small. However, it is the reversal of a declining
trend which is important and which will have to be care-
fully monitored, on both the supply and demand side.
Opium poppy cultivation in Myanmar increased by
29% in 2007. The estimated number of households
involved in opium poppy cultivation in the Shan State
in Myanmar increased 24%.
37
1.2.2 Production
1.2.2 Production
Table 2:
Global illicit cultivation of opium poppy and production of opium, 1990-2007
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
CULTIVATION(a) IN HECTARES
SOUTH-WEST ASIA
Afghanistan
41,300
50,800
49,300
58,300
71,470
53,759
56,824
58,416
63,674 90,583
82,171
7,606
74,100
80,000
131,000
104,000
165,000
193,000
Pakistan
7,488
7,962
9,493
7,329
5,759
5,091
873
874
950
284
260
213
622
2,500
1,500
2,438
1,545
1,701
Subtotal
48,788
58,762
58,793
65,629
77,229
58,850
57,697
59,290
64,624
90,867
82,431
7,819
74,722
82,500
132,500
106,438
166,545
194,701
SOUTH-EAST ASIA
Lao PDR
30,580
29,625
19,190
26,040
18,520
19,650
21,601
24,082
26,837
22,543
19,052
17,255
14,000
12,000
6,600
1,800
2,500
1,500
Myanmar
150,100
160,000
153,700
165,800
146,600
154,070
163,000
155,150
130,300
89,500
108,700
105,000
81,400
62,200
44,200
32,800
21,500
27,700
Thailand (b)
1,782
3,727
3,016
998
478
168
368
352
716
702
890
820
750
Viet Nam (b)
18,000
17,000
12,199
4,268
3,066
1,880
1,743
340
442
442
Subtotal
200,462
210,352
188,105
197,106
168,664
175,768
186,712
179,924
158,295
113,187
128,642
123,075
96,150
74,200
50,800
34,600
24,000
29,200
LATIN AMERICA
Colombia
1,160
6,578
5,008
15,091
5,226
4,916
6,584
7,350
6,500
6,500
4,300
4,153
4,026
3,950
1,950
1,023
714
Mexico (c)
5,450
3,765
3,310
3,960
5,795
5,050
5,100
4,000
5,500
3,600
1,900
4,400
2,700
4,800
3,500
3,300
5,000
Subtotal
5,450
4,925
9,888
8,968
20,886
10,276
10,016
10,584
12,850
10,100
8,400
8,700
6,853
8,826
7,450
5,250
6,023
6,023
OTHER
Combined (d)
8,054
7,521
2,900
5,704
5,700
5,025
3,190
2,050
2,050
2,050
2,479
2,500
2,500
3,074
5,190
5,212
4,432
5,776
GRAND TOTAL
262,754
281,560
259,686
277,407
272,479
249,919
257,615
251,848
237,819
216,204
221,952
142,094
180,225
168,600
195,940
151,500
201,000
235,700
POTENTIAL PRODUCTION IN METRIC TONS
OPIUM (e)
SOUTH-WEST ASIA
Afghanistan
1,570
1,980
1,970
2,330
3,416
2,335
2,248
2,804
2,693
4,565
3,276
185
3,400
3,600
4,200
4,100
6,100
8,200
Pakistan
150
160
181
161
128
112
24
24
26
9
8
5
5
52
40
36
39
43
Subtotal
1,720
2,140
2,151
2,491
3,544
2,447
2,272
2,828
2,719
4,574
3,284
190
3,405
3,652
4,240
4,136
6,139
8,243
SOUTH-EAST ASIA
Lao PDR
202
196
127
169
120
128
140
147
124
124
167
134
112
120
43
14
20
9
Myanmar
1,621
1,728
1,660
1,791
1,583
1,664
1,760
1,676
1,303
895
1,087
1,097
828
810
370
312
315
460
Thailand (b)
20
23
14
17
3
2
5
4
8
8
6
6
9
Viet Nam (b)
90
85
61
21
15
9
9
2
2
2
Subtotal
1,933
2,032
1,862
1,998
1,721
1,803
1,914
1,829
1,437
1,029
1,260
1,237
949
930
413
326
335
469
LATIN AMERICA
Colombia
16
90
68
205
71
67
90
100
88
88
80
52
50
49
24
13
14
Mexico (c)
62
41
40
49
60
53
54
46
60
43
21
91
58
101
73
71
108
Subtotal
62
57
130
117
265
124
121
136
160
131
109
171
110
151
122
95
121
121
OTHER
Combined (d)
45
45
-
4
90
78
48
30
30
30
38
32
56 50
75
63
16
38
GRAND TOTAL
3,760
4,274
4,143
4,610
5,620
4,452
4,355
4,823
4,346
5,764
4,691
1,630
4,520
4,783
4,850
4,620
6,610
8,870
HEROIN
Potential HEROIN (f)
376
427
414
461
562
445
436
482
435
576
469
163
452
478
495
472
606
733
(a) Opium poppy harvestable after eradication.
(b Due to small production, cultivation and production were included in the category "Other", for Viet Nam as of 2000 and for Thailand as of 2003.
(c) Figures derived from US Government surveys. In 2006, the Government of Mexico reported a gross opium poppy cultivation of 19,147 hectares and
estimated potential gross opium production at 211 mt. These gross figures are not directly comparable to the net figures presented in this table.
(d) Includes countries such as Russian Federation, Ukraine, Central Asia, Caucasus region, other C.I.S. countries, Balkan countries, Baltic countries,
Guatemala, Peru, Viet Nam (as of 2000), Thailand (as of 2003), India, Egypt, Lebanon and Iraq.
(e) All figures refer to dry opium.
(f ) Heroin estimates for Afghanistan are based on the Afghanistan Opium Surveys (since 2004). For other countries, a 10:1 ratio is used for conversion
from opium to heroin.
38
1. Trends in the world drug markets Opium / Heroin market
Fig. 15: Global opium poppy cultivation (hectares), 1990-2007
300,000
250,000
200,000
150,000
Hectares
100,000
50,000
0
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
Afghanistan
Myanmar
Lao PDR
Rest of the World
Global area under poppy cultivation increases
After six years of decline, overall opium poppy cultiva-
in 2007
tion in South-East Asia increased by 22% on the strength
of a 29% increase in Myanmar to 27,700 ha. Despite
The total area under illicit opium poppy cultivation
this recent increase, opium poppy cultivation in South-
increased by 17% in 2007. Although the increase was
East Asia decreased by 82% since 1998. While some
led by an expansion of cultivation in Afghanistan, opium
areas in Myanmar such as the Wa region remained
poppy cultivation also increased in Myanmar after six
opium poppy free, cultivation in the East and South of
consecutive years of decline. Global cultivation remains
the Shan State, where the majority of opium poppy
lower than annual levels for 1990 through 1998 at just
cultivation takes place, increased significantly. The esti-
below its 1998 level.
mated number of households involved in opium poppy
cultivation in the Shan State increased 24%. In the Lao
In 2007, opium poppy cultivation in Afghanistan
PDR, opium poppy cultivation is spread over the north-
expanded to the largest area ever recorded, surpassing the
ern provinces but remained at a low level, falling to
2006 record cultivation figure by 28,000 ha. At 17%, the
1,500 ha in 2007. Bangladesh, India, Thailand and Viet
year-on-year increase was less pronounced than in 2006.
Nam all continue to report eradication of small amounts
The total area under cultivation in the country was
of illicit opium poppy cultivation.
193,000 ha in 2007. The number of households involved
in opium cultivation is estimated to have increased 14%
In the Western Hemisphere, the illicit opium markets
to 509,000. Similar to the year before, Afghanistan
are primarily supplied from North and South America.
accounted for 82% of the global area under cultivation.
The Government of Colombia estimates the area under
Sharp increases in cultivation occurred in the South,
opium poppy cultivation fell to about 714 ha in 2007.
West and East, and significant decreases took place in the
Opium poppy cultivation in Peru is difficult to quantify
North and North-East of the country. Cultivation is
as the UNODC supported national illicit crop monitor-
increasingly concentrated in certain regions of the coun-
ing system has not yet established a reliable methodology
try, a trend which began over the last few years. Between
for the detection of the crop. The Government of Mexico
2006 and 2007 the number of provinces affected by
reported gross cultivation of opium poppy to have
poppy cultivation fell from 28 to 21. In 2007, over two
reached 19,147 ha in 2007. Due to the country’s eradi-
thirds of the opium poppy cultivation was located in the
cation efforts, however, net cultivation is thought to have
southern region of the country and 53% of it occurs in
been successfully reduced to several thousand hectares.
the southern province of Hilmand alone. Provinces which
Eradication reports indicate that opium poppy is also
were found to be free of poppy in 2006 remained so
cultivated in Guatemala.
through 2007, when an additional 7 were identified,
bringing the number of poppy-free provinces to 13.
Very low levels of cultivation continue to take place in
many other regions and countries such as the Russian
In Pakistan, where opium poppy is grown in the Afghan-
Federation, Ukraine, Central Asia, the Caucasus region,
Pakistan border region, a cultivation increase of 10% to
other C.I.S. countries, Balkan countries, Baltic coun-
around 1,700 ha was reported.
tries, Egypt, Lebanon and Iraq.
39
World Drug Report 2008
Fig. 16: Global opium production (metric tons), 1990-2007
9,000
8,000
7,000
6,000
5,000
4,000
Metric tons
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
Afghanistan
Myanmar
Lao PDR
Rest of the World
Opium production reaches a new record high
the country. Trader prices in the northern and western
regions remained relatively stable and did not fall as
Global opium production reached record levels in 2007:
much as in the South. The eastern region recorded a
led by production in Afghanistan, it increased for a
significant post-harvest price decrease and prices began
second year in a row to 8,870 mt. This is by far the high-
to converge at Southern price levels. This is the opposite
est annual level of production recorded in the last two
of what was observed in 2006 when monthly price dif-
decades and roughly double the annual average for that
ferences of US$ 100/kg between the South and the East
period. This is related to the shift in cultivation from
were reported.
Myanmar to Afghanistan which has taken place over the
same period. In the latter country, opium farmers achieve
Opium prices in Myanmar continued to increase. Prices
more than two and a half times the per hectare yield. In
rose 11% from US$ 230/kg in 2006 to US$ 256/kg in
2007, Afghanistan alone accounted for 92% of global
2007. This increase was lower than in 2006, when farm-
production, producing 8,200 mt of opium at an average
gate prices increased by 23%. Prices for Lao PDR and
yield of 42.5 kg/ha. In Myanmar, opium production
Thailand indicated that recent production increases in
increased by 46% from 315 mt to 460 mt due to the
Myanmar were not offsetting the scarcity of opium on
combined effects of cultivation increases and higher
local illicit markets. Prices increased 77% to US$ 974/kg
yields. However, opium production in Myanmar repre-
in the Lao PDR. In Thailand prices reached US$ 1,071/
sented only 5% of global production in 2007.
kg in 2007.
The total farmgate value of opium production in
Afghanistan, the Russian Federation and the Republic
Afghanistan rose 32% to US$1 billion dollars in 2007
of Moldova continue to destroy the most opiates labo-
on the strength of the enormous increase in production.
ratories
Total export value of opiates to neighbouring countries
is thought to be around US$4 billion. The total produc-
In 2006, 619 opiates producing laboratories1 were
tion value of opium production in Myanmar increased
destroyed. Afghanistan (269), the Russian Federation
67% to US$120 million in 2007.
(225) and the Republic of Moldova (112) reported seiz-
ing and dismantling the majority of these labs. Labora-
Price responsiveness increases in Afghanistan
tories in the Russian Federation and the Republic of
Prices in Afghanistan may finally be responding to the
Moldova tend to produce acetylated opium from locally
enormous increases in supply witnessed over the last
cultivated opium poppy straw, whereas laboratories in
years. Farmgate prices for dry opium reached their
Afghanistan produced morphine and heroin. The
lowest annual average since the opium ban in 2001,
destruction of opium/heroin laboratories was also
declining by 21% from US$ 140/kg in 2006 to US$
reported by Myanmar (10), which has domestic opium
111/kg in 2007. Regional price differences continued to
production, SAR Hong Kong (2), and India (1), where
exist in the country but were less pronounced than in
1 Unfortunately, while UNODC has information on the number of
2006. Regional prices seem to be corroborating the
laboratories, information on the importance or size of the installation
observation that there is greater price responsiveness in
destroyed is often unavailable.
40
1. Trends in the world drug markets Opium / Heroin market
eradication reports confirm the existence of opium
demand for this chemical must be high. As it is not
poppy cultivation. For the year 2006 the authorities of
produced locally and as the country has no legitimate
Pakistan reported the dismantling of 8 clandestine labo-
requirement of it, it is regularly smuggled into the coun-
ratories close to the Afghan border in Baluchistan.
try. Seizures of acetic anhydride in the countries neigh-
bouring Afghanistan are rare, although the demand for
Illicit morphine and heroin producers in Afghanistan
the substance is thought to have increased proportion-
need large quantities of the chemical precursor acetic
ally to the increase in opium production. The exception
anhydride to refine their drugs. Given the high number
to this is China which has reported seizures of the chem-
of laboratories dismantled in Afghanistan and the virtual
ical since 2005. In 2007, for example, the country again
disappearance of heroin laboratories from the statistics
stopped an order for a shipment of 80 mt of acetic anhy-
of countries along the main trafficking routes, the
dride.
Table 3:
Signifi cant opium poppy eradication reported (hectares), 1995-2007
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Afghanistan
–
–
–
–
400 121 –
–
21,430
*
5,103
15,300
19,047
Colombia
3,466 6,885 6,988 2,901 8,249 9,254 2,385 3,577 3,266 3,866 2,121 1,929
–
Egypt
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1 5
3 4
6 5
4 5
5 0
–
Guatemala
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
4
89
7
20
4
49
India
–
–
29 96 248 153 18 219 494 167 12 247
7,753
Lao PDR
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
4,134 3,556 2,575 518 779
Lebanon
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
4
67
27
–
–
Mexico
15,389
14,671
17,732
17,449
15,461
15,717
15,350
19,157
20,034
15,926
21,609
16,890
11,046
Myanmar
3,310 1,938 3,093
3,172 9,824 1,643 9,317 7,469 638 2,820 3,907 3,970 3,598
Pakistan
–
867 654 2,194 1,197 1,704 1,484
–
4,185 5,200 391 354 614
Peru
–
–
–
4 18 26 155 14 57 98 92 88 88
Thailand
580 886 1,053 716 808 757 832 507 767 122 110 153 220
Venezuela
1,480 51 266 148 137 215 39 0
0
87 154 0
–
Vietnam
477 1,142 340 439
–
426
–
125
100
32
–
–
38
* Although eradication took place in 2004, it was not officially reported to UNODC.
41
1. Trends in the world drug markets Opium / Heroin market
Fig. 17: Annual opium poppy cultivation and opium production in main producing countries, 1990-2007
AFGHANISTAN - OPIUM POPPY CULTIVATION (hectares), 1990-2007
AFGHANISTAN - OPIUM PRODUCTION (metric tons), 1990-2007
200,000
9,000
175,000
8,000
150,000
7,000
6,000
125,000
5,000
100,000
4,000
75,000
3,000
50,000
2,000
25,000
1,000
0
0
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
MYANMAR - OPIUM POPPY CULTIVATION (hectares), 1990-2007
MYANMAR - OPIUM PRODUCTION (metric tons), 1990-2007
200,000
9,000
175,000
8,000
7,000
150,000
6,000
125,000
5,000
100,000
4,000
75,000
3,000
50,000
2,000
25,000
1,000
0
0
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
R
D
P
O
A
L
P
M
U
I
P
O
-
U
C
Y
P
P
O
A
V
I
T
L
(
N
O
I
T
-
0
9
9
1
,
)
s
e
r
a
t
c
e
h
7
0
0
2
L
O
R
P
M
U
I
P
O
-
R
D
P
O
A
m
(
N
O
I
T
C
U
D
7
0
0
2
-
0
9
9
1
,
)
s
n
o
t
c
i
r
t
e
200,000
9,000
175,000
8,000
7,000
150,000
6,000
125,000
5,000
100,000
4,000
75,000
3,000
50,000
2,000
25,000
1,000
43
14
20
9
0
0
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
REST OF THE WORLD - OPIUM POPPY CULTIVATION (hectares), 1990-2007
REST OF THE WORLD - OPIUM PRODUCTION (metric tons), 1990-2007
200,000
9,000
175,000
8,000
7,000
150,000
6,000
125,000
5,000
100,000
4,000
75,000
3,000
50,000
2,000
25,000
1,000
0
0
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
43
World Drug Report 2008
Fig. 18: Opium poppy cultivation
2006
2007
Myanmar
Rest of the World
Myanmar
Rest of the World
(21,500 ha)
(14,500 ha)
(27,700 ha)
(15,000 ha)
7%
6%
11%
12%
82%
82%
Afghanistan
Afghanistan
(165,000 ha)
(193,000 ha)
Fig. 19: Opium yields in Afghanistan and Myanmar (kg/ha), 1999-2007
50
46
45
43
40
39
37
32
24
17
15
13
10
10
10
10
10
8
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Afghanistan
Myanmar
Differences in opium yield between Afghanistan and Myanmar are due to differences in opium
poppy varieties and growing conditions. Variations of yields from year to year in the same
country are mostly caused by changes in weather conditions and/or, as in the case of Afghani-
stan in 2001, by a shift in the relative distribution of cultivation from irrigated to rain-fed
land.
Fig. 20: Opium production
2006
2007
Myanmar
Rest of the World
Myanmar
Rest of the World
(315 mt)
(195 mt)
(460 mt)
(210 mt)
5% 3%
5% 2%
92%
92%
Afghanistan
Afghanistan
(6,100 mt)
(8,200 mt)
44
1. Trends in the world drug markets Opium / Heroin market
1.2.3 Trafficking
Opiate seizures increased and heroin
While the increases in opium and morphine seizures are
seizures remained stable in 2006
linked to growing opium production in Afghanistan, the
stabilization in global heroin seizures over the 2004-
Out of 152 countries providing seizure statistics to
2006 period (-5%) is thought to be linked to a combina-
UNODC for the year 2006, 126 countries (83%)
tion of supply side factors. Amongst these could be: the
reported seizures of opiates. Opium seizures were
impact of opium stock-piling (possible as price leverage)
reported by 57 countries (38% of all reporting coun-
some successes in dismantling clandestine heroin labora-
tries), morphine by 36 countries (24%) and heroin by
tories (mostly in Afghanistan); and, improvements in
122 countries (80%). Thus more countries reported opi-
precursor control.
ates seizures than seizures for cocaine (78%), the
The international rescheduling of acetic anhydride, the
amphetamine-type stimulants (65%; amphetamines:
key precursor for heroin manufacture, from a Table II to
55%; ecstasy: 51%) or depressants, mainly benzodi-
a Table I substance a few years ago tightened interna-
azepines and barbiturates (33%).
tional control. States Members are now obliged to supply
Global opiate seizures, expressed in heroin equivalents,1
export notifications from the competent authorities of
increased 14% to 142 mt in 2006. Opiates seizures have
the exporting country when the chemical is traded. Also,
grown an average of 9% per year over the last decade,
various international co-operations efforts (such as Project
exceeding growth in global opium production. The
Cohesion or Operation Trans-shipment in 2006) may
global interception rate for opiates rose from 13% in
have raised awareness in the commercial sector, reducing
1996 to 23% in 2006.
the readiness of companies to provide huge quantities of
acetic anhydride to unknown and suspicious customers.
Global opium seizures amounted to 384 mt in 2006, up
Indications that this has been successful can be found on
12% on a year earlier. Opium seizures were concentrated
the supply side of the opiates market itself. While acetic
in Iran (81% of the total), Afghanistan (11%), Pakistan
anhydride is still available in Afghanistan, its price has
(2%) and Myanmar (2%).
increased markedly over the last two years. Although
actual seizures of this precursor remained negligible in
Global morphine seizures amounted to 46 mt, up 45%
the countries bordering Afghanistan,2 the increasing
on a year earlier. Most morphine seizures took place in
price signals that laboratory operators are experiencing
Pakistan (70%) and Iran (23%). This suggests that
shortages of the chemical.
important amounts of heroin are produced outside
Afghanistan, as morphine does not have a large user
Concentration of seizures close to production centers
base. The Pakistan authorities reported the dismantling
About 80% of global opiate seizures were made in Asia
of 8 heroin laboratories in 2006, the first identified
in 2006, 17% in Europe and 3% in the Americas. The
laboratories since 1997.
most important sub-region for opiate seizures was South-
Global heroin seizures amounted to 58 mt, about the
West Asia, which accounted for 69% of global opiate
same as a year earlier (-1%). The world’s largest heroin
seizures.
seizures in 2006 were reported by Iran (10.7 mt or 19%
The bulk of global opiate seizures takes place in the
of global heroin seizures), followed by Turkey (10.3 mt
countries surrounding Afghanistan: South-West Asia,
or 18%), China (5.8 mt or 10%), Afghanistan (4 mt or
South- and Central Asia together accounted for 73% of
7%), Pakistan (2.8 mt or 5%), the Russian Federation
global opiate seizures in 2006. When Europe is included,
(2.5 mt or 4%) and Tajikistan (2.1 mt or 4%). The
these regions made 90% of the global total in 2006. This
countries of West and Central Europe seized 8.4 mt or
figure has risen steadily in line with Afghanistan’s share
14% of the total; the countries of North America seized
in global opium production, from 77% in 2002 and
2.2 mt or 4% of the total.
86% in 2005. Most of the remaining opiate seizures
1 For the purposes of this calculation it is assumed that 10 kilograms
2 INCB,
2007 Precursors and Chemicals frequently used in the Illicit
of opium are equivalent to 1 kilogram morphine or 1 kilogram of
Manufacture of Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, New York
heroin.
2008.
45
World Drug Report 2008
Fig. 21: Global opiate seizures, expressed in
Fig. 22: Regional breakdown of global opiate
heroin equivalents*, by substance,
seizures in 2006; (N = 142 mt expressed
1985-2006
in heroin equivalents)
160
Africa
Americas
Others
140
0.3%
3%
0.05%
120
Europe
17%
100
South Asia
80
1%
60
Near &
Central Asia
40
Middle East
3%
/South-West
20
Asia
0
East & South-
East Asia
69%
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
7%
Opium
Morphine
Heroin
* based on a conversion rate of 10 kilograms of opium for 1 kg
* For the purposes of this calculation it is assumed that 10 kilo-
of morphine or 1 kg of heroin.
grams of opium are equivalent to 1 kilogram of morphine and 1
Source: UNODC, Annual reports Questionnaire Data / DELTA.
kilogram of heroin.
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data / DELTA
(7%) are made in the East & South-East Asia / Oceania
Fig. 23: Distribution of opiate seizures
sub-regions. The Americas accounted for 3% of the
(expressed in heroin equivalents*),
global total and Africa for 0.3%.
2002-2006
0.4%
0.2%
0.3%
0.3%
0.3%
Seizures rise with the expansion of markets and the
100%
6%
6%
4%
4%
3%
development of trafficking routes in South-West Asia,
16%
12%
12%
10%
7%
South Asia and South-East Europe
80%
In 2006, opiate seizures continued to increase in South-
60%
West Asia (+25%) and South Asia (+23%), as well as in
South-East Europe (+26%). They also grew in Africa
(+8%) and in West and Central Europe (+6%).
40%
77%
82%
84%
86%
90%
Opiate seizures increased only slightly in Central Asia
in % of total seizures 20%
(3%). In 2006, seizures in this region were 40% lower
than at their peak in 2003. This is likely the result of the
shift in opium production towards the southern prov-
0%
inces of Afghanistan making it less convenient to traffic
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
opiates via the Silk route. Opiate seizures reported by
Africa
Latin America/North America
countries of East Europe (which obtained most of their
Myanmar/SEA/Oceania
opiates via the Silk Route) fell by 48% in 2006. In par-
Afghanistan/SWA/CA/Europe
allel, the Russian authorities reported a marked decline
of heroin availability on the Russian market.
* applying a conversion ratio of 10 kg of opium equivalent to 1
kg of morphine and 1 kg of heroin.
Seizures fall in East and South-East Asia, the Oceania
Source: UNODC, Annual reports Questionnaire Data / DELTA.
region and the Americas
ican opiate seizures were made by countries in North
Opiates seizures also continued to fall in East and South-
America. Seizures in North America declined by 3% in
East Asia (-22% in 2006 after -14% in 2005). This
2006 and were 46% lower than at their peak in 2003.
mirrored the decline in opium production in Myanmar
and Laos in 2006 and previous years. Opiate seizures
Trafficking in opiates continues along three major
also declined markedly in the Oceania region (-57% in
routes
2006).
There are three production centres for opiates which
In 2006, opiates seizures in the Americas fell by 11%
supply three distinct markets. The main trafficking flows
and were 39% lower than at their peak in 2003. This
are as follows:
correlates with the declining opium production in the
•
from Afghanistan, the world’s largest opium produc-
countries of South America. More than half of all Amer-
er, to neighbouring countries of South, South West
46
1. Trends in the world drug markets Opium / Heroin market
Fig. 24: Global opiate seizures, expressed in heroin equivalents*, regional breakdown, 1985-2006
160
Near & Middle East /South-West Asia
Central Asia
140
South Asia
Europe
120
East & South-East Asia
Americas
Africa
Others
100
80
metric tons
60
40
20
0
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
* For the purposes of this calculation it is assumed that 10 kilograms of opium are equivalent to 1 kilogram of morphine and
1 kilogramme of heroin.
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data / DELTA
and Central Asia, the Middle East, Africa and, in
reports 83% of the heroin seized on its market in 2006
particular, to Europe;
originated in South-West Asia.
•
from Myanmar/Laos to neighbouring countries of
South-East Asia, (notably China) and to the Oce-
The majority of opiates continue to be transported
ania region (mainly Australia);
along the Balkan route to Western Europe
•
from Latin America (Mexico, Colombia, Guatemala
The bulk of all opiates continue to leave Afghanistan via
and Peru) to North America (notably USA)
Iran and Pakistan. UNODC estimates suggest that in
Recently, new distribution patterns are developing which
2006, 53% of all opiates left Afghanistan via Iran, 33%
blur some of these transit corridors, i.e. shipments of
via Pakistan and 15% via Central Asia (mainly via
heroin from Afghanistan via Pakistan to China and ship-
Tajikistan). Most of the opium exports were destined for
ments of heroin from Afghanistan via Central Asia to
Iran.4 In 2007 the importance of Pakistan as destination
China. This has partly offset the decline in heroin from
or transit country for opiates produced in Afghanistan
Myanmar into China. In 2006 the Pakistan authorities
appears to have increased. According to UNODC esti-
reported 137 seizures of heroin (transported mainly by
mates, the overall proportion of opiates from Afghani-
air), destined for China – this is a large increase on 20
stan exiting the country via Iran fell to 50%, while the
such seizures in 2005 and two in 2004.
proportion exiting via Pakistan increased slightly to 35%
in 2007. The proportion exiting Afghanistan via Central
Similarly, the Chinese authorities reported 18 seizures
Asia declined marginally to 14.5% of the total. The rest
involving heroin trafficked into China via Pakistan, up
(about 0.2% of the total) went to China. In 2007, if
from eight in 2005 and none in 2004. A rather high
only heroin & morphine are considered, UNODC esti-
proportion of third country foreigners (mostly from
mates that 51% exited Afghanistan via Pakistan (up
West Africa) were involved (9% of the persons arrested
from 48% in 2006), followed by Iran (29.5%, down
in Pakistan and 33% of the persons arrested in China).
from 31%) and Central Asia (19.5%5 down from 21%
The total volume of these seizures was still small (132 kg
in 20066 and 25% in 2005).7
in 2006 out of 2.8 mt of heroin seized in Pakistan and
62 kg out of 5.8 mt seized in China) but the shipments
Seizures made by countries along the Silk Route (coun-
indicate the development of emerging routes and changes
tries of Central Asia and European C.I.S. countries)
in market supply chains.3
declined in 2006. When seizures made by countries
along the Silk Route and along the extended Balkan
Although the availability of heroin from Afghanistan
route (Pakistan, Iran, Turkey, Balkan countries) are taken
remains very low in North America, there are some
indications that opiates from Afghanistan are beginning
4 UNODC,
Afghanistan Opium Survey 2006, October 2006.
to make their way to the USA and Canada, both directly
5 The methodology used to arrive at these estimates is provided in
from Afghanistan and via Pakistan and India. Canada
UNODC, Afghanistan Opium Survey 2007, October 2007, pp. 139-
152.
3 Pakistan, Anti Narcotics Force, presentation to Heads of National
6 UNODC, Afghanistan Opium Survey 2006, October 2006.
Law Enforcement Agencies, Sept. 2007.
7 UNODC, Afghanistan Opium Survey 2005, October 2005.
47
World Drug Report 2008
Fig. 25: Proportion of seizures of heroin & mor-
Fig. 26: Traffi cking of heroin and morphine along
phine made along the Balkan Route and
the European Balkan route*, 1990-2006
along the Silk Route, 1996-2006
100%
100%
37%
44%
51%
80%
90%
83%
92%
91%
87%
88%
85%
86%
80%
66%
47%
55%
41%
94%
96%
95%
93%
82%
87%
85%
85%
85%
92%
100%
80%
80%
60%
60%
40%
40%
20%
20%
0%
6%
4%
5%
7%
18%
13%
15%
15%
15%
8%
63%
56%
49%
20%
10%
17%
8%
9%
13%
12%
15%
14%
20%
34%
53%
45%
59%
0%
0%
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
Silk Route
Balkan Route
West Balkan
East Balkan
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data / DELTA.
For the purposes of this analysis only seizures of the following
countries were combined to reflect trafficking along the Euro-
pean Balkan route. West-Balkan route: Albania as well as former
as a whole, about 8% of seizures were made along the
Yugoslavia and its successor states, i.e. Bosnia Herzegovina,
silk route less than in 2006, less than in recent years
Croatia, Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Montenegro,
Serbia and Slovenia. East Balkan route: Bulgaria, Romania and
when 15% of seizures were made along the Silk Route
Hungary.
(or ‘Northern Route’). This is consistent with the expan-
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire / DELTA.
sion of opium production in the southern provinces of
Afghanistan, and falling levels in northern Afghanistan.
The route via Central Asia mainly serves the Russian
Afghanistan itself. In terms of heroin and morphine sei-
and C.I.S. countries markets and, to a lesser extent,
zures, the world’s largest seizures were reported by Paki-
China. Some of the heroin destined for the Baltic coun-
stan (35 mt or 34% of total), followed by Iran (21 mt or
tries and the Nordic countries is also shipped along this
20% of total) and Turkey (11 mt or 10% of total).
route.
Some trafficking shifts to the Western Balkan route
Most of the opiates from Afghanistan destined for West-
ern Europe continue to be trafficked via Pakistan, Iran,
Overall opiate seizures increased by 46% in Pakistan,
Turkey and the Balkan countries. In addition, a number
47% in Iran, 24% in Turkey and by 18% along the
of direct routes also exist - by air, via Pakistan to Europe
European Balkan route (excluding Turkey) in 2006.
(notably the UK), and via the Middle East, East Africa
In the early 1990s, prior to the disintegration of the
and then West Africa to Europe. There are also suspi-
former Yugoslavia, the West Balkan route accounted for
cions of increasing trafficking via the port of Karachi.
60% of all opiate seizures made along the European
The Northern Black Sea route, which begins in Iran and
Balkan route. This route is thought to have regained
transits the Caspian sea, Azerbaijan, Georgia and the
some importance in recent years. Close to 60% of all
Ukraine to Romania, is being used with increased fre-
heroin and morphine seizures in 2006 were made in
quency. It is thought that improvements in border con-
countries located along the West Balkan route, up from
8% in 1996.
trol between Turkey and Bulgaria have triggered this
shift. Based on Turkish intelligence, a number of sig-
nificant heroin seizures were made in Azerbaijan,
Ukraine and Romania in 2007.8
The world’s largest opiate seizures are made along the
extended Balkan route. If all opiates (heroin, morphine
and opium expressed in opium equivalents) are consid-
ered, Iran seized 37% of the world total in 2006, fol-
lowed by Pakistan (26%), Turkey (8%) and West &
Central Europe (6%). Six per cent of the total was in
8 Ministry of Interior, Turkish National Police, Turkish Report on
Drugs and Organized Crime 2007, February 2008.
48
1. Trends in the world drug markets Opium / Heroin market
Fig. 27: USA: Heroin retail and whole sale prices,1990-2007 (US$/gram)
500
400
300
200
US$/gram
100
0
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Retail
433
413
385
374
277
259
219
190
200
166
148
125
98
127
162
201
172
Wholesale 251
229
216
204
194
193
182
162
154
129
95
67.7 56.9 71.8 73.4 67.1 87.7
Retail
Wholesale
Fig. 28: EUROPE: Heroin retail and whole sale prices, 1990-2007 (US$/gram)
300
250
200
150
US$/gram
100
50
0
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Retail
268
221
211
149
161
158
151
117
117
105 74.5 67.1
70
76.8 80.6
74
67.1
Wholesale 144
101
111 76.6 76.7 69.6 61.7 49.6 45.1 41.5 33.4 29.4 31.6 33.2 34.5 32.9 30.7
Retail
Wholesale
Fig. 29: Wholesale heroin prices in Europe and the USA, 1990-2007 (US$/gram)
250
225
200
175
150
125
US$/gram
100
75
50
25
0
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
USA
Europe
49
World Drug Report 2008
Fig. 30: Global illicit supply of opiates, 1994-2006
700
Total production of
606
heroin
- in metric tons
600
576
Opiates intercepted
15%
482
23%
495
- in metric tons of
478
500
469
472
heroin equivalent
452
435
436
- in % of total
15%
25%
production
22%
23%
26%
13%
18%
400
17%
Metric tons
300
493
464
Heroin available for
200
409
378
163
consumption (potential)
361
367
369
367
374
347
- in metric tons
47%
100
87
0
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
OPIATES INTERCEPTED- WORLD:* 1996 - 2006
OPIATES INTERCEPTED- ASIA:* 1996 - 2006
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80
Metric tons
Metric tons 60
60
40
40
20
20
0
0
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
OPIATES INTERCEPTED- AMERICAS:* 1996 - 2006
OPIATES INTERCEPTED- EUROPE:* 1996 - 2006
7
30
6
25
5
20
4
15
3
Metric tons
Metric tons 10
2
1
5
0
0
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
OPIATES INTERCEPTED- AFRICA:* 1996 - 2006
OPIATES INTERCEPTED- OCEANIA:* 1996 - 2006
0.5
1
0.4
0.8
0.3
0.6
0.2
0.4
Metric tons
Metric tons
0.1
0.2
0
0
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
52
1. Trends in the world drug markets Opium / Heroin market
Fig. 31: Global seizures of opium, 1990-2006
450
400
350
300
250
200
Metric tons
150
100
50
0
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Year
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Metric Tons
SEIZURES OF OPIUM in % of world total and kg- HIGHEST RANKING COUNTRIES - 2006
-
50,000
100,000
150,000
200,000
250,000
300,000
350,000
Iran (81%)
311,306
Afghanistan (11%)
40,959
Pakistan (2%)
8,997
Myanmar (2%)
8,473
100 150 200 250 300 350 400
SEIZURES OF OPIUM in kg and % BY REGION - 2006
-
50,
,0
,0
,0
,0
,0
,0
,0
India (0.7%)
2,826
000 00
00
00
00
00
00
00
Near and Middle East /South-West Asia
Turkmenistan (0.7%)
2,656
362,234
(94%)
China (0.4%)
1,697
East and South-East Asia (3%)
10,629
Tajikistan (0.4%)
1,387
Central Asia and Transcaucasian countries
6,048
(2%)
Qatar (0.2%)
939
South Asia (0.7%)
2,826
Uzbekistan (0.2%)
759
Kazakhstan (0.2%)
637
East Europe (0.2%)
592
Russian Federation (0.1%)
535
North America (0.1%)
530
Turkey (0.1%)
440
Southeast Europe (0.1%)
445
Kyrgyzstan (0.1%)
302
South America (0.1%)
259
USA (0.1%)
300
Thailand (0.1%)
245
West & Central Europe (0.1%)
255
Georgia (0.1%)
229
North Africa (0%)
33
Viet Nam (0%)
184
Central America (0%)
5
Colombia (0%)
154
Oceania (0%)
2
Canada (0%)
125
53
World Drug Report 2008
Fig. 32: Global seizures of heroin(a) and morphine(b), 1995-2006
120
100
80
60
Metric tons
40
20
0
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
(a) Seizures as reported (street purity).
(b) 1 kg of morphine is assumed to be equilveant to 1 kg of heroin.
Year
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Metric Tons
SEIZURES OF HEROIN (and morphine)(b) in % of world total and kg equivalents (a)
-
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
30,000
35,000
40,000
HIGHEST RANKING COUNTRIES - 2006
Pakistan (34%)
35,477
Iran (20%)
21,272
Turkey (10%)
10,842
China (6%)
5,974
Afghanistan (5%)
4,991
Russian Federation (2%)
2,449
Tajikistan (2%)
2,097
(c)
United Kingdom (2%)
1,864
SEIZURES OF HEROIN (and morphine) in kg equivalents(a) and in % -
BY REGION - 2006
USA (2%)
1,727
Myanmar (2%)
1,562
Near and Middle East /South-West Asia (60%)
62,825
Italy (1%)
1,324
Southeast Europe (12%)
12,631
India (1%)
1,218
East and South-East Asia (8%)
8,374
France (1%)
1,052
West & Central Europe (8%)
8,354
Netherlands (0.9%)
984
Central Asia and Transcaucasian countries (4%)
3,691
Germany (0.8%)
879
East Europe (2%)
2,498
Qatar (0.7%)
722
North America (2%)
2,157
Bulgaria (0.7%)
701
South Asia (1%)
1,327
(d)
Serbia & Montenegro (0.7%)
697
South America (1%)
1,181
Kazakhstan (0.5%)
555
Caribbean (0.3%)
293
Colombia (0.5%)
542
Central America (0.2%)
237
Uzbekistan (0.5%)
537
East Africa (0.1%)
138
Spain (0.5%)
472
West and Central Africa (0.1%)
108
Mexico (0.3%)
336
79
North Africa (0.1%)
Greece (0.3%)
312
Oceania (0.1%)
68
Viet Nam (0.3%)
277
30
Southern Africa (0%)
Venezuela (0.3%)
271
(a) Seizures as reported (street purity).
(b) 1 kg of morphine is assumed to be equivalent to 1 kg of heroin.
(c ) Data refer to 2005 England and Wales only.
(d ) Montenegro established independence as of June 2006.
54
1. Trends in the world drug markets Opium / Heroin market
1.2.4 Consumption
Global consumption of opiates remain
Asia sub-region which has highest prevalence rate of all
essentially stable
sub-regions in Asia (1% of the population age 15-64).
Although there has been significant growth in the pro-
Above average rates are reported by Afghanistan (1.4%)
duction of opiates in recent years, global consumption
and Iran (2.8% of the population age 15-64). A Rapid
remains relatively stable, with only a marginal increase
Assessment Study (RAS) conducted by Iran and UNODC
in annual prevalence: from 0.37 % of the population age
in 1999 reported that there were1.2 million regular
15-65 in 2005 to 0.39% in 2006. Opiate consumption
opiate users. This figure was confirmed, when the Ira-
trends (expert perceptions reported by States Members),
nian authorities conducted a RAS among arrested addicts
weighted by the opiate using population in each coun-
in 2007. The range of the latter study was: 0.8-1.7 mil-
try, suggest that opiate consumption could have declined
lion people.1 The 2006 National Assessment Report on
marginally in 2006.
Problem Drug Use in Pakistan reported that there were
approximately 630,000 opiate users in Pakistan, equiva-
The total number of opiate users at the global level is
lent to 0.7% of the population age 15-64. Of these,
now estimated at around 16.5 million people. Though
around 480,000 (77%) were heroin users.2 Thus, while
the number of opiate users has increased in absolute
Pakistan’s rate of opiate use (0.7%) is below the sub-re-
terms, the annual prevalence rate of 0.4% of the popula-
gional average, it is almost twice the global average. The
tion age 15-64 has remained stable since the late
prevalence rate in the Pakistan province of Baluchistan,
1990s.
located along the main trafficking route from southern
Fig. 33: Opiate use trends as perceived by
Afghanistan via Pakistan to Iran, amounts to 1.1% and
experts, 1992-2006
is above the sub-regional average.
In the Central Asia and the Caucasus sub-region the
107.0
average annual prevalence rate was 0.7% in 2006. Above
average prevalence rates were reported from Kazakhstan
105.0
(1%), Kyrgyzstan (0.8%) and Uzbekistan (0.8%). Esti-
103.0
mates for Tajikistan are slightly lower (0.5%). There are
an estimated 300,000 opiate use in Central Asia as a
101.0
whole. The number of registered drug users in Central
99.0
Asia was 90,082 in 2006, of these 70% were opiate
Baseline: 1992 = 100
users. Seventy-six percent of Central Asia’s 63,296 regis-
97.0
tered opiate users consume heroin and 24% consume
opium. Ninety-one percent of all registered opiate users
95.0
inject their drugs.
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
The average annual prevalence of opiate consumption
Sources: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data, UNODC
South Asia was 0.4% in 2006. India was the largest
Field Offices, UNODC’s Drug Use Information Network for Asia
opiate market in the sub-region with a an estimated
and the Pacific (DAINAP), UNODC, Global Assessment Pro-
opiate using population of around 3 million persons.
gramme on Drug Use (GAP), Govt. reports, EMCDDA, CICAD,
HONLEA reports and local studies.
1 The 2007 RSA found that among arrested drug addicts in Iran,
32.8% used opium, 25.7% ‘Asian Crack’ (which does not seem to
be linked to cocaine), 18.8% used heroin, 5.8% an opium residue
The largest number of opiate users are in Asia
and 3.7% ‘Crystal’ (a heroin variety in Iran) and 1.1% used other
opiate. Use of drugs other than opiate was limited: hashish: 1.9%,
More than half of the world’s opiate using population
ecstasy: 0.4%, Bupronorphine, 0.3%, cocaine: 0.1%, LSD: 0.1%
live in Asia (9.3 million). The highest levels of use are
(See Drug Control Headquarters of the Islamic Republic of Iran,
found along the main drug trafficking routes out of
Policies, Achievements, Ongoing Programs and Future Plans, Tehran
2007.)
Afghanistan. About 2.3 million opiate users are esti-
2
UNODC and the Paris Pact Initiative, Illicit Drug Trends in Pakistan,
mated to live in the Near & Middle East / South-West
April 2008.
55
World Drug Report 2008
In East and South-East Asia the average annual preva-
sumers in this market vary substantially.5 Prior to this
lence rate for the sub-region remains below average
year, UNODC used the estimates provided by the Rus-
(0.2%). New estimates put the annual prevalence rate
sian authorities for the year 2000/01 which suggested
for opium use in China at around 0.25%3 (2.3 million
that there were roughly two million opiate users,6 or 2%
persons). Rates above the East & South-East Asian aver-
of the population age 15-64. New data and research
age are reported from the Lao PDR (0.5%) and from
made available by the Russian Federation in 2007 has
Myanmar (0.4%). UNODC surveys identified declines
enabled UNODC to revise the estimate for 2006 to 1.65
in opiate use in recent years which have paralleled
million opiate consumers in the Russian Federation or
declines in domestic opium production. In both coun-
1.6% of the population age 15-64.7 The second largest
tries, opium producing villages have significantly higher
opiate market in East Europe is the Ukraine, which has
opium consumption rates than non-opium producing
approximately 300,000 opiate users or 0.9% of the pop-
villages.
ulation age 15-64.
Despite declines in opiate use in China, Indonesia,
Overall use thought to be stable in North America
Malaysia, Myanmar, Lao PDR, and the Philippines,
Asia’s overall share in global opiate use rose from 54% in
When taken together, opiate use in North, Central and
2005 to 57% in 2006. Asia’s share in global heroin use
South America and the Caribbean, is estimated to affect
is smaller: 6.1 million persons or 51% of the world total,
2.2 million persons or 0.4% of the population age
reflecting the fact that, in contrast to other regions,
15-64. This is equivalent to 13% of all opiate users in
opium consumption is still widespread.
2006.
The largest opiate market in this region is the USA with
Europe remains the second largest consumer market
approximately 1.2 million heroin users or 0.6% of the
for opiates
population age 15-64. This estimate is based on esti-
Europe has some 3.6 million opiate users, equivalent to
mates of chronic and casual heroin users for the year
an annual prevalence rate of 0.7% of the population age
2000. Available trend data suggest that heroin use has
15-64. This region is the world’s second largest opiate
remained relatively stable in the USA since 2000. House-
market in terms of quantities consumed (22% of the
hold survey data indicate a stable rate of 0.2%, of the
total in 2006, down from 25% in 2005), and the largest
population age 12 and above, over the 2001-2006
in economic terms.
period.
There were an estimated 1.5 million opiate consumers
According to national household survey results (2005),
in West and Central Europe in 2006. Overall annual
the largest opiate market in South America is Brazil
prevalence for the sub region, 0.5% of the population
which has some 600,000 opiate users or 0.5% of the
age 15-64, is stable to declining. The major opiate mar-
general population age 12-65. Most of these individuals
kets in Western Europe are the United Kingdom
use synthetic opiates. The annual prevalence for heroin
(340,000 persons), Italy (300,000), France (170,000),
rate is less than 0.05%.
Germany (140,000) and Spain (70,000).4 Opiate con-
5
This also reflects major differences on the estimates of total drug use
sumption stabilized over 2006 in most West and Central
in the Russian Federation. A review of estimates of the total number
European countries. Italy, Germany, Norway, Portugal,
of drug users in the Russian Federation showed a range from 1.5
million to 6 million people (UNODC, Illicit Drug Trends in the
and Spain reported falling levels of opiate use in 2006.
Russian Federation, 2005). According to experts of the Ministry of
Internal Affairs there are some 4 million people using illicit drugs;
The number of opiate users in East Europe is estimated
the experts are of the opinion that most of these drug users are using
at around 2 million persons or 1.4% of the population
opiate. (UNODC and the Paris Pact Initiative, Illicit Drug Trends in
the Russian Federation, April 2008.)
age 15-64. The Russian Federation is the largest opiate
6 This estimate was derived from an estimate of the total number
market in the region; estimates on the number of con-
of drug users in the Russian Federation in 2000/01 (UNODCCP,
Country Profile on Drugs and Crime in the Russian Federation, 2002)
3 Estimate derived from Lu F, Wang N, Wu Z, Sun X, Rehnstrom J,
and estimates of the proportion of opiate users among all registered
Poundstone K, et al. “Estimating the number of people at risk for
drug users.
and living with HIV in China in 2005: methods and results; Sex
7 The new estimate is based on registered drug users and a new treat-
Transmitted Infections, June 2006, Vol. 82 Suppl 3, pp. iii 87-91,
ment multiplier. 350,267 drug dependent patients were registered
reported in Bradley Mathers, Louisa Degenhardt, Benjamin Phil-
in 2006. Of these 89% were reported to have been registered for
lips, Lucas Wiessing, Matthew Hickman, Alex Wodak, Steffanie
opiate use. (see UNODC and the Paris Pact Initiative, Illicit Drug
Strathdee, Mark Tyndall, Abdalla Toufik, Richard P. Mattick, and the
Trends in the Russian Federation, April 2008). The new national-level
Reference Group to the United Nations on HIV and injecting drug
treatment multiplier of 5.3 (range: 4.4 in Siberia to 7.9 in the Volga
use, “The global epidemiology of injecting drug use and HIV among
Federal District), was reported by United Nations Office on Drugs
people who inject drugs: a systematic review”, April 2008.
and Crime, National Addiction Centre of the Russian Federation,
4
All of these estimates have been derived from estimates of the number
Dynamics of Drug-Related Disorders in the Russian Federation (2007)
of problem drug users because household survey are not considered
and quoted in United Nations Economic and Social Council, World
to provide good estimates on the number of heroin and other opiate
Situation with regard to drug use, Report by the Secretariat, January
users.
2008, E/CN.7/2008/4.
56
1. Trends in the world drug markets Opium / Heroin market
UNODC estimates for Africa suggest that, continent-
heroin with opium more common in rural areas and
wide, there are around 1.4 million people (0.3% of the
heroin more common in urban areas. Opium use is
population age 15-64) using opiates. Most of them use
particularly widespread in Iran, Afghanistan, Myanmar
heroin. The prevalence rate of opiate use is highest in
and Laos. In Africa almost all opiate consumption is in
Mauritius (2%), followed – according to a recent study
the form of heroin. The exception to this is Egypt where
- by Egypt (0.7%).8 Egypt is the largest opiate market
significant consumption of (locally harvested) opium
(some 330,000 people) in Africa.
takes place in addition to heroin.
In South America most reported opiate consumption is
Approximately 70% of opiate users consume
linked to the use of synthetic opioids diverted from licit
heroin
sources. Less than 30% is heroin. Similarly in the Oce-
ania region, only a third of opioids users consume
Fig. 34: Regional breakdown of opiate users in
2006
heroin. This reflects the availability of various synthetic
Americas
opioids and some lingering heroin supply constraints
13%
related to the heroin shortage of 2001. The non-medical
use of these synthetic opioids is increasing in the USA.
Africa
Non-medical use of “pain relieving” synthetic opioids
8%
(such as codeine, OxyContin, Propoxyphene etc.)
increased from 4.7% of the population age 12 and above
Oceania
in 2002, to 5.1% in 2006. In fact, if the non-medical
0.5%
use of synthetic opiods is counted alongside the use of
Asia
heroin and morphine, the overall annual prevalence rate
57%
for the use of non-medical opioids would exceed 5% of
the adult population. The total opioids prevalence rate
Europe
would be around 5.5%, i.e. almost ten times the level of
22%
heroin use in the USA. Excluding synthetic opioids,
heroin accounts for about 95% of opiate use in North
America.
Sources: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data, Govt.
Opiate consumption continues rising among countries
reports, reports of regional bodies, UNODC estimates.
near Afghanistan but falls in East and South-East Asia
Most countries of East and South-East Asia reported
Globally, an estimated 72% of the world’s 16.5 million
declines in opiate use in 2006, reflecting the strong
opiate users use heroin (some 12 million people).
declines of opium production in Myanmar and the Lao
UNODC estimates for Europe suggest that close to
PDR in recent years. Countries reporting declines
90% of opiate users use heroin. In Western Europe,
included China, Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia
heroin is often consumed with other opioids9 including
and Myanmar. Overall, use trends as perceived by experts
substitution drugs such as methadone, buprenorphine
showed a small decline for the year 2006. Over the
or slow releasing morphines. In Central and East Euro-
1996-2006 period the same indicator highlights Asia as
pean countries such as Poland, Lithuania, the Ukraine
the driving force behind the increase in the total number
or Russia heroin can be used in addition to liquid poppy
of opiate users at the global level. If experts did not per-
straw extracts (also known as ‘kompot’).
ceive increases in the opiate markets in South West Asia
and Central Asia over that period, the trend would have
In Asia about two thirds of all opiate users consume
remained stable, not only in relative terms (prevalence
rates) but also in absolute numbers.
8 Out of 40,083 persons interviewed (age 15 and above) in 2005/06,
275 persons admitted to be using opiate (0.7%). This was less than
Stable to declining consumption levels in West and
the number of people using cannabis (3,591 or 9%) or ‘pharmaceu-
tical drugs’ (449 or 1.1%), and more than the 202 persons (0.5%)
Central Europe
admitting to be using stimulants (amphetamines, ‘Maxiton Forte’
and cocaine). (See Imad Hamdi Ghaz, National Study of Addiction,
Use of opiates remained stable or declined in the coun-
Prevalence of the Use of Drugs and Alcohol in Egypt (2005 – 2006),
tries of West and Central Europe in 2006: 20 West and
Cairo 2007).
Central European countries reported a stabilization of
9
‘Opioid’ is a generic term applied to opiate and their synthetic ana-
opiate use; 8 reported a decline and only 4 reported an
logues, with actions similar to those of morphine, in particular the
capacity to relieve pain. (UNODC, Terminology and Information on
increase. Europe’s overall drug use perception indicator
Drugs, Second Edition, New York 2003: available at www.unodc.org)
thus exhibited a downward slope in 2006. A number of
While ‘opiate’ refer to opium and drugs derived from opium (such
as morphine, heroin), plant based and synthetically manufactured
indirect indicators (treatment demand, arrest figures,
opiate together are referred to as ‘opioids’.
etc.), and household survey data, seem to confirm this
57
World Drug Report 2008
Table 4:
Annual prevalence of opiate use, 2006
use of opiate
of which use of heroin
population in
in % of population
population in
in % of population
million
15-64 years
million
15-64 years
EUROPE
3,590,000
0.7
3,130,000
0.6
West & Central Europe
1,450,000
0.5
1,370,000
0.4
South-East Europe
140,000
0.2
130,000
0.2
Eastern Europe
2,000,000
1.4
1,630,000
1.1
AMERICAS
2,180,000
0.4
1,520,000
0.3
North America
1,330,000
0.5
1,270,000
0.4
South America
850,000
0.3
250,000
0.1
ASIA
9,330,000
0.4
6,080,000
0.2
OCEANIA
80,000
0.4
30,000
0.1
AFRICA
1,360,000
0.3
1,210,000
0.2
GLOBAL
16,540,000
0.4
11,970,000
0.3
Above global average
Around global average
Below global average
Sources: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data, Govt. reports, reports of regional bodies, UNODC estimates.
Fig. 35: Opiate use trends as perceived by
Fig. 36: England and Wales: heroin use accord-
experts: regional contribution to global
ing to British Crime Survey, 1998-2007
change: 1992-2006
1.0
106
0.8
105
0.8
104
103
102
0.6
101
0.4
100
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.3
baseline: 1992 = 100
99
prevalence in %
0.2
0.2 0.2 0.2
98
0.2
0.1
0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
Europe
Americas
Africa
0.0
Oceania
Asia
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Sources: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data, Govern-
ment reports, UNODC Field Offices, UNODC’s Drug Use Informa-
General population: age 16-59
tion Network for Asia and the Pacific (DAINAP), UNODC, Global
Youths: age 16-24
Assessment Programme on Drug Use (GAP), EMCDDA, CICAD,
HONLEA reports and local studies.
Source: UK Home Office, British Crime Survey, 2006/07.
assessment.
and Central Europe with a prevalence rate of total opiate
use – derived from problem drug use estimates - of
British Crime survey data for England and Wales indi-
around 0.9% of the population age 15-64 (2005).
cate an increase in heroin use in the late 1990s, followed
by a decline in the new millennium and a stabilization
Similarly, household survey data for Germany show a
of heroin use in recent years. A number of other indica-
basically stable or declining trend for heroin/opiate con-
tors (arrests, treatment, heroin purity, drug related death
sumption in recent years. Between 2003 and 2006
etc.) confirm these trends. The UK, in absolute num-
household survey data show a decline in heroin use. The
bers, is still considered the largest heroin market of West
number of newly registered heroin users declined by
58
1. Trends in the world drug markets Opium / Heroin market
Fig. 37: Germany: heroin use according to
Fig. 38: Germany: number of newly registered
national household surveys, 1990-2006
heroin users*
0.5
1.0
12,000
10,452
0.4
0.7
10,000
0.8
8,771 7,914
8,000
0.3
0.5
0.5
0.6
0.4
0.4
6,000
0.2
0.4
4,489
0.2
0.2
4,000
0.1 0.1
0.1
0.2
2,257
4,153
0.1
0.1
0.04
2,000
in % of population age 18-59 0.0
0.0
in % of population age 18-39
-
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
General population: age 18-59 (heroin)
1985
1987
1989
1991
1993
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
2005
2007
Young adults: age 18-39 (opiates)
* Number of heroin users who have come to the notice of the
police for the first time
Sources: German Ministry of Health, EMCDDA, Institute for Therapy
Source: Bundeskriminalamt, Rauschgift, Jahreskurzlage 2007 (and
Research (IFT) and UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data.
previous years).
Fig. 39: Russian Federation: registered drug users, 1991-2006
342,446
350,267
350
350,000
r
ed
300
i
ste
305,099
307,232 300,000
itants
eg
240
b
241
a 250
224
250,000
t
r
h
n
186
200
200,000
de
n
150
150,000
depe
100
100,000
44
r
ug
per 100,000 in
21
d
50
50,000
f
o
.
0
0
o
N
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Drug dependant registry*
Opiate dependant registry
Drug treatment registry (per 100,000 inhabitants)*
* Drug dependent registry: number of users registered with medical establishments as drug dependant.
* Drug treatment registry: number of patients with drug addiction registered at drug dependence treatment facilities
Sources: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data, Russian Federal Ministry of Health and Social Development, quoted in UNODC
and The Paris Pact Initiative, Illicit Drug Trends in the Russian Federation, April 2008, UNODC, 2004 World Drug Report and UNODC,
Russian Federation, Country Profile.
18% over the 2003-2006 period and by a further 7% in
In some of the other East European markets (Ukraine
2007. The decline since 2000 amounted to 48% and the
and Belarus) opiate consumption continues to increse.
number of newly registered users is now at the lowest
level since 1987.
Opiate consumption in the Americas fairly stable
A stabilisation/decline also occured in the Russian Fed-
UNODC’s drug use perception indicator showed a
eration, following many years of dramatic increases. The
stable trend of opiate use in the Americas for the year
number of registered drug dependent persons (350,267
2006. This trend is reflected in school survey results
in 2006), including the number of registered opiate
from the United States and Canada which showed that
users (307,232 in 2006), has remained largely unchanged
after increases in the 1990s, heroin use fell and is cur-
over the 2002-2006 period. Russian authorities reported
rently basically stable. The annual prevalence of heroin
a shortage of heroin on the Russian market in 2007 –
consumption among 8th-12th grade students in the
despite the strong increase of Afghan opium production.
USA fell from 1.3% in 2000 to 0.8% in 2005 and
59
World Drug Report 2008
Fig. 40: USA: annual prevalence of heroin use among high-school students, 1980-2007
1.6
1.5
1.3
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.8
prevalence in %
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
Source: NIDA, Monitoring the Future.
USA 12th grade
USA 8-12th grade
Trend
remained at that level in both 2006 and 2007. In the
Fig. 41: Heroin use among the general popula-
province of Ontario, Canada, which accounts for more
tion (age 14 and above), 1993-2007
than a third of Canada’s total population, the decline
among high-school students was even more pronounced.
0.9%
0.8%
Annual prevalence of heroin use among 7th to 12th
0.8%
grade students fell from a peak of 1.9% in 1999 to 0.9%
0.7%
in 2005 and remained at that level in 2007. Falling
0.6%
opium production over the first few years of the new
millennium in South America and South-East Asia, the
0.5%
0.4%
two main sources of opiates for the North American
0.4%
market, seem to have contributed to this. Stable opiate
0.3%
use was reported from a number of other countries in
annual prevalence
0.2%
0.2% 0.2% 0.2%
0.2%
the Americas for the year 2006. In contrast, rising levels
of opiate use were found in Mexico, Venezuela and
0.1%
Argentina in 2006.
0.0%
Opiate use in the Oceania region stable
1993
1995
1998
2001
2004
2007
The Oceania region, notably Australia, used to have one
Source: AIHW, 2007 National Drug Strategy – Household Survey.
of the highest heroin prevalence rates among the indus-
trialized countries (0.8% of the population age 14 and
suggest that heroin use levels continued to remain at the
above in 1998). This changed in the early years of the
lower levels in 2007. While in 1999 and 2000 around
new millennium. Following a major heroin shortage in
30% of people arrested by the police had used heroin,
2001, engineered by the authorities through the dis-
this proportion declined to 15% over the 2001-2004
mantling of some major trafficking networks, purity
period, and to 10% in 2006 and 2007. The DUMA
levels fell while heroin prices rose strongly, squeezing
data also show that the regional differences are now far
large sections of heroin users out of the market. The
less than they used to be when the heroin market was
number of drug related deaths declined substantially
mainly concentrated in New South Wales.
during this period. Fears that higher heroin prices would
result in more crime, did not materialize. The 2007
Heroin use continues rising in Africa
National Drug Strategy Household Survey showed that
Heroin use trends received from African countries sug-
the annual prevalence of heroin use – after having fallen
gest that heroin consumption continued rising, in coun-
drastically in 2001 - remained at 0.2% of the population
tries of eastern and southern Africa and some countries
age 14 and above.
of western Africa. While expert perceptions in only three
The ongoing Drug Use Monitoring in Australia project
African countries indicated declines in use, in eight
(DUMA), where people arrested at selected police sta-
countries expert perceptions pointed to increasing use;
tions across the country are tested for drug use, also
in seven use was perceived as stable in 2006.
60
1. Trends in the world drug markets Opium / Heroin market
Fig. 42: Testing of arrestees for heroin use in Australia*, 1999-2007
35.0
30.0
25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
testing positive in %
5.0
-
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
* unweighted average of results from East Perth (Western Australia), Adelaide and Elisabeth (South Australia), Parramatta and Banks-
town (Sydney, New South Wales), Brisbane and Southport (Queensland).
Source: Australia Institute of Criminology, Drug Use Monitoring in Australia (DUMA).
Fig. 43: Testing of arrestees for heroin use in Australia*, breakdown by regions, 1999-2007
45.0
40.0
1999
35.0
2000
30.0
2001
25.0
2002
2003
20.0
2004
testing positive in %
15.0
2005
10.0
2006
2007
5.0
-
New South Wales
Queensland
South Australia
Western Australia
Australia
* results from East Perth (Western Australia), Adelaide and Elisabeth (South Australia), Parramatta and Bankstown (Sydney, New South
Wales), Brisbane and Southport (Queensland).
Source: Australia Institute of Criminology, Drug Use Monitoring in Australia (DUMA).
Increases in use over the last decade is best documented
Fig. 44: South Africa – heroin as primary drug in
by the South African Community Epidemiology Net-
treatment demand*, 1996-2007
work on Drug Use (SACENDU). Heroin accounted for
10.0
less than 1% of treatment demand (including alcohol)
8.0
in South Africa in 1996. By 2006 this proportion
increased to 7%, and by the first two quarters of 2007
6.0
to 8.5% Over the last few years, there have been strong
4.0
increases in treatment admissions for heroin in the West-
ern Cape region (Cape Town), in Gauteng (Pretoria and
2.0
Johannesburg), in KwaZulu-Natal (Durban, Pietermar-
in % of all treatment
itzburg), the most northern province along the Indian
0.0
Ocean, and, in the land-locked northern province of
Mpulanga, bordering Mozambique. Data for the first
1996b
1997a 1997b 1998a
1998b 1999a
1999b 2000a 2000b
2001a 2001b
2002a 2002b
2003a 2003b 2004a
2004b 2005a
2005b 2006a 2006b
2007a
and second quarter of 2007 show increases in areas to
* unweighted average of treatment (incl. alcohol) in 6 provinces.
the North of the country close to the Indian Ocean and
Source: SACENDU, “Monitoring Alcohol & Drug Use Trends in
South Africa, July 1996 – June 2007”, Research Brief, Vol. 10 (2),
Mozambique.
2007. Note: a: Jannuary to June; b: July to December.
61
1.3 Coca / Cocaine Market
1.3.1 Summary Trend Overview
Although the coca/cocaine market is stable overall, it has
There are indications that there was a shortfall in cocaine
experienced considerable fluctuations over the 2006/07
supply in the USA in 2007.
period. On the supply side, coca cultivation expanded in
Bolivia, Colombia and Peru. In Bolivia and Peru, expan-
On the demand side, global stabilisation is being led by
sion was moderate, but in Colombia coca cultivation
a continuing decline in consumption in North America
grew by 27%.
where the largest markets for cocaine are found. At the
global level, the decline has almost offset increases in
In 2007, the total area under coca cultivation in Bolivia,
South America, Western Europe and Western and
Colombia and Peru increased 16% to 181,600 ha.
Southern Africa.
Despite the increases, the global area under coca cultiva-
tion continues to be lower than in the 1990s and 18%
Similary, although increases in Europe have been fuel-
below the level recorded in 2000 (221,300 ha). (In
ling the overall increase in cocaine consumption over the
Colombia, the level of cultivation in 2007 is 40% lower
last decade, there are signs that a stabilisation may be on
than it was in 2000.) In 2007, coca cultivation in Peru
the horizon.
increased by 4 % to 53,700 ha. For a second consecutive
While the demand side contraction in the main cocaine
year, coca cultivation increased in Bolivia, and amounted
market is encouraging, the growth in markets which are
to 28,900 ha in 2007, an increase of 5%.
either close to source (South America) or on emerging
The expansion in cultivation in Colombia occurred in
trafficking routes (Africa) indicate that further contain-
the region which has the largest area under coca cultiva-
ment is still a challenge.
tion. The region is known to have low yielding coca
bush, and this, combined with the fact that cultivation
declined in high yielding areas, seems to have prevented
production in Colombia from growing apace with culti-
vation. Overall production remained at roughly 2006
levels.
Around 85% of all cocaine seizures were made in North,
Central and South America. While the proportion of
seizures in the western hemisphere continue to reflect
use and production patterns, some new trends are emerg-
ing which merit attention. First, seizures have declined
considerably in North America, consistent with contrac-
tions in the consumer markets of the USA and Canada;
however, seizures are also falling in South America where
use is expanding. Bolivia is a notable exception to the
latter trend. Second, seizures are continuing to increase
in West and Central Europe, and they have begun to
increase in West Africa. The latter is likely to be related
to the development of new trafficking routes linking
South America to West and Central Europe, as reported
in last year's World Drug Report.
65
1.3.2 Production
Table 5:
Global illicit cultivation of coca bush and production of coca leaf and cocaine, 1990-2007
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
CULTIVATION OF COCA BUSH IN HECTARES (a)
Bolivia (b)
50,300
47,900
45,300
47,200
48,100
48,600
48,100
45,800
38,000
21,800
14,600
19,900
21,600
23,600
27,700
25,400
27,500
28,900
Colombia (c)
40,100
37,500
37,100
39,700
44,700
50,900
67,200
79,400
101,800
160,100 163,300 144,800
102,000
86,000
80,000
86,000
78,000
99,000
Peru (d)
121,300
120,800 129,100
108,800
108,600
115,300
94,400
68,800
51,000
38,700
43,400
46,200
46,700
44,200
50,300
48,200
51,400
53,700
Total
211,700
206,200 211,500
195,700
201,400
214,800
209,700
194,000
190,800
220,600 221,300 210,900
170,300
153,800 158,000
159,600 156,900
181,600
POTENTIAL PRODUCTION OF DRY COCA LEAF IN METRIC TONS (e)
Bolivia
77,000
78,000
80,300
84,400
89,800
85,000
75,100
70,100
52,900
22,800
13,400
20,200
19,800
27,800
38,000
28,200
33,200
36,400
Colombia
45,300
45,000
44,900
45,300
67,500
80,900
108,900
129,500
165,900
261,000 266,200 236,000
222,100
186,050 164,280
164,280 154,130
154,000
Peru
196,900
222,700 223,900
155,500
165,300
183,600
174,700
130,600
95,600
69,200
46,200
49,300
52,500
72,800 101,000
97,000
105,100
107,800
Total
319,200
345,700 349,100
285,200
322,600
349,500
358,700
330,200
314,400
353,000 325,800 305,500
294,400
286,650 303,280
289,480 292,430
298,200
POTENTIAL MANUFACTURE OF COCAINE IN METRIC TONS (f)
Bolivia
189
220
225
240
255
240
215
200
150
70
43
60
60
79
98
80
94
104
Colombia (g)
92
88
91
119
201
230
300
350
435
680
695
617
580
550
640
640
610
600
Peru (h)
492
525
550
410
435
460
435
325
240
175
141
150
160
230
270
260
280
290
Total
774
833
866
769
891
930
950
875
825
925
879
827
800
859
1,008
980
984
994
(a) Potentially harvestable, after eradication.
(b) Sources: 1990-2002: CICAD and US Department of State, International Narcotics Control Strategy Report; since 2003:
National Illicit Crop Monitoring System supported by UNODC.
(c) Sources: 1990-1998: CICAD and US Department of State, International Narcotics Control Strategy Report; since 1999:
National Illicit Crop Monitoring System supported by UNODC.
(d) Sources: 1990-1999: CICAD and US Department of State, International Narcotics Control Strategy Report; since 2000:
National Illicit Crop Monitoring System supported by UNODC.
(e) Refers to the potential dry coca leaf production available for cocaine production, i. e. after deducting the amount, which
governments report as being used for traditional or other purposes allowed under national law. In the absence of a standard definition
of "dry coca leaf" and given considerable differences in the processing of the fresh coca leaf harvested, the figures may not always
be comparable across countries.
(f) Amounts of cocaine that could be manufactured from locally produced coca leaf (due to imports and exports actual amounts of
cocaine manufactured in a country can differ).
(g) Colombian cocaine production estimates for 2004 and later are based on new research and cannot be directly compared with
previous
years.
(h) Figures from 2003 to 2005 were revised in 2007 based on updated information available on the amount of coca leaf necessary to
produce one kilogramme of cocaine HCl.
66
1. Trends in the world drug markets Coca / Cocaine market
Fig. 45: Global coca bush cultivation (hectares), 1990 to 2007
225,000
200,000
175,000
150,000
125,000
Hectares 100,000
75,000
50,000
25,000
0
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Colombia
Peru
Bolivia
Global area under coca cultivation increases
Bolivia still trails behind Colombia and Peru, in terms
in 2007
of total area under cultivation. For a second consecutive
year, coca cultivation increased in Bolivia, bringing the
In 2007, the total area under coca cultivation in Bolivia,
total area under cultivation to 28,900 ha in 2007. This
Colombia and Peru rose to its highest level since 2001.
5% increase over 2006 brought the total area under
The 16% year-on-year increase brought the total area
cultivation to its highest level since 1998, when it was
under cultivation to 181,600 ha. The increase itself was
38,000 ha. Overall, the total area under cultivation in
led by a 27% increase in the area under cultivation in
Bolivia remained well under annual totals during the
Colombia, followed by smaller increases of 5% and 4%
early and mid 1990s.
in Bolivia and Peru respectively. Despite these recent
Although sizeable coca cultivation does not exist outside
increases, the global area under coca cultivation contin-
these three main countries, eradication reports from
ues to be lower than in the 1990s and 18% below the
Governments in the region indicate that small-scale coca
level recorded in 2000 (221,300 ha).
cultivation takes place in other countries in the region.
Fifty-five per cent of coca bush was cultivated in Colom-
Cocaine production remains stable
bia, followed by Peru (30%) and Bolivia (16%). In
2007, Colombia remained the world’s largest coca culti-
Despite the large increase in area under coca cultivation
vating country with 99,000 ha of coca bush, an increase
recorded in Colombia, low yields seemed to limit pro-
of 27%, or 21,000 ha, over 2006.
duction, keeping the global potential production of
cocaine fairly stable. In 2007, global potential produc-
Seventy five per cent of the total increase in area under
tion of cocaine reached 994 mt, slightly above the 984
cultivation in Colombia occurred in the Pacific and
mt recorded for 2006. Of this total, 600 mt were pro-
Central regions. The Pacific region had the largest areas
duced in Colombia, 290 mt in Peru and 104 mt in
under cultivation in 2007 with 25,960 ha, followed by
Bolivia.
the Putumayo-Caquetá, Central, and Meta-Guaviare
regions. Together, these four regions represented 89% of
Prices estimated to be stable to increasing
the total area under coca cultivation in Colombia.
In Peru, farm-gate prices of sun-dried coca leaf remained
In 2007, coca cultivation in Peru increased by 4% to
unchanged at US$ 2.5/kg in 2007. As in the previous six
53,700 ha. Coca cultivation remained well below the
years, monthly average prices remained in the range of
levels registered throughout the mid 1990s, when Peru
US$ 2 to US$ 3/kg. Coca leaf prices in Bolivia contin-
was the world’s largest cultivator of coca bush. Coca
ued to be considerably higher than in Peru. In Bolivia,
cultivation in Peru’s three largest coca regions, which
farm-gate prices for sun-dried coca leaf in the Chapare
together represented 86% of the total area under coca
region increased considerably from US$ 3.2/kg in 2006
bush, remained relatively stable. The smaller coca culti-
to US$ 3.8/kg in 2007, approaching levels reached in
vating regions were responsible for most of the 4%
2005 (US$ 4.1/kg). Comparing farm-gate prices of coca
increase reported in 2007.
leaf in Colombia with prices for sun-dried leaf in Peru
67
World Drug Report 2008
Fig. 46: Global cocaine production (metric tons), 1990 to 2007
1,200
1,000
800
600
Metric tons
400
200
0
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Colombia
Peru
Bolivia
Note: Colombian cocaine production estimates after and
including 2004 are not directly comparable with earlier years.
and Bolivia is difficult due to important differences in
and Colombia. In addition, Bolivia and Peru destroyed
marketing: in Colombia coca is marketed either as fresh
large numbers of coca maceration pits.
leaf or converted on the farm into coca paste. However,
given the utility of price to market analysis, UNODC
The entire manufacturing cycle of cocaine HCl is more
undertakes an annual comparison (mathematically con-
or less confined to the three coca cultivating countries,
verting fresh to sun-dried) which, this year, indicates
and there are very few reports of laboratories producing
that farm-gate prices for fresh coca leaf collected in
cocaine in other countries. Spain (10), the United States
Colombia are similar to those for Peru.
of America (4), Chile (2) and South Africa (1) reported
the destruction of cocaine laboratories and the SAR
Prices of coca paste at the farm-gate increased in both
Hong Kong reported the destruction of five 'crack' labo-
Colombia and Peru, from US$ 853/kg in 2006 to US4
ratories. Preliminary figures for 2007 indicate that the
946/kg in 2007 in Colombia, and in Peru from US$
number of coca processing laboratories destroyed in
559/kg to US$ 601/kg. As in the past four years, coca
Bolivia, Colombia and Peru stabilized at the 2006
paste prices in Peru were considerably lower than in
level.
Colombia. In Colombian peso terms, coca paste prices
declined by 5%, while the wholesale price of cocaine
Colombia accounted for the largest volume of potas-
HCl increased in both peso and US dollar terms (by
sium permanganate seizures worldwide (99 mt) in 2006.
10% and 25% respectively).
Fifteen illicit clandestine laboratories producing this
precursor, which is an essential ingredient for producing
Little is known about the tightness of these markets and
cocaine, were destroyed in the country. Smaller amounts
how price responsive they are, therefore it is difficult to
of potassium permanganate were seized in Peru and
say whether local prices have stabilised or not. Even the
Ecuador. Most of the potassium permanganate ship-
product prices themselves need to be interpreted with
ments intended for South America originated outside
caution in the absence of detailed knowledge about their
the region, with Argentina, Brazil and Chile being the
composition and quality. Also, in 2007, the national
major importers. Operation Purple, a comprehensive
currencies in the three cocaine producing countries
precursor control programme, is thought to have tight-
strengthened against the US dollar. The effects of this in
ened the control of the international trade in potassium
combination with the higher costs of some farming and
permanganate, which in turn, may have shifted interna-
processing inputs are not entirely clear.
tional trafficking in the region to overland smuggling.1
Destruction of illicit laboratories increases
In 2006, Governments reported the destruction of over
6,390 clandestine coca processing laboratories world-
wide, over 99 % of these were located in Bolivia, Colom-
bia and Peru. The increase over the 5,901 laboratories
destroyed in 2005 is mainly due to increases in Bolivia
1
International Narcotics Control Board, E/INCB/2007/4, p.13.
68
World Drug Report 2008
Fig. 47: Annual coca bush cultivation and cocaine production in main producing countries, 1990-2007
)
s
e
r
a
t
c
e
h
(
7
0
0
2
-
0
9
9
1
,
N
O
I
T
A
V
I
T
L
U
C
H
S
U
B
A
C
O
C
-
A
I
B
M
O
L
O
C
)
s
n
o
t
c
i
r
t
e
m
(
7
0
0
2
-
0
9
9
1
,
N
O
I
T
C
U
D
O
R
P
E
N
I
A
C
O
C
L
A
I
T
N
E
T
O
P
-
A
I
B
M
O
L
O
C
175,000
700
150,000
600
125,000
500
100,000
400
75,000
300
50,000
200
25,000
100
0
0
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
)
s
e
r
a
t
c
e
h
(
7
0
0
2
-
0
9
9
1
,
N
O
I
T
A
V
I
T
L
U
C
H
S
U
B
A
C
O
C
-
U
R
E
P
)
s
n
o
t
c
i
r
t
e
m
(
7
0
0
2
-
0
9
9
1
,
N
O
I
T
C
U
D
O
R
P
E
N
I
A
C
O
C
L
A
I
T
N
E
T
O
P
-
U
R
E
P
175,000
700
150,000
600
125,000
500
100,000
400
75,000
300
50,000
200
25,000
100
0
0
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
)
s
e
r
a
t
c
e
h
(
7
0
0
2
-
0
9
9
1
,
N
O
I
T
A
V
I
T
L
U
C
H
S
U
B
A
C
O
C
-
A
I
V
I
L
O
B
)
s
n
o
t
c
i
r
t
e
m
(
7
0
0
2
-
0
9
9
1
,
N
O
I
T
C
U
D
O
R
P
E
N
I
A
C
O
C
L
A
I
T
N
E
T
O
P
-
A
I
V
I
L
O
B
175,000
700
150,000
600
125,000
500
100,000
400
75,000
300
50,000
200
25,000
100
0
0
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
Estimates for Bolivia since 2003, for Colombia since 1999 and for Peru since 2000 come from national monitoring systems established by the respective Governments
with the support of UNODC. Due to the change of methodology, these figures are not directly comparable with data from previous years. Colombian cocaine
production estimates for 2004 and later are based on new research and cannot be directly compared with previous years.
70
1. Trends in the world drug markets Coca / Cocaine market
Fig. 48: Coca bush cultivation (in per cent of global total)
2006
2007
Bolivia
Bolivia
18%
16%
Peru
Peru
33%
30%
Colombia
Colombia
50%
55%
Fig. 49: Coca leaf production (in per cent of global total)
2006
2007
Bolivia
Bolivia
10%
10%
Peru
Peru
28%
29%
Colombia
Colombia
62%
60%
Table 6:
Reported cumulative eradication of coca bush (ha), 1994-2007
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Bolivia
1,100 5,493 7,512 7,000
11,620
15,353 7,653 9,395 11,839 10,089 8,437 6,073 5,070 6,269
Colombia manual 1,033
1,487
4,057
2,262 3,126
1,046
3,495
1,745
2,762
4,219
6,234 31,980 43,051 66,805
spraying 3,871 23,915 18,519 41,861 66,029 43,112 58,073 94,153 130,364 132,817 136,552 138,775 172,026 153,134
Peru
–
–
1,259 3,462 7,834
14,733 6,208 6,436 7,134 11,312 10,399 12,237 12,688 12,072
Ecuador
–
–
– –
–
–
–
–
–
–
4 18 9 36
Venezuela
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
118 40
0
–
71
1.3.3 Trafficking
Global seizures of cocaine fell slightly in 2006
and report the same seizure(s). As cooperation among
the various law enforcement agencies has increased in
Cocaine seizures (at street purity levels) fell 6%, from
recent years, the likelihood of double counting of cocaine
their record high of 750 mt in 2005, to 706 mt in 2006,
seizures increased as well.
reversing the previous upward trend. Global cocaine
seizures are twice as high as they were a decade ago,
Cocaine seizures remain concentrated in the Americas
which is impressive given the overall stability in cocaine
and in Europe
production over the same period. This is thought to be
the result of greater efficiency in law enforcement serv-
Globally, most cocaine is seized in the Americas (81%).
South America, where most cocaine is manufactured,
ices and improved sharing of intelligence information,
accounted for 45 % of global seizures in 2006. North
both of which enable seizures to be made before the
America, the world’s largest cocaine market, accounted
cocaine reaches its final destination.
for 24%. Central America and the Caribbean, which are
major transit regions, accounted for 11 % of global sei-
The global cocaine interception rate remains high
zures.
As a result, the calculated global cocaine interception
The only large market outside of the Americas is Europe.
rate remained near 42 % in 20061, up from 29 % in
Seventeen per cent of global cocaine seizures were made
1998. A portion of this increase is due to improvements
in Europe in 2006, and 99 % of these were made in
in law enforcement. However, a small portion may also
West and Central Europe.
be due to the double counting of seizures when more
than one law enforcement agency is involved (e.g. cus-
The rest of the world was responsible for about 2 % of
toms and police). The potential for double counting
global seizures and more than 90% of these were reported
becomes greater when different countries work together
by countries in Africa.
Fig. 49: Distribution of global cocaine seizures(a) in 2006 (N = 706 metric mt)
North America
24.2%
Europe
17.2%
Central America
10.2%
Africa
Other
2.1%
2.3%
Caribbean
1.2%
Asia
0.1%
Oceania
South America
0.040%
44.9%
(a) as reported, at street purity levels
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data / DELTA.
1 The global interception rate was calculated on the basis of a global
cocaine production of 984 metric mt in 2006 and global seizures of
706 metric mt at street purity, which – given a global average cocaine
purity of 59% in 2006 (as reported by member states to UNODC
in the annual reports questionnaire) - would be equivalent to pure
cocaine seizures of some 416 metric mt.
72
1. Trends in the world drug markets Coca / Cocaine market
Fig. 50: Global cocaine seizures(a) regional breakdown, 1985-2006
800
750
706
600
400
Metric tons
200
0
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
West & Central Europe
North America
South America*
Others
TOTAL
* South America including Caribbean and Central America
(a) as reported, at street purity levels
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data / DELTA.
Seizures fell in South America and the Caribbean in
are carried out by Colombia. This figure is equivalent to
2006
26% of global cocaine seizures. Colombian seizures rep-
resent 57% of South American cocaine seizures and
In the Americas cocaine seizures declined 11% from the
84% of coca-base and cocaine HCL seizures made in the
record levels reported in 2005. Only Central America
three Andean countries which produce coca leaf for
saw an increase in 2006. Cocaine seizures fell in South
cocaine production.
America (-17%), the Caribbean (-27%) and in North
America (-18%).
Large seizures in South America are also undertaken by
Venezuela (39 mt), Ecuador (34 mt), Peru (19 mt) and
South American cocaine seizures rose from 31 % of
Brazil (14 mt). Cocaine seizures in all of these countries
global seizures in 1996 to 45% in 2006, reflecting the
declined in 2006 as compared to a year earlier. Increases
growing efforts made by coca producer countries and
in cocaine seizures were reported from Bolivia, Chile,
their neighbours to improve interdiction efforts close to
and Uruguay and, to a lesser extent, Argentina and
source.
Paraguay, suggesting that trafficking to and/or via the
The bulk of South American cocaine seizures, 181 mt,
Southern Cone may have increased in 2006.
Fig. 51: Cocaine seizures in Africa, 1998-2006 (N = 215 metric mt)
16.0
15.0
14.0
12.0
10.0
8.0
Metric tons
6.0
3.6
4.0
2.6
2.0
0.8
1.1
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.6
0.0
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Southern Africa
West and Central Africa
North Africa
East Africa
Grand Total
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data / DELTA
73
World Drug Report 2008
Fig. 52: Cocaine seizures(a) in South America,
Fig. 53: Cocaine seizures in main transit zones
2005-2006
to USA and Canada, 1985-2006
350
317
100%
300
80%
250
i
c tons
200
152
60%
metr
150
110
115
100
40%
50 19
20%
0
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
proportion of cocaine seizures
0%
Colombia
Venezuela
Ecuador
Peru
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
Brazil
Bolivia
other
South America
Carribean
Central America
Mexico
(a) as reported, at street purity levels
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data / DELTA.
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data / DELTA.
Seizures shifted away from the Caribbean and towards
sponds with the regional trend of seizures being made
Central America
increasingly closer to source. Most of the increase in
2006 was due to large seizures made by Panama. The
There has been a strong increase in seizures made by the
proportion of seizures made by Mexico rose from 25%
countries of Central America (+88% in 2006) and an
in 1985 to 39% in 2000, but fell back to 21% by
on-going decline of seizures made in the Caribbean
2006.
region. Cocaine seizures undertaken by Mexico also
declined in 2006. These trends are consistent with long-
Cocaine seizures continue rising in Europe
er-term shifts. Taking the seizures reported in the main
transit zones to the US and Canadian markets as 100%,
Cocaine seizures in Europe rose by 14 % in 2006, reach-
the proportion of seizures undertaken in the Caribbean
ing a new record high of more than 120 metric mt.
declined from 74% in 1985 to 33% in 2000, and from
Cocaine seizures in Europe have been increasing steadily
15% in 2005 to 8% in 2006. In contrast, the proportion
since 1980 parallel to the overall expansion of the market
of seizures undertaken in Central America increased
in Europe. Europe’s share of global cocaine seizures rose
over the same period from 1% in 1985 to 29% in 2000,
from less than 3% in 1980 to 8% in 2000, and from
and from 48% in 2005 to 71% in 2006. This corre-
14% in 2005 to 17% in 2006.
Fig. 54: Cocaine seizures in Europe, 1985-2006
140
121
120
106
100
80
60
metric tons
29
40
21
17
20
1
0
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
Spain
Portugal
Netherlands
France
Italy
Belgium
United Kingdom
Germany
other
Total-Europe
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data / DELTA.
74
1. Trends in the world drug markets Coca / Cocaine market
Fig. 55: Proportion of global seizures made in North America and in West & Central Europe, 1990-2006
60%
53%
59%
50%
44%
46%
36%
40%
28%
30%
24%
20%
17%
10%
proportion of global seizures
8%
14%
7%
0%
6%
1990
1995
2000
2005
North America
West & Central Europe
Trend - North America
Trend - West & Central Europe
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data / DELTA
Seizures decline significantly in North America as the
ments also indicated that the decrease in availability was
market contracts
accompanied by a corresponding increase in cocaine
prices and a decrease in cocaine purity. Some reported
Seizures declined by 18% in North America in 2006.
prices increased as much as 100%.2
The proportion of North American seizures in global
cocaine seizures declined from 46% in 1990 to 36% in
Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) reports indi-
2000, and from 27% in 2005 to 24% in 2006. The
cated that the price per pure gram of cocaine rose 44 %
stabilization or decline in North America has occurred
between January and September 2007. In parallel,
in conjunction with increased efforts to strengthen the
cocaine purity levels fell. The cocaine shortage was also
interdiction capacities of source and transit countries,
confirmed in the 2008 National Drug Control Strategy
again with the objective of seizing drugs before they
Report of the United States. Based on available intelli-
arrive in the final destination countries.
gence it was argued that the cocaine shortage was the
Surveys and intelligence reports identify a cocaine
cumulative result of control efforts in the source and
shortage in the USA in 2007
transit zones. Dedicated efforts by the Government of
Colombia, massive seizures of cocaine in transit, and
The stabilization/decline of supply of cocaine in North
aggressive Mexican and U.S. law enforcement efforts
America is also reflected in student survey data. Student
targeting large Mexican drug trafficking organizations
surveys suggest that strong eradication efforts in the
are thought to have disrupted the flow.3 The escalation
Andean region and increased interdiction efforts in the
of the internal fights among the various competing
main drug transit countries have had a measurable
Mexican drug cartels in 2007 also contributed to this
impact on cocaine availability within the USA. The
temporary cocaine shortage in 2007.4
availability of cocaine, as perceived by US 8th, 10th and
12th grade high-school students, declined over the last
Large seizures remain concentrated in a few countries
decade. The proportion of students who found it ‘easy’
or ‘fairly easy’ to obtain cocaine fell from 38% in 1998
While there are a growing number of countries report-
to 32% in 2007.
ing cocaine seizures, the largest amounts of cocaine are
still seized in a limited number of countries. The five
Major shortages of cocaine across the United States for
countries with the largest cocaine seizures accounted for
the year 2007 based on information from federal, state
64% of global cocaine seizures in 2006.
and local enforcement agencies were also reported by the
US National Drug Intelligence Centre. The information
from law enforcement agencies was confirmed by a
number of demand indicators, including drug testing
2 US Department of Justice, National Intelligence Center, National
and emergency room visits. Investigators in the 38 drug
Drug Threat Assessment 2008, October 2007.
markets which described cocaine shortages, reported
3 ONDCP,
National Drug Control Strategy, 2008 Annual Report, Wash-
ington February 2008.
that drug distributors were often unable to obtain their
4
US Department of Justice, National Intelligence Center, National Drug
regular supplies of cocaine. Law enforcement assess-
Threat Assessment 2008, October 2007.
75
World Drug Report 2008
Fig. 56: Perceived availability* of cocaine among US high school students, 1998-2007
38.0
37.9
36.0
34.0
Percent
32.8
32.5
32.0
32.0
30.0
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Reported availability
Trend
*unweighted average of 8th, 10th and 12th grade students reporting that it is ‘fairly easy’ or ‘very easy’ to obtain cocaine powder.
Source: NIDA, Monitoring the Future
For the fifth year in a row, Colombia undertook the
seized in the coca producing countries (215 mt of
world’s largest cocaine seizures, seizing 181 mt of cocaine
cocaine base and salt in 2006, or less than 170 mt
hydrochloride and cocaine base in 2006, equivalent to
expressed in pure cocaine) or consumed in South Amer-
26% of the world total. The interception rate of cocaine
ica.7
produced in Colombia amounted to 30% in 2006, up
from 13% in 2000. Seizures of cocaine hydrochloride
The US ‘Interagency Assessment of Cocaine Movement’
amounted to 130 mt in 2006. The second largest cocaine
(IACM) assumes higher shipment figures of cocaine
seizures took place in the United States (147 mt). The
towards North America. Estimates by the IACM suggest
US share in global cocaine seizures has declined from
that between 530 and 710 mt of cocaine may have
46% of global seizures in 1985 to 36% in 1995, and
departed South America towards the United States in
from 23% in 2005 to 21% in 2006. In 2006, Spain
20068. Out of this amount some 90% is thought to
continued to seize the largest amount of cocaine in
have transited the Mexico-Central America Corridor in
Europe and accounted for 7% of global seizures (50
2006. The IACM assumes that 66% of the cocaine
mt). Since 2001, Spain has recorded either the third or
departing South America towards the USA in 2006
the fourth largest annual cocaine seizures at the global
moved through the Eastern Pacific Vector, more than a
level. Important transit countries ,Venezuela and Panama
year earlier (50%).
seized 6% of the total or 39 mt, and 5% of the total or
In 2006, traffickers began increasingly using overland
36 mt, respectively.
routes to transport cocaine from Colombia through
The majority of cocaine still flows from the Andean
Venezuela and Ecuador to the United States of America
and Europe.9 Fifty four per cent of the cocaine was
region to North America
seized on the overland route and 44% was seized at
The world’s main cocaine trafficking routes continue to
sea.10 The Colombian authorities estimate that 78%
run from the Andean region, notably Colombia, to the
United States. Frequently quoted estimates among
7 The actual amounts available for consumption are substantially
lower than the 450 mt targeted for markets in North America. For
enforcement agencies in recent years suggested that
the year 2000, the Office of National Drug Control Policy estimated
some 450 mt of cocaine (46% of production in 2006)
that the cocaine available for consumption in the USA amounted
may be destined for markets in North America5 (trend
to 259 metric mt. (Office of National Drug Control Policy, National
Drug Control Strategy, Data Supplement, Feb. 2003). As there are no
falling) and some 250 mt (25% of production) for mar-
indications that the market has expanded since, a figure of around
kets in Europe (trend rising)6. Most of the remainder is
250 metric mt would seem to be a reasonable estimate of the size of
the US market in terms of actual consumption.
5 UNODC,
World Drug Report 2007, June 2007.
8 US Department of Justice, National Intelligence Center, National
Drug Threat Assessment 2008, October 2007.
6 Direction Centrale de la Police Judiciaire / Police Nationale, ‘The
Traffic of Cocaine through the Maritime Channel in 2006’, presenta-
9 ‘Country Report – Colombia’, Meeting of Heads of National Drug
tion given by the French delegation to the Commission on Narcotic
Law Enforcement Agencies, Latin America and the Caribbean
Drugs, 12-16 March 2007. A 250 metric ton figure of cocaine des-
(HONLAC), Quito Ecuador, 15-19 October 2007.
tined for Europe has also been repeatedly quoted by Europol as an
10 UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire (Colombia), for the year
estimate for Europe.
2006.
76
1. Trends in the world drug markets Coca / Cocaine market
may be eventually trafficked by sea, mostly going by go-
Trafficking from the Andean region to Europe
fast vessels (65%). They also estimate that 55% of the
continues
cocaine produced in South America is transported along
the Mexico-Central America corridor towards North
The Colombian authorities estimated that around 35%
America, while 35% of the cocaine produced and
of the cocaine produced and shipped from the coasts of
shipped from the coasts of Colombia, Venezuela, the
Colombia, Venezuela, Brazil and the Guyanas is traf-
Guyanas and Brazil is trafficked via the European/Afri-
ficked via the European/African corridor.15 Colombia
can corridor.11
still dominates ARQ mentions as the main source coun-
try for cocaine arriving in Europe. Taking only mentions
Mexico is the main transit country of cocaine shipments
of the three Andean countries, Colombia accounted for
to North America. Trafficking to Mexico and further on
more than half of all such mentions from European
to the United States declined, however, in 2006 and
countries in 2006. The most frequently mentioned tran-
2007. About 52% of cocaine was trafficked to Mexico
sit countries in the ARQ in South America were Vene-
by sea in 2006, another 18% by land from Central
zuela, followed by Ecuador, Mexico, Brazil, the
America (Guatemala and Belize) and 30% by air. These
Netherlands Antilles, Suriname and the Dominican
figures suggest that 2006 saw a decline in trafficking by
Republic in 2006.
sea and by land and – in relative terms – an increase in
trafficking by air as compared to a year earlier. Aircrafts
Based on individual drug seizures reported to UNODC,
often bring cocaine into Mexico from Venezuela, Colom-
most of the cocaine intercepted in Europe could be
traced back to Venezuela in 2006 (36% of seizures, in
bia and from countries in Central America, notably
weight terms, for which the origin was known), followed
Guatemala.12 Important entry points for cocaine into
by Colombia (17%), the Dominican Republic (5%),
Mexico by sea continue to be the Pacific region and the
Brazil (3%), Ecuador (3%), Argentina (3%) and Peru
peninsula of Yukatan on the Atlantic coast. From there,
(3%). The ranking for 2007 started again with Vene-
the drug is usually transported by land northwards. In
zuela (44%), followed by Panama (11%), Colombia
volume terms, most cocaine shipments are by sea. In
(5%), the Dominican Republic (4%), Peru (4%), Brazil
terms of cases, most seizures are for deliveries by land.
(2%), Argentina (2%), Bolivia (1%), Mexico (1%) and
About 90% of the cocaine is destined for the USA, 7%
Costa Rica (1%).
is destined for Europe (often by air to Spain, Belgium,
Germany, France and Italy) and 3% is for local con-
Spain and Portugal are the main entry points into
sumption.13
Europe
The US authorities estimate that around 90% of the
In 2006, European cocaine seizures reached 122 mt,
cocaine, which entered their country in 2006, transited
their highest level ever. This represented a 14% increase
the Mexico-Central America corridor. The amounts of
on a year earlier, and was consistent with the average
cocaine trafficked into the United States declined, how-
annual growth rate over the 1996-2006 period. Despite
ever, in 2006 and this trend became more pronounced
this ongoing growth in seizures, cocaine prices have not
in 2007 as Mexican authorities stepped up efforts to
increased and purity levels have not deteriorated in
fight the drug cartels operating on their territory, which
Europe over the last decade. This is a strong indication
also increased the level of cocaine related violence in
that the availability of cocaine has increased in Europe.
Mexico. US cocaine seizures along the country’s south-
ern border declined by 20% over the first two quarters
Spain continues to be the main entry point for cocaine
of 2007 on a year earlier and by almost 40% in the
into Europe. In 2006, Spain reported cocaine seizures of
second quarter of 2007, as compared to the second
50 mt, accounting for 41% of all such seizures made in
quarter of 2006. The main entry point of cocaine into
Europe. This was the highest volume of cocaine seized
the United States continues to be the common border of
by a European country ever. Sixty six per cent of Spanish
Mexico with southern Texas (accounting for a third of
seizures were made while the cocaine was still at sea;
all seizures along the border with Mexico in 2006), fol-
11% were made in containers and 6% at airports in
lowed by the border with southern California (18%).14
2006. Traditionally, most cocaine was seized along the
northern Atlantic coast of Spain, notably in Galicia.
11 ‘Country Report – Colombia’, Meeting of Heads of National Drug
Over the last few years, cocaine increasingly entered the
Law Enforcement Agencies, Latin America and the Caribbean
(HONLAC), Quito Ecuador, 15-19 October 2007.
country via southern Spain (Andalusia) as well as via
12 ‘Country Report – Mexico’, Meeting of Heads of National Drug
Madrid (by air) and via Barcelona and Valencia. In addi-
Law Enforcement Agencies, Latin America and the Caribbean
tion, there is also some local manufacture of cocaine in
(HONLAC), Quito Ecuador, 15-19 October 2007.
Spain. Spain reported the dismantling of 10 cocaine
13 UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire (Mexico), for the year
2006.
15 ‘Country Report – Colombia’, Meeting of Heads of National Drug
14 US Department of Justice, National Intelligence Center, National
Law Enforcement Agencies, Latin America and the Caribbean
Drug Threat Assessment 2008, October 2007.
(HONLAC), Quito Ecuador, 15-19 October 2007.
77
World Drug Report 2008
Fig. 57: Cocaine seizures in Europe in 2006
Spain
40.9%
49.7
Portugal
28.4%
34.5
Netherland
8.7%
10.6
France
8.4%
10.2
Italy
3.8%
4.6
Belgium
3.2%
3.9
United
3.1%
3.8
Germany
1.4%
1.7
Sweden
1.1%
1.4
Switzerland
0.3%
0.4
Ireland
0.2%
0.3
Bulgaria
0.1%
0.1
Turkey
0.1%
0.1
Denmark
0.1%
0.1
Austria
0.1%
0.1
other
0.2%
0.2
0.0
10.0
20.0
30.0
40.0
50.0
60.0
metric tons
* data refer to the year 2005.
Seizures in tons
in % of European seizures
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data / DELTA
laboratories in 2006, about the same as a year earlier
seizures made by the authorities in Portugal are mainly
(11), up from 4 in 2001.
linked to the rising importance of West Africa, including
some of the Portuguese speaking countries, such as Cape
Shipments of cocaine to Spain were reported to have left
Verde or Guinea Bissau. Cocaine is smuggled to these
South America mainly from Venezuela (31% of seizures
countries from the Andean region, often via Venezuela,
of known origin in weight terms in 2006), followed by
Brazil and Western Africa to Europe. Foreigners arrested
the Dominican Republic (8%), Ecuador (6%), Brazil
in Portugal for cocaine trafficking in 2006 were mainly
(5%), Argentina (5%) and Colombia (4%). Drug traf-
from Cap Verde (19%), Venezuela (14%), Brazil (13%),
ficking groups of Colombian origin dominate the traf-
Guinea Bissau (5%), as well as Angola (1%) and Sao
ficking operations. Members of such groups also
Tome and Principe (1%). In addition, European traf-
accounted for the largest number of cocaine related
fickers were arrested trying to smuggle cocaine out of
arrests among foreigners in Spain (23% in 2006), ahead
Portugal. These arrests included citizens from Spain
of members of Moroccan groups (11%) and of groups
(13%) and the Netherlands (6%). Individual seizures
from the Dominican Republic (6%), Romania (3%),
reported by Portugal to UNODC in 2007 suggested
the UK (2%), Portugal (2%) and Italy (2%).
that 99% of the cocaine shipped to Portugal transited
The rather high level of arrests of Moroccans and Portu-
African waters. Most shipments were reported to have
guese point to the increasing role of trafficking of cocaine
originated in Senegal and Guinea Bissau in 2007.
through Western and Northern Africa to Spain and
Cocaine trafficking via West Africa emerges as a serious
Portugal. The main new trend for the last three to four
problem
years has been the growth in cocaine shipments via West
Africa – typically off the coasts of Cape Verde, Guinea
The most striking new trend in cocaine trafficking in
Bissau and the Canary Islands, as well as to various
recent years has been the rising importance of Africa,
countries along the Gulf of Guinea, including Ghana,
notably of West and Central Africa, as a transit area for
Cote d’Ivoire, Togo, Nigeria, and, further west, Guinea,
cocaine shipments to Europe. Seizures made in Africa
Sierra Leone, Liberia and Senegal, for subsequent deliv-
rose from less than 1 mt over the 1998-2002 period to
eries to Europe, including Spain and Portugal.
15 mt in 2006. Most of the increase took place in
2006.16 The largest African cocaine seizures were
Portugal has become another major gateway for cocaine
destined for European markets. Portugal reported 35 mt
16 The massive increase of seizures shown for West and Central Africa
of cocaine seizures in 2006, equivalent to 35% of all
in 2006 was to a large extent due to one major seizure in 2006
European cocaine seizures in 2006. Large volumes of
reported by Nigeria. This concerned a shipment of cement mixed
with cocaine. Samples analyzed by the Nigerian authorities identified
European cocaine seizures were also undertaken by the
cocaine. Other samples analyzed later by the US Drug Enforcement
Netherlands (11 mt), France (10 mt) and Italy (5 mt).
Agency failed, however, to confirm the existence of cocaine. This
could indicate that not all of the 14.2 mt may have been cocaine.
Portugal’s cocaine seizures basically doubled in 2004, in
On the other hand, a number of other West and Central African
countries which had growing and important amounts of cocaine
2005 and in 2006 (rising from 3 mt in 2003 to 7 mt in
seizures according to press reports, did not fill in the Annual Reports
2004, 18 mt in 2005 and 35 mt in 2006). The large
Questionnaire, and these seizures are thus not included in the total.
78
1. Trends in the world drug markets Coca / Cocaine market
reported by Nigeria, followed by Ghana, South Africa,
Fig. 58: Proportion of individual cocaine seizures
Morocco and Cap Verde in 2006. In addition, Guinea
made in Europe that transited Africa,
Bissau emerged in recent years as an important cocaine
2004-2007
trafficking hub. Out of the 33 African countries that
25%
provided seizure statistics in 2006 to UNODC, 25 Afri-
can countries, or 76%, reported seizures of cocaine, up
22%
from 34% in 1990.
20%
African cocaine seizures are now equivalent to 2.1% of
the global total, up from 0.3% in 2005 and 0.1% in
2000. Since law enforcement in Africa is hampered by a
15%
lack of resources and other important factors, this
12%
marked increase may not fully reflect the actual traffick-
ing flows through the region.
10%
9%
UNODC’s database of individual drug seizures showed
that, out of the total number cocaine seizures made in
5%
5%
Europe in 2007 (where the ‘origin’ had been identified),
22% had been smuggled via Africa to Europe, up from
12% in 2006 and 5% in 2004. Criminal groups from
0%
West African countries continue to dominate the cocaine
2004
2005
2006
2007
retail trade in a number of European countries.
The most frequently mentioned country of origin of
Source: UNODC, Individual drug seizures database.
cocaine trafficked to Africa is Colombia, followed by
Peru. The most important transit country for cocaine
seizures made in Africa is Brazil, followed by Vene-
zuela.
Cocaine trafficking in Asia and the Oceania region
increases but remains limited
Although cocaine seizures almost doubled in Asia in
2005 and rose by a further 27% in 2006, they remained
at very low levels compared to other regions (0.7 mt or
0.1% of global seizures). Seizures in the Oceania region
tripled to 0.3 mt in 2006. The largest cocaine seizures in
the Oceania region take place in Australia (252 kg in
2006 or 88% of all cocaine seizures in the Oceania
region). The largest cocaine seizures in Asia in 2006
were made by China (358 kg), followed by India (206
kg), Thailand (36 kg), Hong Kong (15 kg), Iran (11 kg),
Japan (10 kg) and Lebanon (9 kg). Out of 41 Asian
countries which reported seizure information to
UNODC, 18 countries (43%) reported seizures of
cocaine in 2006. This is a far lower proportion than in
the other continents. Cocaine manufacture in Asia is
extremely rare. Nonetheless, a few clandestine cocaine-
manufacturing laboratories were dismantled: 4 laborato-
ries were dismantled in Hong Kong SAR of China in
2006 and one laboratory was dismantled in mainland
China, close to the Hong Kong border.
79
World Drug Report 2008
Fig. 59: Global illicit supply of cocaine, 1996-2006
Total Cocaine
1,008
980
984
1,000
Production
950
925
879
- in metric tons
875
859
825
827
800
800
Cocaine
intercepted(a)
- in % of
600
production
400
Cocaine
746
666
704
672
660
available for
588
607
577
560
568
568
consumption
200
(potential)
- in metric tons
0
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
(a) Seizures as reported (street purity). Includes cocaine HCl, cocaine base, crack cocaine, and other cocaine types.
SEIZURES OF COCAINE (a) in % of world total and kg equivalents(b)
-
20,000
40,000
60,000
80,000
100,000
120,000
HIGHEST RANKING COUNTRIES - 2006
140,000
160,000
180,000
200,000
Colombia (26%)
181,310
USA (21%)
146,972
Spain (7%)
49,653
Venezuela (6%)
39,058
Panama (5%)
36,000
Portugal (5%)
34,477
Ecuador (5%)
34,249
SEIZURES OF COCAINE (a) in kg equivalents(b) and in % -
Costa Rica (3%)
22,910
BY REGION - 2006
Mexico (3%)
21,337
South America (45%)
316,823
Peru (3%)
19,453
(c)
North America (24%)
171,014
Nigeria (2%)
14,436
West & Central Europe (17%)
121,279
Brazil (2%)
14,324
Central America (10%)
71,829
Bolivia (2%)
14,088
West and Central Africa (2%)
14,579
Netherlands (1%)
10,584
Caribbean (1%)
8,629
France (1%)
10,175
East and South-East Asia (0.1%)
433
Nicaragua (1%)
9,720
Southern Africa (0.1%)
363
Chile (1%)
6,807
Oceania (0%)
285
Argentina (0.8%)
5,895
South Asia (0%)
206
Dominican Rep. (0.7%)
5,105
Southeast Europe (0%)
192
Italy (0.7%)
4,624
North Africa (0%)
91
Belgium (0.6%)
3,946
Near and Middle East /South-West Asia (0%)
29
(d)
United Kingdom (0.5%)
3,814
20
East Europe (0%)
Honduras (0.4%)
2,714
East Africa (0%)
17
Canada (0.4%)
2,705
(a) Includes cocaine HCl, cocaine base, crack cocaine, and other cocaine types.
(b) Seizures as reported (street purity).
(c) Substance purity unknown.
(d) Data refer to 2005 England and Wales only.
80
1. Trends in the world drug markets Coca / Cocaine market
Fig. 60: Global seizures of cocaine, 1996-2006
COCAINE INTERCEPTED - WORLD: 1996 - 2006
COCAINE INTERCEPTED - ASIA: 1996 - 2006
800
0.80
700
0.70
ts
ts
en
600
0.60
en
i
val
500
0.50
u
i
val
q
u
q
e
400
0.40
n
e
n
300
0.30
c
to
c
to
200
0.20
etri
etri
M
100
M 0.10
0
0.00
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
COCAINE INTERCEPTED - AMERICAS: 1996 - 2006
COCAINE INTERCEPTED - EUROPE: 1996 - 2006
700
140
600
120
ts
ts
en 500
en 100
i
val
i
val
u 400
u
80
q
q
e
e
n
n
300
60
c
to
c
to
200
40
etri
etri
M
M
100
20
0
0
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
COCAINE INTERCEPTED - AFRICA: 1996 - 2006
COCAINE INTERCEPTED - OCEANIA: 1996 - 2006
16
1.6
ts 14
ts 1.4
en
en
12
1.2
i
val
u
i
val
10
q
u 1.0
q
e
n
8
e
n 0.8
c
to
6
c
to 0.6
etri
4
etri 0.4
M
M
2
0.2
0
0.0
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
81
World Drug Report 2008
Fig. 61: USA: Cocaine retail and whole sale prices, 1990-2007 (US$/gram)
300
250
200
150
US$/gram
100
50
0
199 199 199 199 199 199 199 199 199 199 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7 *
Retail
284 262 245 205 186 174 162 159 154 142 151 111 96.4 82.2 93.2 99.1 94
119
Wholesale 70.1 71.5 69.1 62.4 57.4 51.1 45.9 43.1 39.5 37.3 34.6 24.5 25.8 23.6 23.5 21.2 30.5
Retail
Wholesale
Fig. 62: EUROPE: Cocaine retail and whole sale prices, 1990-2007 (US$/gram)
200
160
120
80
US$/gram
40
0
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Retail
181 170 169
145 152 157 135 116 113
106 82.3 84.5 80.2 91.6 94.3 89.3 86.4
Wholesale 105 76.8 82.5 61.4
64
63.7 61.4 55.2 53.7 46.6 41.6 41.1 40.3 46.4
50
49.3 46.9
Retail
Wholesale
Fig. 63: Wholesale cocaine prices in Europe and the USA, 1990-2007 (US$/gram)
120
100
80
60
US$/gram
40
20
0
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
82
1.3.4 Consumption
Global cocaine use largely stable
Fig. 64: Annual prevalence of cocaine use
in 2006/07, distribution by region
In 2006/07, an estimated 16 million people worldwide, or
(N=16.0 million)
0.4% of the global population aged 15-64, consumed
Oceania
Asia
cocaine. The largest numbers of cocaine users are found in
Other
2%
2%
1%
North America (7.1 million people or 45% of the world
Africa
7%
total), followed by West & Central Europe (3.9 million
people or 24%) and South America (including Central
North
America and the Caribbean: 3.1 million or 19% of the
West &
America
total). Estimates for these regions are largely based on epi-
Central
('NAFTA')
demiological research results. The same applies to estimates
Europe
45%
for the Oceania region (0.3 million or 2% of the total).
24%
The estimate of cocaine users in Africa (1.1 million
people), in contrast, is based on selected rapid situation
assessments, ‘guesstimates’ by government officials and
qualitative information. These estimates should be
South
treated with caution. The same applies to estimates for
America*
19%
Asia (0.3 million cocaine users).
* including Central America and Caribbean
The annual prevalence of cocaine use is highest in North
Sources: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data, UNODC
America (2.4%). In 2006/07, the Oceania region (1.4%)
Field Offices, UNODC’s Drug Use Information Network for Asia
and the Pacific (DAINAP), UNODC, Global Assessment Pro-
has replaced West and Central Europe (1.2%) as the
gramme on Drug Use (GAP), Govt. reports, EMCDDA, CICAD,
region with the second highest rates of prevalence for
HONLEA reports, local studies, UNODC estimates.
Table 7:
Annual prevalence of cocaine use, 2006 or latest year available
in % of population
No. of users
15-64 years
EUROPE 4,008,000
0.73
West & Central Europe
3,895,000
1.22
South-East Europe
67,000
0.08
Eastern Europe
46,000
0.03
AMERICAS 10,196,000
1.74
North America
7,097,000
2.42
South America
3,099,000
1.05
ASIA 335,000
0.01
OCEANIA 301,000
1.37
AFRICA 1,147,000
0.22
GLOBAL
15,987,000
0.37
Above global average
Below global average
Sources: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data, UNODC Field Offices, UNODC’s Drug Abuse Information Network for Asia and
the Pacific (DAINAP), UNODC, Global Assessment Programme on Drug Abuse (GAP), Govt. reports, EMCDDA, CICAD, HONLEA reports,
local studies, UNODC estimates.
84
1. Trends in the world drug markets Coca / Cocaine market
Fig. 65: Cocaine use trends* as perceived by experts: 1992-2006
106
104
103.7
103.3
103.2
102
101.3
101.5
100.0
Baseline 1992 = 100
100
98
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
* Note: Trends as reported by national experts in response to UNODC’s Annual Reports Questionnaire. Points allocated for trend data:
‘strong increase’ 2; ‘some increase’: 1; stable: 0; ‘some decline’ -1; ‘strong decline’ -2. Reported drug use trends were weighted by the
proportion of cocaine users in a country expressed as a %age of global cocaine use. If all countries had reported ‘some increase’, the
global trend line would have increased by one point each year and would have reached 114 by 2006.
Sources: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data, UNODC Field Offices, UNODC’s Drug Use Information Network for Asia and the
Pacific (DAINAP), UNODC, Global Assessment Programme on Drug Use (GAP), Govt. reports, EMCDDA, CICAD, HONLEA reports and
local studies.
cocaine use. South America (incl. the Caribbean and
to a contraction in cocaine use in North America, offset-
Central America: 1.1%) follows closely in third place.
ting increases in South America, Western Europe and
The change in this ranking is due to the results of a new
West and Southern Africa. While cocaine use was
household survey conducted in Australia in 2007. This
reported to have fallen in the USA and in Canada, it
survey found that cocaine use had grown significantly
increased in most countries of South America and Cen-
over the 2004-2007 period (prevalence rates for other
tral America. In the Caribbean region, use seems to be
drugs were found to have declined). Africa (0.2%), East
stable to declining, consistent with reports of a declining
and South-East Europe (0.1%) and Asia (0.01%) all have
importance of this sub-region for shipments of cocaine
rates of annual prevalence below the global average.
to North America. While, in 2001, nine Caribbean
countries reported rising levels of cocaine use and only
Estimates of global annual prevalence should be inter-
three countries saw a stabilization, in 2006 the number
preted with caution
of countries reporting increasing cocaine consumption
The global prevalence rate of cocaine use (0.37%) esti-
fell to two. In contrast, the number of Caribbean coun-
mated for 2006/07 is higher than the one reported in
tries reporting stable or declining levels of cocaine use
last year’s World Drug Report (0.34%). For many rea-
increased to five.
sons however, the difference is not statistically signifi-
cant and most of the difference can be linked to
Cocaine use in the Oceania region was reported as
methodological improvements bringing previous esti-
largely stable in 2006. However, the new household
mates closer to reality, inter alia by replacing some older,
survey conducted in Australia in 2007 indicated a
unrealistically low estimates, with higher new estimates
reversal of this trend, showing a statically significant
based on local studies. If only data officially reported by
increase in cocaine use over the 2004-07 period.
States Members had been considered for this estimation,
global cocaine use would have remained stable.
Cocaine use in Europe continues to increase but could
be headed for stabilization
Trend estimates, based on expert perceptions provided
to UNODC (weighted by the number of cocaine users
Most of the global increase of cocaine use over the last
in each country), also suggest that global cocaine use
decade can be attributed to rapidly rising cocaine con-
remained basically stable in 2006. These trend data sug-
sumption in Europe, and cocaine use continued to
gest, in addition, that global cocaine use is slightly lower
increase in 2006. Nonetheless, data also indicate an
than in 2003. While one should not over-interpret these
underlying trend towards stabilization in a growing
data, it seems safe to state that, according to expert opin-
number of European countries. While the number of
ion, the strong increases in global cocaine use seen in the
European countries reporting increases in cocaine use fell
1990s have given way to a general stabilization over the
from 18 in 2001 and in 2002 to 14 in 2005 and in 2006,
2003-2006 period.
the number of European countries reporting stabilizing
or declining cocaine use increased from 17 in 2001 to 28
Global stabilisation led by declines in North America
in 2005 and 37 in 2006. The latter figure is more than
The global stabilization over the last few years was due
2.5 times the number of countries showing increases.
85
World Drug Report 2008
Fig. 66: Cocaine use trends as perceived by
Fig. 67: Cocaine use trends as perceived by
experts: regional contribution to global
experts - changes in regions, 1992-2006
change, 1992-2006
108
107.6
104
106
103
105.2
102
104
103.3
101
102
101.8
101.5
100
100.3
Baseline 1992 = 100 100
99
98
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
Europe
Africa
Americas
Oceania
Asia
Europe
Americas
Sources: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data, UNODC
Asia
Oceania
Field Offices, UNODC’s Drug Use Information Network for Asia
Africa
Global average
and the Pacific (DAINAP), UNODC, Global Assessment Pro-
gramme on Drug Use (GAP), Govt. reports, EMCDDA, CICAD,
Sources: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data, UNODC
HONLEA reports and local studies.
Field Offices, UNODC’s Drug Use Information Network for Asia
and the Pacific (DAINAP), UNODC, Global Assessment Pro-
gramme on Drug Use (GAP), Govt. reports, EMCDDA, CICAD,
HONLEA reports and local studies.
Cocaine use in Africa increases
There was an increase of cocaine use in Africa. While, in
eral population. West African groups and, to a lesser
2001/02, 11 African countries reported rising levels of
extent, South American groups, are often involved in the
cocaine use, this number increased to 14 over the
trafficking of cocaine to the various Asian countries. The
2005/06 period; in parallel, the number of African
increase in cocaine use could reflect the rising levels of
countries reporting falling levels of cocaine use fell from
affluence in the region. In 2005, four Asian countries
7 to 2. The increase was particularly noticeable in west-
reported rising levels of cocaine consumption. This
ern and southern Africa, and along the Atlantic coast of
number rose to eight in 2006 and included Hong Kong
North Africa. This is related to the increasing impor-
SAR of China, Japan, the Philippines (for cocaine
tance of Africa as a transhipment location for South
powder), Thailand, as well as Bangladesh, Nepal, Paki-
American cocaine destined for Europe.
stan and the Lebanon. In parallel, the number of Asian
Cocaine use in Asia increased as well, although it con-
countries reporting falling levels of cocaine use fell from
tinues to occur in only a very small portion of the gen-
three to two.
Fig. 68: Cocaine use among high-school students in the USA and Ontario, Canada, 1979-2007
14.0
13.1
12.0
12.0
10.0
8.0
6.2
5.7
5.2
6.0
4.6
3.1
3.5
4.0
annual prevalence in %
2.0
5.3
4.6
4.0
4.0
3.4
2.4
2.5
2.7
3.7
4.0
5.1
4.2
3.3
1.7
1.5
-
1979
1981
1983
1985
1987
1989
1991
1993
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
2005
2007
Ontario 7-11th graders
USA 8-12th graders
USA 12th graders
Sources: NIDA, Monitoring the Future, 2007 and CAMH, Ontario Drug Use Survey 2007
86
1. Trends in the world drug markets Coca / Cocaine market
Fig. 69: US national workforce*: percentage testing positive for cocaine
1.0% 0.90%
0.91%
0.80%
0.8%
0.73%
0.69%
0.71%
0.74%
0.72%
0.70%
0.72%
0.78%
0.73%
0.71%
0.58%
0.6%
0.64%
0.60%
0.59%
0.56%
0.57%
0.60%
0.58%
0.4%
Prevalence
0.44%
0.2%
0.0%
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
General workforce
Federally mandated
* Results based on 6.6 million tests among the general workforce in 2007 and 1.8 million tests among the federally mandated, safety
sensitive workforce.
Source: Quest Diagnostics, Quest Diagnostics Drug Testing Index, March 2008
Surveys and expert perceptions both point to declines
Prevention appears to have played less of a role in the
in cocaine use in North America
2007 decline. Survey data show that the perceived
‘harmfulness’ of cocaine use among high-school students
Indications of a decline in cocaine use are found in stu-
did not increase in 2007. US high school student reports
dent surveys from Canada and the United States, admis-
on the perceived cocaine availability showed a decline in
sion to drug treatment reports and data from US drug
2007 and a marked reduction over the 1998-2007
testing.
period. The perceived availability of cocaine was also
The annual prevalence of cocaine use among 12th grad-
reported to have declined among high-school students
ers declined from 5.7% in 2006 to 5.2% in 2007, and
in Ontario, Canada in recent years.
was 60% lower than the peak found in 1985 (13.1%).
Average annual prevalence of cocaine use among 8th-
Levels of use rise in Latin America
12th graders fell by more than 20% (from 4.6% to
In contrast to falling cocaine use levels in North Amer-
3.5%) between 1999 and 2007. The use of crack-co-
ica, most of the countries in Latin America report rising
caine, which is responsible for a large part of problem
levels of cocaine use.
drug use in the USA, also declined. Similarly, cocaine
use among high-school students in Ontario – Canada’s
Cocaine use in Bolivia increased over the 2000-2005
most populated province – fell by 35% between 2003
period, from 1.3% to 1.9% of the population age 12-50.
and 2007.
The improvements in the second half of the 1990s coin-
cided with the decline of domestic coca leaf production,
The number of cocaine related treatment admissions fell
and the increase in the first years of the new millennium
in the USA from 263,300 admissions in 2004 to 250,100
also coincided with a rise in cultivation and cocaine
in 2006 according to the Treatment Episode Data Set
production.
(TEDS). Even more impressive have been the declines
of positive drug tests among the US workforce in recent
Cocaine use also increased in Brazil, the second largest
years, notably in 2007. The population testing positive
cocaine market (some 870,000 persons) in the Americas
for cocaine use fell from 0.91% in 1998 to 0.72% in
after the USA (some 6 million persons). Household
2006, and then to just 0.58% of the general US work-
surveys conducted in Brazil showed an increase from
force in 2007. This is equivalent to a decline of 19% in
0.4% of the population age 12-65 in 2001 to 0.7% in
2007 and 36% since 1998. For federally mandated tests
2005. Reports of increasing activities of cocaine traffick-
in safety-sensitive professions, the decline was more
ing groups in the south-eastern states of the country
pronounced, amounting to 24% in 2007 and 44% since
indicated that there may be a greater availability of
1998. The decline in 2007 seems to have been related to
cocaine in those areas. The territory of Brazil is increas-
strong price increases (more than 40%), following suc-
ingly exploited by international organized crime groups
cessful law enforcement operations against drug traffick-
looking for transit points for cocaine shipments from
ing organisations, led by Mexico, the United States and
Colombia, Bolivia and Peru to Europe. This is likely to
Canada.
have brought more cocaine to the local market.
87
World Drug Report 2008
Fig. 70: Bolivia: annual prevalence of cocaine
Fig. 72: Argentina: cocaine use among the pop-
use (age 12-50), 1992-2005
ulation age 12-65, 1999-2006
2.0%
1.9%
3.0
1.7%
2.6
2.5
1.5%
1.3% 1.3%
l
ence
1.9
1.6%
2.0
1.5%
1.0%
1.3%
1.3%
l
preva
1.5
1.6
1.3
0.5% 0.3%
1.0
annua
prevalence in %
0.5
0.2%
0.0%
0.0
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
1999
2006
Cocaine HCL
Cocaine paste/base
annual prevalence
past month prevalence
Source: CELIN, Investigacion: Estudio Comparative Consumo de
Sources: SEDRONAR, Estudio Nacional en Población General
Alcohol, Tabaco, Cocaina, y otras Drogas en Bolivia, 1992-1996-
sobre Consumo de Sustancias Psicoactivas 2006, Buenos Aires
1998-2000-2005, Bolivia 2005.
2007 and previous years.
The South-East and the South of Brazil are the areas
rate of cocaine use (2.6% of the population age 12-65)
most heavily affected by cocaine consumption. Life-
in South America and the second highest in the Ameri-
time prevalence of cocaine use in the South-East of
cas after the USA (3% in 2006 among the population
Brazil is 3.7% of the population age 12-65. In the
age 15-64). Over the 1999-2006 period, the annual
South, life time prevalence is 3.1%, while in the North-
prevalence rate rose from 1.9% to 2.6%. In addition,
East and the North life-time prevalence reaches at 1.2%
0.5% of the population age 12-65 admitted to have
and 1.3% respectively.
used ‘pasta base’ (coca paste) in 2006.
Argentina is the second largest cocaine market in South
Increases in cocaine use were also reported from Uru-
America (approximately 640,000 persons in 2006). In
guay. The annual prevalence of cocaine use among the
relative terms, the results of the 2006 household survey
population age 12-64 increased from 0.2% in 2001 to
suggest that Argentina has the highest annual prevalence
1.4% of the population age 12-65 in 2007 (about
Fig. 71: Brazil: annual prevalence of cocaine use
Fig. 73: Uruguay: cocaine use among the popu-
in 2001 and 2005
lation age 12-65*, 1994-2007
3.0
2.9
5.0%
2.3
4.0%
4.0%
2.0
3.0%
1.0
2.0%
Prevalence
prevalence in %
0.7
0.7
1.3%
0.4
0.4
0.9%
1.0%
1.4%
1.0%
0.0
0.2%
0.2%
0.4%
0.0%
Cocaine: annual Cocaine: life-time Crack-cocaine:
1994
1998
2001
2007
prevalence
prevalence
life-time
prevalence
Life-time prevalence
Annual prevalence
2001
2005
Source: CEBRID, Il Levantamento Domiciliar sobre o Uso de
* Age group 15-65 for survey in 1994; age group 12-64 in 1998
Drogas Psicotrópicas no Basil: Estudo Envolvendo as 108 Maiores
and in 2001; and age group 12-65 in 2007.
Cidades do Pais, 2005, Sao Paolo 2006 and CEBRID, Il Levanta-
Sources: Observatorio Uruguay de Drogas (OUD), Encuesta
mento Domiciliar sobre o Use de Drogas Psicotrópicas no Basil:
Nacional en Hogares sobre Consumo de Drogas 2007 and Secre-
Estudo Envolvendo as 107 Maiores Cidades do País, Sao Paolo
taria Nacional de Drogas y Junta Nacional de Drogas, Encuesta
2002.
Nacional de Prevalencia del Consumo de Drogas 2001.
88
1. Trends in the world drug markets Coca / Cocaine market
Fig. 74: Chile: cocaine use among the general population, age 12-64, 1996-2006
2.0
1.8
1.7
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.2
1.1
1.0
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
annual prevalence
0.5
0.0
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
cocaine HCL
0.8
1.3
1.5
1.5
1.3
1.2
cocaine paste/base
0.6
0.8
0.7
0.5
0.6
0.6
all cocaine
1.1
1.79
1.849
1.72
1.68
1.5
cocaine HCL
cocaine paste/base
all cocaine
Source: CONACE, Séptimo Estudio Nacional de Drogas en Población General de Chile, 2006, Santiago de Chile 2007.
30,000 people). In addition, consumption of coca paste
demand, including alcohol, was due to cocaine and/or
(‘pasta base’) has increased from previously negligible
crack-cocaine use. Excluding alcohol, the (unweighted)
levels as of 2002 and now affects 0.3% of the popula-
proportion would have amounted to some 18%, much
tion. School surveys suggests that cocaine use also
higher than the African average (10%). The two excep-
increased in Ecuador and Paraguay in recent years.
tions to the increase in cocaine related treatment demand
in South Africa over the first two quarters of 2007 were
The only documented exception of the general upward
the Western Cape province (Cape Town), where meth-
trend in cocaine use in Latin America is Chile. Cocaine
amphetamine predominates, and the Eastern Cape
use in Chile increased strongly in the late 1990s but
where treatment related to alcohol problems predomi-
gradually declined after 2000. The annual prevalence
nates. The highest proportions of treatment related to
rate of cocaine use fell from 1.8% of the general popula-
cocaine and/or crack-cocaine abuse over the first two
tion age 12-64 in 2000 to 1.7% in 2004 and 1.5% in
quarters of 2007 were reported from the Eastern Cape
2006 (about 170,000 persons).
province, which also includes the towns of Port Elisa-
beth and East London (14% of all treatment including
Cocaine use continues to expand in South Africa
alcohol), followed by the province of Gauteng that
The increasing use of African countries as transshipment
includes Johannesburg and the capital Pretoria (13%).
locations of cocaine from South America to Europe has
had a negative impact on cocaine consumption. Increases
Fig. 75: South Africa: cocaine as primary drug of
in cocaine use have been reported throughout the con-
abuse in treatment demand*, 1996-2007
tinent, but are particularly significant in countries of
14.0
western and southern Africa.
12.0
The best documented increase of cocaine use is found in
South Africa where the South African Community Epi-
10.0
demiology Network on Drug Use (SACENDU) has
8.0
been collecting data for the last decade. Data from treat-
ment centers in six locations - Cape Town, Gauteng
6.0
(which includes the capital Pretoria and Johannesburg),
4.0
Durban, Port Elisabeth, East London and Mpulanga
in % of all treatment
(the province bordering Swaziland and Mozambique),
2.0
show that cocaine use has been increasing rapidly in
0.0
recent years. Cocaine (and/or crack-cocaine) related
treatment demand - expressed as an unweighted average
1996b
1997a
1997b
1998a
1998b
1999a
1999b
2000a
2000b
2001a
2001b
2002a
2002b
2003a
2003b
2004a
2004b
2005a
2005b
2006a
2006b
2007a
of the proportions of patients found in treatment for
cocaine abuse in the six sites mentioned above - rose
* unweighted average of treatment (incl. alcohol) in 6 provinces.
Source: SACENDU, “Monitoring Alcohol & Drug Abuse Trends in
from less than 2 % in 1996 to 6.5% in 2000. In the first
South Africa, July 1996 – June 2007”, Research Brief, Vol. 10 (2),
two quarters of 2007, around 10 % of all treatment
2007. Six monthly data.
89
World Drug Report 2008
Fig. 76: Annual prevalence of cocaine use in Spain among the general population and among high-
school students, 1994-2007
4.0%
8.0%
7.2%
7.0%
6.2%
3.0%
6.0%
3%
4.8%
4.5%
2.7%
5.0%
2.5%
4.1%
2.0%
4.0%
1.8% 2.7%
15-64
3.0%
14-18
1.6%
1.6%
1.8%
students age
population age
1.0%
2.0%
1.0%
0.0%
0.0%
annual prevalence among the general
annual prevalence among high-school
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
General population (age 15-64)
High-school students (age 14-18)
Trend - high-school students
Source: Ministerio de Sanidad y Consumo, Plan Nacional Sobre Drogas
Cocaine use continues rising in Europe, amidst signs
Cocaine use in the United Kingdom, Europe’s largest
of stabilization in some areas
cocaine market in absolute terms and second largest in
prevalence terms, continued to rise slightly. The annual
One of the most alarming trends in recent years has
prevalence rate of cocaine use in England & Wales
been the rapid increase of cocaine use in Europe. While
increased from 2.4% of the population age 16-59 in
use continued to rise in 2006, there are indications that
2005/06 to 2.6% in 2006/07. According to data col-
the increase may be flattening. The number of European
countries reporting increases in cocaine use fell from 18
lected as part of the British Crime survey, the annual
in 2001 to 14 in 2006, while the number of European
prevalence rate of cocaine use is now more than four
countries reporting stable or declining levels of cocaine
times higher than it was a decade earlier. Most of the
use increased from 17 to 37 over this period. In a few
increase took place in the 1990s when the annual prev-
European countries cocaine use appears to have started
alence of cocaine use grew from 0.3% in 1992 to 2% in
falling.
2000. The highest cocaine use levels in 2006/07 were
reported from northern England and from London, and
The highest prevalence rates for cocaine use in Europe
the lowest from Wales. Use of crack-cocaine remains
are found in Spain, the main entry point of cocaine into
limited (0.2%).
Europe. Cocaine use doubled among the general popu-
lation (age 15-64), from 1.6% in 1999 to 3.0% in 2005.
Fig. 77: England & Wales: annual prevalence of
Cocaine use levels in Spain are more than twice the West
cocaine use among the general popula-
European average (1.2%), and similar to those reported
tion (age 16-59), 1996-2007
from the USA. School surveys conducted in Spain over
the November 2006-Feburary 2007 period suggest that
3.0%
2.6%
the upward trend may be ending. Surveys of 14-18 year
2.5%
2.4%
2.5%
old high-school students found a marked decline in
2.1%
cocaine use: from 7.2% in 2004 to 4.1% in 2007. In
2.0%
2.0%
2.0%
2.0%
parallel, the monthly prevalence rate of cocaine use
among high-school students fell from 3.8% in 2004 to
1.5%
1.3%
2.3% in 2007. Spanish authorities linked this evolution
to the intensification of both prevention and law
1.0%
annual prevalence
0.6%
enforcement efforts over the last few years. The percep-
0.5%
tion of the risks associated with cocaine consumption
increased markedly over the 2004-2007 period, while
0.0%
reported access to cocaine (perceptions of availability)
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
deteriorated. The average age of initiation of cocaine
use, however, did not increase. It fell slightly from 15.8
in 2004 to 15.4 in 2007.
Source: UK Home Office, British Crime Survey, 2006/07.
90
1. Trends in the world drug markets Coca / Cocaine market
Fig. 78: Germany: annual prevalence of cocaine
Fig. 79: Australia:annual prevalence of cocaine
use among the general population, 1990-
use among the population age 14 and
2006
above, 1993-2007
1.5
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.8
1.6
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.6
1.4
1.4
1.3
1.2 1.4
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.0
1.2
1.0
1.0
0.9
1.0
1.0
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.5
0.6
0.6 0.6
0.6
0.5
0.3
annual prevalence
0.4
0.4
in % of population age 18-59
0.2
0.2
in % of population age 18-39
in % of population age 14+
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
1993
1995
1998
2001
2004
2007
General population age 18-59
Age 18-39
Source: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2007 National
Drug StrategyHousehold Survey, April 2008.
Data from Germany, the most populated country in the
2003-06 period was surprising insofar as drug use, in
European Union, suggest that cocaine use declined over
general, declined markedly over the same period in Aus-
the 2003-2006 period. The annual prevalence of cocaine
tralia. There is a possibility that the increasing difficul-
use among the population age 18-59 fell from 1% in
ties of shipping cocaine to North America, in
2003 to 0.6% in 2006, the lowest level since 1997. Use
combination with the high prices of cocaine in Australia
of crack-cocaine affects around 0.1% of the population
increased the attractiveness of Australia to drug traffick-
age 18-59. Crack-cocaine use remains mainly limited to
ers. The existence of an established synthetic stimulants
Hamburg and Frankfurt. Among the population age
market may have also helped drug users to experiment
18-39 the annual prevalence rate of cocaine use fell from
with cocaine. The overall size of the cocaine market in
1.5% to 1.2% over the 2003-06 period, the lowest level
Australia, however, remains limited compared to many
since 1997. The number of newly identified (by the
other countries.
police) cocaine users fell by a further 10% in 2007,
according to the Bundeskriminalamt (federal German
Similar trends can be found in New Zealand, where use
police).
declined over the 1998-2003 period, but more than
doubled between 2003 and 2006. In both Australia and
Prior to the release of the new household survey for
New Zealand, cocaine prevalence is now higher than in
2006, Germany had reported stable cocaine use levels.
1998.
The same applied to most neighbouring countries,
including Austria, Switzerland, Belgium, the Nether-
Fig. 80: New Zealand: annual prevalence of co-
caine use among the population age 15-
lands, Denmark, Poland, the Czech Republic and other
45, 1998-2006
central European countries (Slovakia and Hungary).
Increases in cocaine use in 2006 were however reported
1.2
1.1
by a number of South-European countries, notably Por-
1.0
tugal, Italy and some countries of the western Balkan, as
0.8
well as France, the United Kingdom, Ireland and several
0.8
0.7
Nordic countries.
0.6
0.5
Cocaine use up in Oceania
0.4
In contrast to the decline of cocaine use in North Amer-
annual prevalence
ica and the first signs of a flattening of the upward trend
0.2
of cocaine use in Europe, cocaine use appears to be
in % of population age 15-45
growing strongly in the Oceania region, notably in Aus-
0.0
tralia and New Zealand.
1998
2001
2003
2006
Annual prevalence of cocaine use among the population
Source: Centre for Social and Health Outcomes Research and
Evaluation, Trends in drug use in the population in New Zealand:
age 14 and above grew in Australia from 1% in 2003 to
Findings from national household drug surveying in 1998, 2001,
1.6% in 2006. The upward trend in cocaine use over the
2003 and 2006, Auckland 2007.
91
World Drug Report 2008
Fig. 81: Proportion of arrestees testing positive for cocaine in Australia*, 1999-2007
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
proportion of arrestees testing positive (in %)
* unweighted average of the following sites: Bankstown, Parramata, Southport, Brisbane, Port Elizabeth, Adelaide and East Perth
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, Drug Use Monitoring in Australia (DUMA), Canberra 2008.
Fig. 82: Proportion of arrestees testing positive for cocaine in Australia*, 1999-2007
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
positive for cocaine (in %)
proportion of arrestees testing
-
New South Wales
Queensland
South Australia
Western Australia
Australia
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
* Results for New South Wales from Sydney (Parramatta and Bankstown); for Queensland from Brisbane and Southport; for South Aus-
tralia from Adelaide and Elisabeth); for Western Australia from East Perth. Results for ‘Australia’: unweighted average of the proportions
of the sites mentioned above.
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, Drug Use Monitoring in Australia (DUMA), Canberra 2008.
The increase in cocaine use in Australia over the 2003-
2006 period is also documented in ‘DUMA’ data (col-
lected by the Australian Institute for Criminology for
the ongoing Drug Use Monitoring in Australia project)
on drug testing amongst arrestees. Cocaine use appears
to be widespread in New South Wales but far less so in
the rest of the country. DUMA data also suggest that
cocaine use, in contrast to heroin and methampheta-
mine abuse, is still not frequent among criminals in
Australia. Cocaine use levels in this group used to be
higher a few years ago. In the third quarter of 2001, fol-
lowing Australia’s ‘heroin drought’, close to 10% of
those arrested consumed cocaine, far more than the 2%
found in 2006 and 2007.
92
1.4 Cannabis
Market
1.4.1 Summary Trend Overview
The cannabis market has remained basically stable over-
intra-regional. Exceptions to this rule remain cannabis
all, but is experiencing some interesting developments.
herb exports from Africa (mainly western and southern
While estimates for cannabis herb production are prob-
Africa) to West and Central Europe and, to a lesser
lematic in nature – it is possible to make some broad
extent, from southern Africa to East Asia (e.g. Hong
statements about the level of production. In 2006 it is
Kong SAR China) as well as from Central Asia to East
estimated that production, for both herb and resin,
Europe (notably the Russian Federation) and some can-
declined.
nabis herb exports from South America (mostly Colom-
bia) to North America, mainly the USA. In 2006 the
The changes in cannabis production themselves appear
majority of cannabis herb seizures were reported from
to be changing the market. First, the increase in canna-
Mexico (36%), the United States (23%), and South
bis herb potency seems to be going hand in hand with a
Africa (7%). Most seizures of cannabis resin were made
decline in some of the main markets. This could mean
by Spain (45%), followed by Pakistan (11%), Morocco
that risk awareness amongst consumers is growing and
(9%), France (7%), Iran (6%), the UK (5%), and
contributing to some declines in demand. Declines in
Afghanistan (4%).
use have been noted in North America, West and Cen-
tral Europe, and Oceania, all regions where high THC
If production truly takes hold in Afghanistan there could
cannabis is cultivated hydroponically. Use continues to
be a rebound in consumption in West and Central
increase in Mexico, Central and South America, Africa
Europe and an expansion in Eastern Europe. These are
and Asia.
already areas which import cannabis products. This
Second, cannabis resin production in Afghanistan has
rebound could be preference or price driven. Whatever
been increasing since 2003, the same year resin produc-
the case, the market should be closely monitored for
tion in Morocco began its current downward trend. In
areas of vulnerability.
2007 the area under cannabis cultivation in Afghanistan
was equivalent to over a third of the area under opium
poppy cultivation. While the country still receives less
than ten percent of “source country mentions,” and
Morocco, which now produces only slightly more resin
than Afghanistan, receives close to 20%, this will change
if resin production continues to grow in Afghanistan.
This could very well happen. There is thought to be vast
over-supply of opiates, and prices could fall further any
time, prompting a shift to cannabis cultivation. In addi-
tion, there is a functioning illicit drugs market in exist-
ence which may be able to accommodate another
product efficiently.
These are areas of dynamism, but by and large the
market retains its core characteristics year-on-year: it is
the most widespread of all the illicit drug markets, it has,
by far, the highest level of prevalence, and this preva-
lence in society tends to minimise perceptions of risk to
health.
Cannabis is the biggest drug market by far and it is likely
to be more organised than we think, especially in rela-
tion to hydroponically grown cannabis and distribution
across large areas and borders. In contrast to other drugs,
trafficking in cannabis herb continues to be mostly
95
1.4.2 Production
Cannabis continues to be cultivated in most
Fig. 83:
Number of countries/territories
identi
countries of the world
fied as cannabis producers
(1996-2006): N = 172
Cannabis1 continues to dominate the world’s illicit drug
A:70
countries
markets in terms of pervasiveness of cultivation, volume
of production, and number of consumers. Cultivation
and production of the drug is extremely widespread.
Unfortunately some of the same qualities of this perva-
siveness impede any practical and rigorous reckoning of
production.
B:120
C:150
In the absence of direct measurements, UNODC relies
countries
countries
heavily on the analysis of States Members responses to
Annual Reports Questionnaires (ARQ). As part of this
analysis, UNODC identifies three factors which indi-
A: 70 countries/territories providing cultivation/production esti-
cate that the production of cannabis takes place: reports
mates
B: 127 countries/territories identified as source countries for can-
of domestic production in a States Members ARQ,
nabis that was trafficked
“mentions” of the “source” or origin of a cannabis sei-
C: 150 countries reporting the seizure of whole cannabis plants
zure in a country’s ARQ, or, report of cannabis plant
seizures.
Of the cannabis produced, most is cannabis herb. The
analysis of the reported source countries (ARQ, 2002-
Over the 1996-2006 period, 70, or just under half of all
2006 period) suggests that cannabis resin production
countries, provided UNODC with cannabis cultivation
takes place in 65 countries while cannabis herb pro-
or production estimates. It is assumed that some can-
duction occurs in 122 countries. 2
nabis cultivation takes place in the majority of the
1.4.1.1 Cannabis herb production
remainder as well, but that many countries simply lack
the capacity to produce estimates on the extent. This
Global production of cannabis herb is estimated to
assumption is partially corroborated by the fact that 127
have stabilized at around 41,400 mt in 2006
countries were identified as the “source” or “origin” of
Global cannabis herb production is estimated to have
trafficked cannabis over the 1996-2006 period. Further,
stabilized at 41,400 mt in 2006. Cannabis is produced
assuming that it is impracticable to transport whole
in massively greater volumes than opium (6,600 mt in
plants internationally and given that only some parts of
the plant are useable as a drug, it is likely that when
2 Production estimates for cannabis are systematically collected by
UNODC from member states as part of the replies to the annual
whole plants are seized they were locally produced. Sei-
reports questionnaire (ARQ). However, the lack of clear geographi-
zures of whole cannabis plants were reported from 150
cal limitations of cannabis production has made it difficult, for
most countries, to introduce scientifically reliable crop monitoring
countries over the 1996-2006 period.
systems. The fact that cannabis is a plant that grows in virtually
every inhabited region of the world, that it can be cultivated with
Combining these three indicative groups – cannabis
little maintenance on small plots, and indoors, complicates matters
further. Resulting variations in cannabis yields can also be large. The
production is identified in 172 countries and territories,
majority of current individual country estimates are based on expert
equivalent to 90% of the countries and territories which
opinion, rather than scientific monitoring systems. Nonetheless, the
resulting global estimates should provide at least reasonable orders of
receive UNODC’s ARQ.
magnitude of the problem. As the methodology used to arrive at the
estimates has remained basically unchanged in recent years, changes
1 A discussion of the definitions of the three basic cannabis end prod-
in the global production estimates are likely to reflect underlying
ucts of cannabis herb, cannabis resin and cannabis plant, as well as
changes in cultivation and production. The fact that global cannabis
preparations involving cannabis combinations, can be found on page
production trends are more or less in line with global seizures trends,
96 of the UNODC World Drug Report 2007 at www.unodc.org.
at least over longer periods, also seems to support this view.
96
1. Trends in the world drug markets Cannabis
Fig. 84: Tentative estimates of global cannabis Fig. 85: Breakdown of global cannabis herb
herb production, 1988-2006
production in 2006 (N = 41,400 mt)
Oceania
Europe
1%
50,000
6%
Asia
North America
40,000
16%
31%
30,000
20,000
metric tons
10,000
Africa
22%
0
South America*
1992
1999
2003
2004
2005
2006
24%
1988/89
2001/03
* South America, Central America and the Caribbean
Sources: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data and Govt.
Sources: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data and Govt. reports.
reports.
2006) heroin (606 mt in 2006) or cocaine (984 mt in
In 2006, most cannabis herb was produced in the Amer-
2006) combined.
icas (55 %) and in Africa (22 %), followed by Asia and
Europe. Countries producing for export remain limited
With production in 2006 almost equal to that of 2005,
to: a number of West, South and North African coun-
and 8% lower to that of 2004 it does appear that the
tries (including South Africa, Nigeria, Ghana and
upward trend observed from the early 1990s to the first
Morocco) and few East, West and Central Asian coun-
years of the new millennium has come to a halt. In fact,
tries (including Afghanistan, Pakistan and Kazakhstan).
the decline in global cannabis seizures between 2004
and 2006 was even more pronounced. Global cannabis
Cannabis herb production remains concentrated
plant seizures declined by 63% between 2004 and 2006
( 12,900 mt) in North America, where the largest pro-
and global cannabis herb seizures fell by 31% from the
ducers are Mexico followed by the United States of
peak in 2004 (while remaining largely unchanged as
America and Canada. Production in Mexico ( 7,400
compared to 2005). The new cannabis herb estimate
mt4) is mainly concentrated in states along the Pacific
suggests that 13% of cannabis herb production was
coast (Sinaloa, Miachoacán, Guerrero, Jalisco, Oaxana
seized in 2006. The cannabis herb interception rate is
and Nayarit), were 60% of total cannabis eradication
lower than the rate for opiates (21% in 2006) or for
takes place. There is also cultivation in the Center/
cocaine (42%) due to the fact that, unlike the latter two
North region (Chihuahua and Durango), the site of
drugs, cannabis herb is typically locally produced and
36% of eradication in 2006. Cannabis is produced
consumed.
throughout in the USA ( 4,700 mt; range: 2,800–6,600
mt), but it is particularly widespread in the western
The area under cannabis cultivation is estimated to have
region (California, Washington, Oregon and Hawaii)
amounted to some 520,000 ha (range: 470,000 - 600,000
ha) in 2006, far more than the area under poppy cultiva-
tion (201,500 ha) or the area under coca cultivation
well tended gardens, with figures around 2,000 kg/ha to be typical
(157,000 ha). If all the cannabis growing wild was
for the situation in the USA (as identified through the analysis of data
from court cases), and levels around 1,000 kg/ha to be typical for the
included in the area estimates, the global surface covered
situation in developing countries. In contrast, hydroponically grown
by cannabis could be two to three times larger.
cannabis were found to reach typical yield levels from 15,000 to
30,000 kg per hectare. Source: UNODC, World Drug Report 2006,
Cannabis yields continue to vary widely, from 5 kg/ha to
Vol. 1, pp. 193-195.
40,000 kg/ha, reflecting ranges between wild cannabis
4
Gross cultivation was estimated at 36,336 ha. Eradication amounted
to 30,158 ha - which is the world’s largest eradication of cannabis.
and hydroponically grown cannabis. The median can-
This left a net area under cannabis cultivation of 6,178 ha. The yield
nabis yield was 770 kg/ha; the (unweighted) average yield
is estimated by the Mexican authorities to amount to 1,200 kg of
was 2,500 kg/ha. Yields in Mexico, one of the world’s
cannabis herb per hectare. This results in a likely output of around
7,400 mt. (Source: Mexico’s reply to UNODC’s ARQ for the year
largest cannabis herb producing countries, were reported
2006). US estimates saw the net area under cannabis cultivation in
to have amounted to 1,200 kg per ha in 2006.3
Mexico slightly higher, at 8,500 ha in 2006 which – based on higher
yield assumptions – resulted in a production estimate of 15,500 mt of
cannabis herb in 2006. (Source: US Department of State, Bureau of
3 Typical yields for cultivated (as opposed to wild) outdoor cannabis
International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs, International
ranged from 470 kg/ha in areas without irrigation to 5,000 kg/ha in
Narcotics Control Strategy Report 2008, March 2008).
97
World Drug Report 2008
Fig. 86: Regional breakdown of global cannabis
Fig. 87: Cannabis herb cultivation (in ha) in Mexi-
herb production, 2004 and 2006
co, 2004-2006
50,000
50,000
45,000
45,488
43,326
41,400
40,000
36,336
40,000
30,000
30,000
30,852
30,857
hectares
20,000
30,158
metric tons
20,000
10,000
10,000
14,636
12,469
6,178
-
-
2004
2006
2004
2005
2006
South America (incl. Central America & Caribbean)
net cultivation
eradication
gross cultivation
North America
Oceania
Asia
Sources: Organizacion de los Estados Americanos (OEA),
Comisión Interamericana para el Control del Abuso de Drogas
Africa
(CICAD), Mecanismo de Evaluación Multilateral (MEM), México,
Europe
Evaluación del Progreso de Control de Drogas 2006-2006, and
Sources: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data and Govt. reports
UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire (ARQ). 2006.
and in the Appalachian region (Kentucky and Tennes-
Central Europe are the Netherlands (22% of all Euro-
see). In 2006, the US eradicated 5,901,880 outdoor
pean countries saw the Netherlands as their main source
cannabis plants and 403,322 indoor cannabis plants.5
of cannabis herb in 2006) and Albania (7% of all Euro-
Cannabis production in Canada is mainly concentrated
pean countries saw Albania as their main source coun-
in British Colombia and Quebec, followed by Ontario.
try). European consumption still relies on cannabis
imports. Australia is the largest cannabis herb producer
The largest proportion of cannabis herb production in
in Oceania.
South America ( 10,000 mt) takes place in Paraguay (
5,900 mt), followed at lower levels by Colombia, Brazil
Changes in the regional breakdown between 2004 and
(for the domestic market only), the Caribbean region
2006 suggest that cannabis production increased in
(notably St. Vincent & the Grenadines and Jamaica)
Europe (offsetting some of the decline of cannabis resin
and Central America (notably Guatemala). In Africa (
exports, produced in Morocco), Asia and South America
8,900 mt), where cannabis herb production takes place
(including Central America and the Caribbean). Pro-
in almost every country, the largest producers include
duction appears to have declined in Africa from the
South Africa ( 2,500 mt) followed in the region by
peak in 2004 (though less dramatic than cannabis herb
Malawi, Zambia and Swaziland. In addition, Nigeria,
seizures which fell by 59% between 2004 and 2006 in
Ghana & several other West-African countries (includ-
Africa). Production also appears to have declined in
ing Guinea, Cote d’Ivoire, Benin and Togo), produce
North America. Official Mexican estimates show a
relatively large amounts, as does the Democratic Repub-
decline in the net area under cannabis cultivation from
lic of the Congo, Tanzania, Egypt, and Morocco (which
14,600 ha in 2004 to 6,200 ha in 2006, producing
is mainly known as a cannabis resin producer).
some 7,400 mt of cannabis herb.6 Production estimates
also declined in the USA. US estimates for the year
Total production of cannabis herb in Asia is estimated
2002 suggested a net production of around 10,000 mt7
at around 6,700 mt. This includes production in the
Near East & South-West Asia region (Afghanistan, fol-
lowed by the Lebanon and Pakistan), although in all of
6 See Organizacion de los Estados Americanos (OEA), Comisión
these countries cannabis herb production is far less
Interamericana para el Control del Abuso de Drogas (CICAD),
Mecanismo de Evaluación Multilateral (MEM), México, Evaluación
important than the production of cannabis resin. Impor-
del Progreso de Control de Drogas 2006-2006, and UNODC, ARQ,
tant producers in South-Asia are India, Nepal and Sri
2006. US estimates, in contrast, saw a decline in the net area under
Lanka; and important producers in South & South-East
cannabis cultivation in Mexico from 7,900 ha in 2002 to 5,600 in
2005, followed by an increase to 8,600 ha in 2007. (Source: US
Asia include Indonesia and Thailand. Among the largest
Department of State, Bureau of International Narcotics and Law
cannabis producers in Europe ( 2,500 mt excl. Central
Enforcement Affairs, International Narcotics Control Strategy Report
Asia; 4,850 mt incl. Central Asia) are the C.I.S coun-
2008, March 2008).
tries, notably Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and the Russian
7 US estimates for the year 2002 suggested that domestic cannabis
herb production ranged from 5,580 to 16,730 mt with a mid-range
Federation. The largest producers of herb in West and
estimate of 11,150 mt. After deduction of eradication, this would
have given a net production of close to 10,000 mt in 2002. (Drug
5 US Department of Justice, National Drug Intelligence Centre,
Availability Steering Committee, Drug Availability Estimates in the
Domestic Cannabis Cultivation Assessment 2007, Feb. 2007.
United States, December 2002).
98
1. Trends in the world drug markets Cannabis
Fig. 88: Average cannabis potency (of seized
Fig. 89: Area under cannabis cultivation in Mo-
material) in the USA
rocco and Afghanistan*, 2003-2007
9.0
150,000 134,400
8.0
120,500
7.0
6.0
100,000
76,400
5.0
70,000
THC in % 4.0
hectares
50,000
50,000
3.0
30,000
2.0
1.0
0
0.0
Morocco Afghanistan
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
* data for Afghanistan refer to 2004/05, 2005/06 and 2006/07
Source: The University of Mississippi Cannabis Potency Monitor-
Sources: UNODC, 2007 Afghanistan Opium Survey (and previous
ing Project, quoted in US Department of Justice, National Drug
years) and UNODC/Government of Morocco, Maroc, Enquete sur
Intelligence Center, National Drug Threat Assessment 2008.
le cannabis 2005, Jan. 2007.
while production in 2006 amounted to an estimated
country’s production of cannabis resin continues to
4,700 mt8.
decline. Cannabis resin seizures made in West and Cen-
tral Europe fell by 17% on a year earlier in 2005 and by
The ongoing increase in THC levels of the cannabis
29% in 2006. West & Central Europe accounted for
produced is changing the market. In both Canada and
75% of global cannabis resin seizures in 2001. This
the USA, where large-scale eradication efforts have been
proportion fell to 70% in 2005 and to 64% in 2006.
successful, the ongoing growth of the THC levels of the
cannabis produced is worrying and likely reflects the
The decline of the importance of Morocco is also
ongoing shift towards indoor production of high-THC
reflected in the number of countries citing Morocco as
cannabis. The average THC levels of cannabis on the US
the “source” country or “origin” of the cannabis resin
market almost doubled between 1999 and 2006, from
found on their markets. Over the 1999-200310 period
4.6% to 8.8%.
31% of countries reporting cited Morocco as the origin
of the hashish found on their markets. Over the 2004-
1.4.1.2 Cannabis resin production
2006 period, 27% of reporting countries cited Morocco
and the subsequent transit countries, Spain and Portu-
Morocco’s importance as main source country for can-
gal, as the source country of the cannabis resin encoun-
nabis resin is declining
tered on their domestic market. In 2006, Morocco
mentions fell to 18%.
Available information suggests that Morocco is still the
world’s largest cannabis resin producer, supplying the
Afghanistan/Pakistan, accounted for 9% of such men-
illicit markets of Western Europe and North Africa. Its
tions. The extent of cannabis cultivation in Afghanistan
importance as a source country for cannabis resin has,
is steadily approaching that of Morocco. (In 2007, the
however, declined in recent years.
area under cannabis cultivation in Afghanistan was
equivalent to 36% of the area under opium poppy cul-
The last cannabis survey conducted in Morocco was
tivation). UNODC estimates suggest that the area under
undertaken jointly by the Moroccan and UNODC. The
cannabis cultivation in Afghanistan increased from
2005 survey reported the extent of cannabis cultivation
30,000 ha in 2004/05 to 50,000 ha in 2005/06 and
at 76,400 ha, down from 134,000 ha in 2003.9 In the
70,000 ha in 2006/07. 11
absence of subsequent surveys, data from Morocco’s
main cannabis resin export markets suggest that the
Nepal and India were mentioned by 8.5% of countries
as the main source of cannabis resin on their markets,
followed by the C.I.S. countries excluding Central Asia
8 The 2006 gross estimates ranged from 5,650 to 9,420 mt in the
United States with a mid-range estimate of 7,530 mt. Estimates of
(6%). This includes mainly the Russian Federation, the
net production (after eradication) ranged from 2,830 to 6,590 mt,
Ukraine, the Republic of Moldova and Azerbaijan.
resulting in a mid-range estimate of 4,710 mt of cannabis herb pro-
Countries of Central Asia – mainly Kazakhstan, Kyr-
duction. (Department of Justice, National Drug Intelligence Center,
Domestic Cannabis Cultivation Assessment 2007.)
9 UNODC,
Morocco Cannabis Survey 2005, Executive Summary 2005,
10 UNODC, World Drug Report 2005, Volume I.
June 2005.
11 UNODC, Afghanistan Opium Survey 2007, October 2007.
99
World Drug Report 2008
Fig. 90: Main source countries of cannabis resin,
Fig. 91: Global cannabis resin production
2004-2006 number of times countries were identifi ed
estimates, 2002/03-2006
as source countries as a proportion of countries reporting
12,000
Morocco*
7,500
Afghanistan/Pakistan**
6,600
10,000
Nepal/India
C.I.S. excl. Central Asia
6,300
6,000
8,000
Netherlands
Jamaica
6,000
Central Asia
metric tons
Albania
4,000
other Balkan***
Paraguay
2,000
Lebanon/Egypt****
0
0.0%
10.0%
20.0%
30.0%
2002/03
2004
2005
2006
* incl. mentions of transit countries Spain and Portugal;
** incl. mentions of transit country Iran
Sources: UNODC and Govt. of Morocco, Cannabis Surveys 2003,
*** Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria;
2004 and 2005, UNODC and Govt. of Afghanistan, Afghanistan
**** including mentions of Syria
Opium Survey 2007 (and previous years) and UNODC, Annual
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data.
Reports Questionnaire Data.
gyzstan and Tajikistan - are cited by 3.5% of all coun-
Production of cannabis resin in the Lebanon continues
tries as a source of resin on local markets. The main
to be mainly concentrated in the Bekaa valley. In 2007,
production area in Central Asia is the Chu valley in
Lebanese police reported an increase in the area under
Kazakhstan (and neighbouring Kyrgyzstan) where can-
illicit cultivation to some 6,500 ha (including areas used
nabis - for both herb and resin production – grows on
for the illegal cultivation of opium poppy). Given prob-
some 138,000 ha.12 (Cannabis resin accounts for just
lems in maintaining the annual crop eradication activi-
3% of all cannabis seizures in Central Asia).
ties, only 2% of the hashish crop was reported to have
been effectively eradicated.13
While the Netherlands is mentioned as a country of
origin (5% of global mentions), it is not clear to what
Global cannabis resin production estimated at around
extent the cannabis resin actually originates in the Neth-
6,000 mt
erlands and to what extent it is smuggled into the coun-
try (from Morocco and other countries) and then
Tentative estimates, based on Morocco's and Afghani-
re-exported. Though the Netherlands is an important
stan’s cannabis resin production estimates, global herb
producer of cannabis herb, other available information
production estimates and seizure statistics, suggest that
suggests that resin production is still limited. The situa-
6,000 mt of cannabis resin were produced in 2006 (range:
tion is similar in Albania which accounts for 3.5% of all
4,900 to 7,100 mt). The previous year’s estimate amounted
mentions.
to 6,600 mt (range: 3,800-9,500) and the estimate for
2004 to 7,500 mt (range: 4,200-10,700). These estimates
Overall production (and consumption) of cannabis
suggest that global cannabis resin production – after
resin in the Americas remains limited. The most impor-
many years of uninterrupted increases – may have declined
tant cannabis resin producer in the Americas continues
over the 2004-2006 period. A production of some 6,000
to be Jamaica (5% of global mentions), followed by
mt of cannabis resin results in a calculated global cannabis
Paraguay (2.5%). The latter country is mainly known
resin interception rate of 17%. This is higher than the
for cannabis herb production.
interception rate for cannabis herb (13%) but lower than
The most important cannabis resin producers in the
the global interception rate for opiates (22%) or cocaine
Near East continue to be the Lebanon and Egypt (2 %
(42%).
of global mentions). Production in the Lebanon has
drastically declined as compared to the early 1990s, fol-
lowing a number of successful eradication campaigns.
As a result, cannabis resin from Morocco and from
Afghanistan, in addition to locally cultivated cannabis,
is now also trafficked to Egypt to cover local demand.
12 US Department of State, Bureau of International Narcotics and Law
13 US Department of State, Bureau of International Narcotics and Law
Enforcement Affairs, International Narcotics Control Strategy Report
Enforcement Affairs, International Narcotics Control Strategy Report
2008, March 2008.
2008, March 2008.
100
1. Trends in the world drug markets Cannabis
Table 8:
Tentative estimates of global cannabis resin production, 2006
Seizures in
Estimated pro-
Potential sei-
Cannabis
mt (2006)
portion of sei-
zures in mt
resin produc-
zures related to
related to
tion estimates
cannabis resin
Moroccan or
in mt
originating in
Afghan can-
Morocco or
nabis resin
Afghanistan
production
West & Central Europe
638
80%
510.2
North Africa
119
90%
106.7
Near and Middle East
217
50%
108.3
Seizures related to Moroccan and
725.2
Afghan cannabis resin
Global seizures
1,024.8
Cannabis resin production
in Morocco (2004/05)
1,915
in Afghanistan (2006/07)
1,603
Sub-total
3,518
Proportion in total (based on sei-
71%
zures)
(a) Estimate of global cannabis
4,971
resin production
2. Estimate based on cannabis herb production estimates and 2006 seizures
Cannabis
Cannabis resin
Proportion
Cannabis resin
herb
production
estimates in mt
Seizures in mt (2005)
4,958
1,025
17%
(b) Estimate of global cannabis
41,400
17%
7,092
resin production
3. Combined production estimate
6,032
of cannabis resin
Combined production estimate of
6,000
cannabis resin (rounded)
101
1.4.3 Traf
1.4.3 T
ficking
raf
Seizures of both cannabis herb and resin
Fig. 92: Cannabis seizures, 1985-2006
declined over 2004-2006 period
10,000
Predictably, for such a vast illicit market: out of 170
countries and territories which reported seizures to
8,000
UNODC in 2005 and 2006 more than 99% reported
seizures of cannabis. Sixty five per cent of global seizures
6,000
cases were cannabis related in 2006. Out of all reported
global seizure cases (1.65 million) 32% were related to
4,000
cannabis herb, 21% were related to cannabis resin, 11%
metric tons
were related to the seizures of cannabis plants and 0.4%
to the seizure of cannabis oil.
2,000
Cannabis herb seizures amounted to some 5,290 metric
0
mt in 2006; cannabis resin seizures amounted to around
1,000 metric mt. In addition, small quantities of can-
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
nabis oil were seized (1,700 litres). Both cannabis herb
Cannabis resin
Cannabis herb
Trend
seizures ( -27%) and cannabis resin seizures (- 30%)
declined over the 2004-2006 period, reversing the previ-
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data / DELTA
ous upward trend.
The majority of cannabis herb seizures in 2006 were
notably by the authorities of Mexico (1,893 mt), the
reported from Mexico (36% of the world total), fol-
United States (1,139 mt) and, Canada (13 mt). Seizures
lowed by the United States (23%), South Africa (7%),
in North America remained basically stable in 2006 as
Malawi (5%), Tanzania (4%), Nigeria (4%), Brazil (3%)
compared to a year earlier but were 8% lower than in
and India (3%). Most seizures of cannabis resin were
2004. The illicit traffic in cannabis flows mainly from
made by Spain (45%), followed by Pakistan (11%),
Mexico to the USA and, to a lesser extent, from Canada
Morocco (9%), France (7%), Iran (6%), the UK (5%),
to the USA. Although much of the marijuana produced
Afghanistan (4%) and Canada (3%). Most cannabis oil
in Canada is intended for domestic consumption, cross-
seizures were made by Canada (62%), the Russian Fed-
border smuggling by organized crime syndicates remains
eration (24%), and Jamaica (7%).
a concern. These groups typically market cannabis with
very high THC levels. Law enforcement has identified a
155 countries out of 170, or 91% of all countries that
clear and growing preference for this over the last few
reported drug seizures to UNODC in 2005/06, reported
years and there is a high frequency of seizures along the
the seizure of cannabis herb. In contrast to other drugs,
USA/Canada border.
trafficking in cannabis herb continues to be mostly
intra-regional. Exceptions to this rule remain cannabis
Large cannabis herb seizures have also been made in
herb exports from Africa (mainly western and southern
Africa, which accounts for 23% of global seizures. The
Africa) to West and Central Europe and, to a lesser
largest seizures in 2006 were reported by South Africa
extent, from southern Africa to East Asia (e.g. Hong
(359 mt), Malawi (272 mt) Tanzania (225 mt), Nigeria
Kong SAR, China) as well as from Central Asia to East
(192 mt) and Egypt (101 mt). While seizures reported
Europe (notably the Russian Federation) and some can-
from Africa increased year-on-year in 2006 (41%), they
nabis herb exports from South America (mostly Colom-
are significantly lower than they were in 2004 (- 59%).
bia) to North America, mainly the USA.
South America, including the Caribbean and Central
Trafficking concentrated in North America and Africa
America accounted for 12% of global cannabis herb
seizures. The largest level of seizures in this region was
Once again close to 60 per cent of global cannabis herb
reported by Brazil (167 mt), Bolivia (125 mt), Colom-
seizures were made in North America (58%) in 2006,
bia (110 mt), Argentina (67 mt), Paraguay (59 mt) and
102
1. Trends in the world drug markets Cannabis
Fig. 93: Regional breakdown of cannabis herb
Fig. 94: Distribution of global cannabis herb
seizures, 1985-2006
seizures in 2006 (N=5230 metric mt)
8,000
7,000
Oceania
Europe 0.1%
6,000
s
3%
n
Asia
5,000
c
to
5%
tri
4,000
e
North America
m
3,000
('NAFTA')
Africa
2,000
61%
19%
1,000
0
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
North America ('NAFTA')
South America ('non-NAFTA')
South America
Europe
Oceania
('non-NAFTA')
Asia
Africa
12%
Trend
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data / DELTA.
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data / DELTA
Jamaica (37 mt). Most countries in South America,
Trafficking in cannabis resin
notably Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay and Chile cite Para-
Seizures of cannabis resin2 were reported in 115 coun-
guay as the main source country for the cannabis resin
tries over the 2005-06 period: 68% of all countries
found on their market. Seizures made by countries in
reporting seizures to UNODC. Cannabis resin is the
South America showed a noticeable upward trend over
second most widely trafficked illicit drug after cannabis
the 2004-06 period (+24%). In contrast, seizures in the
herb, it accounted for 350,000 seizure cases or 21% of
Caribbean and in Central America remained largely
all seizures in 2006. One thousand mt of resin were
unchanged over the 2004-06 period.
seized in 2006.
The largest seizures made in Asia – which accounted for
Global cannabis resin seizures continue declining in
4% of all seizures in 2006 - were reported by India (158
West and Central Europe
mt), followed by Kazakhstan (23 mt), Thailand (12 mt)
and Indonesia (12 mt). Seizures increased by 10 % over
In 2006, global cannabis resin seizures declined by 20 %
the 2004-06 period and were 60% higher than in 1996.
year on year and by 30% as compared to 2004. Most of
Cannabis herb seizures increased over the last decade in
the decline was due to a fall in the level of seizures
reported by countries of West & Central Europe (-29%
all sub-regions, except East and South-East Asia – reflect-
in 2006 and – 41% over the 2004-06 period). This was
ing a decline of cannabis cultivation in this part of the
linked to the decline of cannabis resin production in
world.
Morocco in 2004 and 2005, and there were no indica-
European cannabis herb seizures - 2% of the world total
tions of a ‘revival’ in 2006. Cannabis resin seizures
– rebounded in 2006 and were 21% higher than a year
reported by Spain fell by 31% between 2005 and 2006;
earlier, though still 27% less than in 2004 and 53%
by France -19%, by Italy -17% and seizures in the Neth-
erlands fell by 62%. Cannabis resin seizures reported
lower than in 1996. The largest seizures were made by
from Africa declined by 9%, including a 5% decline
the Russian Federation (24 mt) and the UK (20 mt)1.
reported by Morocco.
Europe is the only region which also ‘imports’ signifi-
cant amounts of cannabis from other regions. Oceania
2 In contrast to trafficking in cannabis herb, trafficking in cannabis
accounted for 0.1% of global cannabis herb seizures.
resin is not only intra-regional but, to a significant degree, inter-re-
gional, typically affecting neighbouring regions. This applies, in par-
Almost three quarters of all seizures in that region were
ticular, to trafficking of cannabis resin from North Africa (Morocco)
to West and Central Europe. Individual drug seizures reported to
reported by Australia.
UNODC in 2005 and 2006 suggest that about three quarters of the
cannabis resin seized in Europe originated in Morocco. Inter-regional
trafficking can be also found for trafficking of cannabis resin from
Central Asia to East Europe (notably the Russian Federation) and
from the Caribbean (notably Jamaica) to North America (notably
1 No UK seizure data for the year 2006 are as yet available. Data for
Canada) as well as from the Near and Middle East (via Pakistan) to
the UK refer to the year 2005.
North America (Canada).
103
World Drug Report 2008
Fig. 95: Global seizures of cannabis herb, 1996-2006
8,000
7,000
6,000
5,000
ons
t
r
i
c
t
4,000
Me
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Year
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Metric tons
3,090
3,105
2,998
4,042
4,680
4,758
4,798
5,941
7,152
4,674
5,230
SEIZURES OF CANNABIS HERB in % of world total and kg- HIGHEST RANKING COUNTRIES - 2006
-
200,000
400,000
600,000
800,000 1,000,000 1,200,000 1,400,000 1,600,000 1,800,000 2,000,000
Mexico (36%)
1,892,658
USA (22%)
1,138,832
South Africa (7%)
359,024
Malawi (5%)
271,750
Tanzania, U.R. (4%)
225,230
Nigeria (4%)
192,368
Brazil (3%)
166,780
India (3%)
157,710
500,0 1,000, 1,500, 2,000, 2,500, 3,000, 3,500,
SEIZURES OF CANNABIS HERB in kg and % - BY REGION - 2006
-
00
000
000
000
000
000
000
Bolivia (2%)
125,356
North America (58%)
3,044,644
Colombia (2%)
109,629
Southern Africa (12%)
637,228
Egypt (2%)
100,850
South America (11%)
556,244
Argentina (1%)
66,788
East Africa (4%)
225,341
Paraguay (1%)
58,671
West and Central Africa (4%)
207,820
Morocco (0.9%)
45,640
South Asia (3%)
165,709
Jamaica (0.7%)
37,199
North Africa (3%)
146,491
Russian Federation (0.5%)
23,745
West & Central Europe (1%)
63,504
Kazakhstan (0.4%)
22,869
Caribbean (0.8%)
41,381
Venezuela (0.4%)
21,302
Southeast Europe (0.7%)
38,866
(a)
United Kingdom (0.4%)
20,420
East and South-East Asia (0.6%)
33,480
Turkey (0.4%)
19,491
Central Asia and Transcaucasian countries (0.5%)
27,221
Canada (0.3%)
13,154
East Europe (0.5%)
24,663
Greece (0.2%)
12,374
Central America (0.2%)
8,263
Thailand (0.2%)
Near and Middle East /South-West Asia (0.1%)
5,968
11,865
Oceania (0.1%)
2,845
Indonesia (0.2%)
11,718
(a) Data refer to 2005 England and Wales only.
104
1. Trends in the world drug markets Cannabis
Fig. 96: Global seizures of cannabis herb, 1996-2006
CANNABIS HERB INTERCEPTED - WORLD: 1996 - 2006
CANNABIS HERB INTERCEPTED - ASIA: 1996 - 2006
8,000
400
7,000
6,000
300
s
n
s
5,000
n
c
to
200
4,000
c
to
etri
M
etri
3,000
M
100
2,000
1,000
0
0
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
CANNABIS HERB INTERCEPTED - AMERICAS: 1996 - 2006
CANNABIS HERB INTERCEPTED - EUROPE: 1996 - 2006
5,000
300
4,000
s
s
200
n 3,000
n
c
to
c
to
etri 2,000
etri
M
M
100
1,000
0
0
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
CANNABIS HERB INTERCEPTED - AFRICA: 1996 - 2006
CANNABIS HERB INTERCEPTED - OCEANIA: 1996 - 2006
3,200
20
2,400
15
s
s
n
n
c
to
c
to
1,600
10
etri
etri
M
M
800
5
0
0
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
105
1. Trends in the world drug markets Cannabis
Fig. 97: Global cannabis resin seizures,
Global cannabis r
Fig. 98:
esin – regional
1985-2006
distribution, 2006 (N = 1,025 metric mt)
1,500
North Africa
Near & Middle
12%
East /South-West
Asia
1,000
21%
North America
3%
West and Central
metric tons
500
Other
Africa
5%
1%
South-Asia
1%
0
Other
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
1%
West & Central
Other
Europe
Near & Middle East /South-West Asia
61%
North Africa
West & Central Europe
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data/ DELTA.
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data / DELTA.
Afghanistan/Pakistan related trafficking appears to be
Near East, partially replacing cannabis resin exports
increasing
from the Lebanon. In addition, shipments of cannabis
resin via Pakistan to Senegal were reported, probably
More than a fifth of global cannabis resin seizures take
intended for onward shipment to Europe. Shipments of
place in South-West Asia. Growing production in
cannabis resin were seized in several countries along the
Afghanistan is thought to have pushed up resin seizures
coast of Africa for final destination in Canada.
in Pakistan, where they increased by 23% in 2006. Even
stronger increases (more than 60-fold) were reported
Countries of North Africa seized 12% of global resin
from North America (Canada). This was due to the
seizures in 2006. The largest seizures were reported by
interception of a few large cannabis resin shipments
Morocco (9% of global cannabis resin seizures). The
from (or via) Pakistan to Canada. North America
prime destination remains Western Europe. However,
accounts now for 3% of global cannabis resin seizures.
markets in the region are also developing. Despite the
declines in cannabis production in Morocco, seizures in
In addition, resin seizures more than doubled in South-
the other North African countries rose in 2006, reflect-
Asia, mainly due to growing seizures reported by Nepal,
ing growing shipments of cannabis resin from Morocco
the main cannabis resin producer in this sub-region.
towards Egypt and other countries in North Africa.
South-Asia accounts for 1% of global cannabis resin
Nascent sub-Saharan routes (which include Mauritania,
seizures.
Mali, Niger and Chad), potentially related to these new
markets, are also thought to be developing.
West and Central Europe remains the main destination
of cannabis resin
West and Central Europe, where 62% of global resin
seizures took place in 2006, remained the world’s largest
cannabis resin market. Spain accounted for 45% of
global seizures, ahead of France (7%), the UK (5%),
Italy (2%), Belgium (1.4%) and Portugal (0.8%). Spain,
located along the main trafficking route from Morocco
towards Europe, continued to play a key role in limiting
the supply of cannabis resin for the European market.
Europe as a whole accounted for 63% of global resin
seizures.
Seizures in South-West Asia accounted for 21% of the
world total in 2006, up from 18% in 2005. The largest
seizures were reported by Pakistan (11%), followed by
Iran (6%) and Afghanistan (5%). Shipments of Afghan
cannabis resin have been increasingly identified in the
107
World Drug Report 2008
Fig. 99: Global seizures of cannabis resin, 1996-2006
1,600
1,400
1,200
1,000
s
n
c
to
800
etri
M
600
400
200
0
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Year
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Metric tons
878
818
896
891
1,051
942
1,088
1,392
1,471
1,270
1,025
SEIZURES OF CANNABIS RESIN in % of world total and kg- HIGHEST RANKING COUNTRIES - 2006
-
50,000
100,000
150,000
200,000
250,000
300,000
350,000
400,000
450,000
500,000
Spain (45%)
459,267
Pakistan (11%)
115,444
Morocco (9%)
88,280
France (7%)
67,892
Iran (6%)
59,189
(a)
United Kingdom (5%)
49,190
Afghanistan (4%)
36,972
Canada (3%)
27,730
Italy (2%)
19,202
Libya (1%)
14,829
100,00 200,00 300,00 400,00 500,00 600,00
SEIZURES OF CANNABIS RESIN in kg and % - BY REGION - 2006 700,00
Belgium (1%)
10,481
-
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Algeria (1%)
10,046
West & Central Europe (62%)
637,784
Portugal (0.8%)
8,458
Senegal (0.8%)
8,393
Near and Middle East /South-West Asia (21%)
216,666
Ireland (0.7%)
6,982
North Africa (12%)
118,524
Germany (0.5%)
5,606
Egypt (0.5%)
5,146
North America (3%)
28,007
Netherlands (0.5%)
4,622
West and Central Africa (1%)
10,426
Turkey (0.4%)
4,393
South Asia (0.6%)
6,254
India (0.4%)
3,852
Nepal (0.2%)
2,402
Southeast Europe (0.4%)
4,506
Niger (0.2%)
2,033
East Europe (0.1%)
1,499
Gibraltar (0.2%)
1,538
Russian Federation (0.1%)
1,482
Central Asia and Transcaucasian countries (0.1%)
848
Norway (0.1%)
1,460
East and South-East Asia (0%)
145
United Arab Emirates (0.1%)
1,245
South America (0%)
Israel (0.1%)
964
96
Denmark (0.1%)
953
Southern Africa (0%)
55
Qatar (0.1%)
860
Caribbean (0%) 13
Jordan (0.1%)
794
Sweden (0.1%)
692
Oceania (0%)
4
Lebanon (0.1%)
692
(a) Data refer to 2005 England and Wales only.
108
1. Trends in the world drug markets Cannabis
Global seizur
Fig. 100:
es of cannabis rezin, 1995-2005
CANNABIS RESIN INTERCEPTED - WORLD: 1996 - 2006
CANNABIS RESIN INTERCEPTED - ASIA: 1996 - 2006
1,600
350
1,400
300
1,200
250
s
n 1,000
s
n 200
c
to
800
c
to
etri
150
600
M
etri
M 100
400
50
200
0
0
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
CANNABIS RESIN INTERCEPTED - AMERICAS: 1996 - 2006
CANNABIS RESIN INTERCEPTED - EUROPE: 1996 - 2006
80
1,200
70
1,000
60
s
n
s
50
800
n
c
to 40
c
to
600
etri 30
etri
M
M
400
20
200
10
0
0
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
CANNABIS RESIN INTERCEPTED - AFRICA: 1996 - 2006
CANNABIS RESIN INTERCEPTED - OCEANIA: 1996 - 2006
200
3.5
180
3.0
160
s
140
s 2.5
n
n
120
c
to
2.0
c
to
100
etri
etri 1.5
M
80
M
60
1.0
40
0.5
20
0
0.0
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
109
1. Trends in the world drug markets
1. T
Cannabis
1.4.4 Consumption
Though the number of cannabis users
Asia has the lowest prevalence rate (2% on average),
increases, global cannabis prevalence rates
reflecting the low levels of cannabis use reported from
remain stable
East and South-East Asia (0.9%). An average prevalence
rate of 3.2% is estimated for South Asia; 3.6% for the
Cannabis is the most commonly used drug in the world.
Near and Middle East and 4.2% for Central Asia.
In 2006, UNODC estimates that 166 million people, or
As compared to the estimates provided in the World
3.9 percent of the global population age 15-64, used
Drug Report 2007, cannabis use declined in the Oceania
cannabis. The total number of cannabis users has
increased steadily over the 1997/98 to 2006/07 period.
region, in West & Central Europe and in North Amer-
However, the stability of the prevalence rate suggests
ica. Use increased in South America (Non-NAFTA
that the number of cannabis users has not outpaced
countries), Africa and Asia.
overall population growth, or growth in the number of
Although Asia has the lowest prevalence rate, UNODC
non-cannabis users, during the same period.
estimates suggest that Asia contains the greatest number
The prevalence rates are highest in the Oceania region
of cannabis users (some 51 million), almost a third of
(14.5% of the population age 15-64), followed by North
the estimated total, ahead of Africa (42 million) and the
America (10.5%) and Africa (8%) The highest rates in
Americas (41 million) which account for a about a quar-
Africa are found among the countries of West and Cen-
ter each of the total number of cannabis users. Europe,
tral Africa (12.6%) and the countries of southern Africa
with about 29 million users, accounts for less than a fifth
(8.4%). The average prevalence rate in West and Central
of global cannabis use and the Oceania region for about
Europe amounted to 6.9%.
2%.
Global cannabis use, 1997/98 – 2006/07
Fig. 101:
180
4.5%
165.6
160.1
162.4
158.9
3.9%
3.9%
3.9%
3.9%
160
3.7%
3.8%
4.0%
144.1
146.2
140
3.5%
120
3.0%
100
2.5%
80
2.0%
Prevalence in %
Million cannabis users
60
1.5%
40
1.0%
20
0.5%
0
0.0%
1997/98
2001/02
2003/04
2004/05
2005/06
2006/07
1997/98
2001/02
2003/04
2004/05
2005/06
2006/07
No. of cannabis users
Cannabis prevalence in % of population age 15-64
Sources: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data, UNODC Field Offices, UNODC’s Drug Abuse Information Network for Asia and
the Pacific (DAINAP), UNODC, Global Assessment Programme on Drug Abuse (GAP), Govt. reports, EMCDDA, CICAD, HONLEA reports,
local studies, UNODC estimates.
111
World Drug Report 2008
Cannabis pr
Fig. 102:
evalence rates per region,
Cannabis consumption in 2006 – r
Fig. 103:
egion-
2005/06 and 2006/07
al breakdown (N = 165.6 million)
20.0
Oceania
2%
Europe
15.0
18%
Asia
31%
10.0
5.0
annual prevalence in %
-
Americas
Global
North
West &
South
Asia
24%
America
Central
America
Europe
Africa
2005/06
2006/07
25%
Sources: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data, UNODC
Sources: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data, UNODC
Field Offices, UNODC’s Drug Abuse Information Network for Asia
Field Offices, UNODC’s Drug Abuse Information Network for Asia
and the Pacific (DAINAP), UNODC, Global Assessment Pro-
and the Pacific (DAINAP), UNODC, Global Assessment Pro-
gramme on Drug Abuse (GAP), Govt. reports, EMCDDA, CICAD,
gramme on Drug Abuse (GAP), Govt. reports, EMCDDA, CICAD,
HONLEA reports, local studies, UNODC
HONLEA reports, local studies, UNODC estimates.
Table 9:
Annual prevalence of cannabis use, 2006 or latest year available
in % of population
No. of users
15-64 years
EUROPE
29,200,000 5.3
West & Central Europe
22,100,000
6.9
South-East Europe
1,700,000
2.0
Eastern Europe
5,400,000
3.7
AMERICAS
40,500,000 6.9
North America (“NAFTA”)
30,600,000
10.5
South America (“Non-NAFTA”)
9,900,000
3.4
ASIA
51,100,000 2.0
OCEANIA
3,200,000 14.5
AFRICA
41,600,000
8.0
GLOBAL
165,600,000
3.9
Above global average
Below global average
Around global average
Sources: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data, UNODC Field Offices, UNODC’s Drug Abuse Information Network for Asia and
the Pacific (DAINAP), UNODC, Global Assessment Programme on Drug Abuse (GAP), Govt. reports, EMCDDA, CICAD, HONLEA reports,
local studies, UNODC estimates.
112
1. Trends in the world drug markets Cannabis
Cannabis use tr
Fig. 104:
ends as perceived by
Annual pr
Fig. 105:
evalence among high-school
experts: regional contribution to global
students in the USA and in Ontario, Can-
change, 1992-2006
ada, 1975-2007
110
60.0
50.8
%
108
50.0
in
40
38.5
c
e
106
40.0
31.7
30.3
30.0
21.9
104
22.2
r
evalen
20.0
al p
102
u
baseline: 1992 = 100
n
n
10.0
A
100
21.8
29.1
25.1
21.9
19.4
13.8
11.9
9.9
11.5
21.9
23.9
26.8
26.2
27.8
22.2
22.0
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
-
Americas
Europe
Oceania
Africa
Asia
1975
1978
1981
1984
1987
1990
1993
1996
1999
2002
2005
Sources: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data, UNODC
Ontario 7-11th graders
USA 8-12th graders
Field Offices, UNODC’s Drug Abuse Information Network for Asia
USA 12th graders
and the Pacific (DAINAP), UNODC, Global Assessment Pro-
gramme on Drug Abuse (GAP), Govt. reports, EMCDDA, CICAD,
Sources: NIDA, Monitoring the Future, 2007 and CAMH, Ontario
HONLEA reports, local studies, UNODC estimates
Drug Use Survey 2007.
Analysis of expert perceptions indicates
the same trend
USA: cannabis use among the general
Fig. 106:
population, age 12 and above, 1979-2006
An assessment of expert perceptions provided by States
Members through the ARQ reports suggests that the
30.0
60
total number of cannabis users continued to increase in
50.8
2006. The regional breakdown of expert opinions sug-
25.0
50
gests that cannabis use increased strongly in the 1990s
across most regions except Asia. Over the last few years,
experts perceive cannabis use as stabilizing or falling
40.6
37.5
20.0
36.2
40
18.1
slightly in the industrialized countries of North America,
17.2
31.5
West and Central Europe and the Oceania region.
14.8
Experts perceive cannabis use continuing to rise in many
15.0
30
developing countries of Africa, South America and
21.9
Asia.
10.6
11.0
10.2
9.2
10.610.3
10.0
20
8.5
Cannabis use stabilizing/declining in North America
9.3
8.5 8.6 8.6
7.9
In 2006/07 cannabis use stabilized in North America as
5.0
10
compared to year earlier, but the mid-term trend shows
a declining rate of growth. Between 1997 and 2007,
Annual prevalence in % of population age 12+
cannabis use in the USA declined by 27% among 8th-
0.0
0
12th graders, and by 18% among 12th graders. As com-
1979
1982
1985
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2001
2002
2004
2006
pared to its peak in 1979, annual prevalence among
12th graders showed a large decline (38%). A significant
Household survey data-series 1979-1994
decline in cannabis use was also reported among high-
Household survey data series 1992-1998
school students in Ontario, Canada, between 2003 and
Household survey data series 2000-2001
2007 (-21%). Between 2005 and 2007 cannabis use
Household survey data series 2002-2006
remained basically unchanged.
12th grade students
The prevalence of cannabis use also stabilized among the
general population in the USA (10.3% in 2006). Over
Sources: SAMHSA, 2006 National Survey on Drug Use & Health
the 2002-2006 period, data show a small decline (from
and previous years (1994, 1998 and 2001). Note: methodological
11% to 10.3%). Cannabis use has fallen substantially
changes in the household surveys may make affect the accuracy
of direct comparisons, however, broad statements about trends
over the last three decades in the United States.
are likely possible.
113
World Drug Report 2008
Cannabis use tr
Fig. 107:
ends as perceived by
Cannabis use in Argentina among the
Fig. 108:
experts in Latin America and Caribbean
population age 12-65, 1999-2006
region 1992-2006
8.0
106
6.9
105.0
105
7.0
104
6.0
103
5.0
3.7
102
4.0
4.4
101
3.0
1.9
100
2.0
baseline: 1992 = 100
2.2
99
annual prevalence in %
1.0
98
0.0
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
annual prevalence
past month prevalence
Sources: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data, UNODC
Field Offices, UNODC, Global Assessment Programme on Drug
Sources: SEDRONAR, Estudio Nacional en Población General
Abuse (GAP), Govt. reports, CICAD, HONLEA reports, local stud-
sobre Consumo de Sustancias Psicoactivas 2006, Buenos Aires
ies, UNODC estimates.
2007 and previous years.
Use increases in Latin America
prevalence of cannabis use quadrupled among the popu-
lation age 15-65, from 1.3% in 2001 to 5.3% in 2007.
Increases in cannabis use continue to be reported from
countries in Latin America. Expert perceptions gathered
Use also rising in Africa, though at a slower pace
for the ARQ’s in nine countries of Latin America and
the Caribbean reported cannabis use increasing in 2006
Over the 1998-2006 period, the cannabis use trend for
(up from seven countries in 2005 and five countries in
Africa increased more strongly than the trend at the
2003). Stable trends were recorded for 11 countries.
global level. However, the expansion of cannabis use in
Perceptions of increase for the year 2006 were reported
Africa may be losing its momentum. A total of 12 coun-
from Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, Peru, Venezuela,
tries reported rising levels of cannabis use in 2006, 9
Jamaica, the Dominican Republic, Honduras and
countries perceived the situation to have stabilized and
Mexico.
2 reported a decline. In 2005 and 2004, 16 countries 18
countries, respectively, reported increases in use.
The most significant increase in 2005 was reported from
the continent’s largest country, Brazil, reflecting a rising
availability of cannabis products from neighbouring
Paraguay. The annual prevalence of cannabis use has
Cannabis use in Uruguay among the
Fig. 109:
more than doubled in Brazil, from 1% in 2001 to 2.6%
population age 15-65, 1994-2007
in 2005.1
8.0%
A new household survey conducted in Argentina showed
an even stronger increase in the annual prevalence rate
of cannabis use, rising from 1.9% of the population age
6.0%
5.3%
16-64 in 2004 to 6.9% of the population age 12-64 in
2006 - reversing a previous downward trend. Cannabis
use in Argentina now takes place at levels similar to
4.0%
those reported in West and Central Europe. Most of the
cannabis consumed in Argentina is reported to originate
Annual prevalence
in neighbouring Paraguay, where cannabis production is
2.0%
1.2%
1.3%
expanding.
0.7%
Uruguay has also experienced an increase of use. Follow-
0.0%
ing rather modest growth in the 1990s, the annual
1994
1998
2001
2007
1 CEBRID, Il Levantamento Domiciliar sobre o Uso de Drogas Psi-
Sources: Observatorio Uruguay de Drogas (OUD), Encuesta
cotrópicas no Basil: Estudo Envolvendo as 108 Maiores Cidades do
Pais, 2005, Sao Paolo 2006 and CEBRID, Il Levantamento Domicil-
Nacional en Hogares sobre Consumo de Drogas 2007 and Sec-
iar sobre o Use de Drogas Psicotrópicas no Basil: Estudo Envolvendo
retaria Nacional de Drogas y Junta Nacional de Drogas, Encuesta
as 107 Maiores Cidades do País, Sao Paolo 2002.
Nacional de Prevalencia del Consumo de Drogas 2001.
114
1. Trends in the world drug markets Cannabis
Cannabis use tr
Fig. 110:
ends as perceived by ex-
Spain: annual pr
Fig. 111:
evalence of cannabis
perts in Africa, 1992-2006
use, 1994-2006
108
16.0
40
36.6
32.8
14.0
29.8
105.8
35
106
28.8
12.0
25.7
30
23.4
10.0
25
104
18.2
8.0
64
20
102
6.0
15
4.0
10
100
baseline: 1992 = 100
2.0
5
in % of students age 14-18
98
0.0
0
In % of general population age 15-
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Africa
Global
General population
Students
Trend
Sources: Ministerio de Sanidad y Consumo, Secretaría, General
Sources: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data, UNODC
de Sanidad, Delegación del Gobierno para el Plan Nacional sobre
Field Offices, UNODC’s Drug Abuse Information Network for Asia
Drogas, Informe de la Encuesta Estatal sobre Uso de Drogas en
and the Pacific (DAINAP), UNODC, Global Assessment Pro-
Estudiantes de Enseñanzas Secundarias, 2006-2007, EMCDDA
gramme on Drug Abuse (GAP), Govt. reports, EMCDDA, CICAD,
Statistical Bulletin and UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire
HONLEA reports, local studies, UNODC estimates.
Data.
Cannabis use in major markets of Western Europe
new millennium. The decline in cannabis consumption
shows a stabilization or decline
paralleled a growing risk perception of the potential
dangers associated with cannabis use.2
Experts in the majority of countries in West and Central
Europe (16) perceived cannabis use levels to have stabi-
Cannabis use continues declining in the United King-
lized in 2006 (up from 14 in 2005 and 12 in 2004).
dom. Cannabis use fell among the general population in
Eleven countries reported an increase in cannabis use.
England and Wales from 10.9% in 2002/03 to 8.2% of
More recent data suggests that in several of the main
the population age 16-59 in 2006/07 - a cumulative
cannabis markets of West and Central Europe, con-
decline of almost 25%. Cannabis use among those 16-24
sumption of cannabis started to decline. It is possible
year olds fell from 28.2% in 1998 to 20.9% in 2006/07,
that there is an increase in risk-awareness associated with
equivalent to a decline of 26%. The decline in youth use
cannabis use in some of these countries and that this,
began shortly after 1998, as the UK drug prevention
combined with an improvement or increase in preven-
tion activities, is leading to a stabilization. While the
France: annual pr
Fig. 112:
evalence of cannabis
effect of this is difficult to gauge, there has been some
use among the general population (age
media focus on the rising potency of cannabis in West-
15-64),1992-2005
ern Europe and its health consequences.
9.8
10.0
8.6
Lower availability of cannabis exports due to the down-
8.4
turn in production in Morocco could also have had a
8.0
7.4
positive impact. The best example here is Spain, located
on the main trafficking route between Morocco and the
6.0
rest of Europe. Following years of increase, household
4.7
survey data for Spain indicated a stabilization of the can-
3.9
4.0
nabis market over the 2003-2005 period. Spain reported
annual prevalence rates among the general population
annual prevalence
2.0
age 15-64 of 11.3% and 11.2% in 2003 and 2005
in % population age 15-64
respectively. Subsequent surveys done amongst high-
0.0
school students (age 14-18), found an 18 % decline of
1992
1995
1999
2000
2002
2005
cannabis use over the 2004-2006 period. Cannabis use
among students is now back to the levels recorded at the
Source: EMCDDA, Statistical Bulletin and UNODC, Annual
beginning of the new millennium.
Reports Questionnaire Data
Data for France also show a stabilization of cannabis use,
where annual prevalence of cannabis use fell from 9.8%
2
A study done by Eurobarometer in France suggested that the percep-
tion that occasional use of cannabis was harmless fell among those
in 2002 to 8.6% in 2005. Cannabis use in France is
15-24 year olds between 2002 and 2004 from 48% to 30%, which
almost back to the levels reported at the beginning of the
was the strongest such change across Europe. (European Commis-
sion, Eurobarometer, Young people and drugs, Brussels, June 2004).
115
World Drug Report 2008
England & W
Fig. 113:
ales: THC level of cannabis, 1995-2007/08
20.0
16.2
15.0
15.9
12.5
13.5
12.7
12
10.0
11.3
10.7
10.7
9.5
9.5
6.0
7.9
5.0
cannabis potency in %
-
1995 *
1997
1999
2001
2003
2005
2007/08
Sinsemilla
All herbal cannabis
Trend
* herbal cannabis data for 1995 and 1996 refer to imported cannabis only; ** Sinsemilla data shown
** for 2005
refer to the median results of samples selected over the 2004/05 period (14%); the median potency for sinsemilla
for 2007/08 amounted to 15%.
Sources: EMCDDA, An overview of cannabis potency in Europe, Lisbon 2004, EMCDDA, Statistical Bulletin on Drugs, 2004-2007, UK
Focal Point on Drugs, 2007 National Report to the EMCDDA, David J. Potter, Peter Clark, and Marc B. Brown, “Potency of D9–THC and
other Cannabinoids in Cannabis in England in 2005: Implications for Psychoactivity and Pharmacology”, Journal of Forensic Science,
January 2008, Vol. 53, No. 1, UK Home Office, Home Office Cannabis Potency Study 2008, London 2008.
England & W
Fig. 114:
ales: annual prevalence of cannabis use, 1996-2007
15.0
30.0
10.0
20.0
16-24
16-59 5.0
10.0
in % of population age
in % of population age
9.5
10.3
10.5
10.6
10.9
10.8
9.7
8.7
8.2
-
-
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
General population (age 16-59)
Youth (age 16-24)
Trend
Source: UK Home Office, British Crime Survey, 2006/07, London 2007.
budget was expanded and a number of new prevention
hydroponic cannabis grown from selected seed vari-
activities targeting youth became operational.
eties and propagation of female plant cuttings. Th
is
The decline of cannabis use in the UK has also occurred
material, also known in the UK as ‘skunk’ or ‘sinsem-
parallel to an increase in the potency of the drug. In
illa’3, consists mostly of the fl owering tops of female
2008, the UK Government reclassified cannabis from a
plants and is easily distinguished from the tradition-
Schedule C to a Schedule B drug. This will take effect
ally imported material from overseas markets. In
in 2009.
2002 about half the cannabis herb in the UK was
The average potency of cannabis herb in England and
thought to have consisted of traditional imports and
Wales doubled over the last decade, from approximately
the other half of skunk or sinsemilla. By early 2008,
8% in 1998 to 16% in 2007/08. Two factors were
the proportion of the more potent sinsemilla had in-
responsible for this:
creased to more than 90% of samples seized.4
•
shift away from traditional overseas cannabis herb
3 The
term
sinsemilla refers to female plant cuttings. It does not neces-
imports from the Caribbean, West Africa and Asia
sarily have to be grown indoors.
to more potent European (mainly British or Dutch)
4 The results are based on 2,921 samples submitted in early 2008 by
116
1. Trends in the world drug markets Cannabis
Germany: annual pr
Fig. 115:
evalence of cannabis
Cannabis use tr
Fig. 116:
ends as perceived by ex-
use, 1990-2006
perts in Asia, 1992-2006
11.8
8.0
12.0
107
10.4
7.0
106
9.2 10.5
6.8
104.7
6.0
105
7.8
9.0
7.2
6.0
104
5.0
7.5
103.2
103
4.0
4.5
4.7 6.0
4.1
4.1
102
3.0
4.5
101
2.4
2.0
3.0
baseline: 1992 = 100
100
1.0
in % of population age 18-59
1.5
in % of population age 18-39
99
0.0
0.0
98
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
General population age 18-59
Age 18-39
Asia
Global
* 1990: general population
Sources: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data, UNODC Field
Sources: German Ministry of Health, EMCDDA, Institute for Ther-
Offices, UNODC’s Drug Abuse Information Network for Asia and the Pacific
apy Research (IFT) and UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire
(DAINAP), UNODC, Global Assessment Programme on Drug Abuse (GAP),
Data. ( General population estimate for 1990 extrapolated from
Govt. reports, EMCDDA, CICAD, HONLEA reports, local studies, UNODC
18-39 age group)
estimates.
•
Th
e THC content of sinsemilla found on the UK
sumption fell from 6.8% in 2003 to 4.7% in 2006. In
market increased by about 50% between 1998 and
parallel, the availability of cannabis appears to have dete-
2007/08 and more than doubled between 1995 and
riorated6. The decline in cannabis use is also reflected in
2007/08. (from 6% to 16.2%: range 4.1 to 46%).
cannabis related consumption offences which declined
Th
e potency of ‘imported cannabis herb’ increased
by 16% between 2004 and 2006. Offences related to the
from around 4% in 1995 to 8.4% in 2007/08: range
import of large quantities of cannabis fell by 50%
between 2002 and 2006.7 Police data suggest that the
0.3 to 22%.
downward trend in cannabis consumption also contin-
Contributing to increased average potency is the fact
ued in 2007. The number of cannabis herb related sei-
that there have been shifts away from cannabis resin to
zures fell by 7% and those related to cannabis resin fell
cannabis herb. While cannabis resin used to be more
by a further 17%. Police data suggest that cannabis use
potent than cannabis herb, it is now, at 5.9% in 2007/08
is particularly declining for cannabis resin, less so can-
(range 1.3 to 27.8%) much lower than the 16% average
nabis herb which is increasingly being produced domes-
cannabis herb potency. There are no indications of an
tically8.
increase in the THC content of cannabis resin. Canna-
bis resin accounted for 70% of the UK cannabis market
Most of the stabilization or decline in use rates in Europe
in 2002 and has declined, probably due to the declines
was observed in larger cannabis markets. However, there
in resin production in Morocco, to 16% in 2007/08. In
has been also a stabilization among the Nordic coun-
parallel, the sinsemilla share in the UK cannabis market
tries, including in countries where prevalence rates are
rose from 15% in 2002 to 55% in 2004/05 and 81% in
still low. Cannabis use did not grow significantly in
2007/08, according to the latest UK home office
Finland, Norway, Denmark or Iceland.
study.5
In Sweden, the results of one survey, officially reported
Data for Germany also show a decline in cannabis con-
to UNODC, suggested an annual prevalence rate of
sumption. A recently released study on drug use in
cannabis use of 3.1% in 2006 among the general popu-
lation aged 16 – 64. However, ongoing monitoring of
Germany indicates a strong decline (-30%) in cannabis
use amongst the general population age 18 – 59 between
6 Cannabis resin prices increased by 7% at the retail level (on a year
2003 and 2006. The prevalence rate of cannabis con-
earlier) and cannabis herb prices rose by 14% in 2006DBDD, 2007
National Report to the EMCDDA by the REITOX National Focal
twenty-three Police Forces in England and Wales, who were requested
Point Germany.
to submit samples confiscated from street-level users. UK Home
7 Bundeskriminalamt,
Bundeslagebild Rauschgift, 2006 Tabellenanhang,
Office, Home Office Cannabis Potency Study 2008, London 2008.
Wiesbaden 2007.
5
UK Home Office, Home Office Cannabis Potency Study 2008, London
8 Bundeskriminalamt,
Rauschgift, Jahreskurzlage 2007, Wiesbaden
2008.
2008.
117
World Drug Report 2008
Sweden: annual pr
Fig. 119:
evalence of cannabis
Australia: annual pr
Fig. 117:
evalence of cannabis
use among the population age 16-64*,
use among the population age 14 and
1998-2007
above, 1993-2007
3.5
3.0
18.0
2.9
3.0
16.0
17.9
2.5
2.7
14.0
12.7
13.1
12.9
2.0
2.2
2.0
11.3
12.0
2.0
2.0
1.5
1.0
10.0
9.1
1.5
1.5
1.0
1.1 1.3
8.0
0.9
0.5
0.7
1.0
annual prevalence in %
6.0
0.3
0.0
annual prevalence
4.0
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
in % of population age 14+
2.0
Annual prevalence
Annual prevalence men
0.0
Annual prevalence women
1993
1995
1998
2001
2004
2007
* data for 2004 refer to age group 18-64.
Sources: Statens Folkhälsoinstitut, Den nationella folkhälsoenkäten Hälsa
på lika villkor, Östersund, 2007 and previous years and EMCDDA, Statisti-
Source: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2007 National
cal Bulletin 2007.
Drug StrategyHousehold Survey, April 2008.
cannabis use by the Swedish National Institute of Public
countries saw cannabis use stabilize in 2006.
Health (Statens Folkhälsoinstitut), using the same meth-
odology and the same survey instrument over time,
Overall prevalence rates fall again in Oceania
found that cannabis consumption remained stable in
2006 at 2%. For 2007, the survey prepared by the Stat-
The decrease in cannabis use in the Oceania region con-
ens Folkhälsoinstitut reported that cannabis use fell to
tinued. In Australia, the annual prevalence of cannabis
1.5% of the population age 16-64. If this is compared
use fell almost 20%, to 9.1% of the population age 14
to the peak rate of 2.2% in 2004, it would be equivalent
and above, between 2004 and 2007. The 2007 rate was
to a 30% decline in cannabis use over the 2004-2007
close to 50% lower than the rate of use in 1998. The
period. A decline in cannabis use was also observed
decline in cannabis use between 2004 and 2007 was
amongst high-school students and military recruits in
strongest amongst the 14-19 year olds, amongst whom
2007.
use fell by 28%, indicating that prevention activities in
Increasing use is being perceived by experts in several
schools played an important role in lowering cannabis
countries of central and eastern Europe. Cannabis use is
use. (School surveys seem to confirm this). There was a
reported to have increased in 2006 in Ukraine, Belarus,
20% decline in use in the 20 to 29 age group, a 24%
Poland, Slovakia and Hungary. In the Czech Republic,
decline in the 30 to 39 age group and 5% decline in the
which has the highest prevalence rates of cannabis use of
40 to 49 age group.
all the new EU countries, the market was reported to
have stabilized. Cannabis use was also reported to have
New Zealand: annual pr
Fig. 118:
evalence of can-
stabilized in Austria and Slovenia.
nabis use among the population age 15-
45, 1998-2006
Stabilization of use was reported for most countries of
South-East Europe, notably Croatia, Romania, Bulgaria
25.0
and Turkey. Increases in 2006 were reported in Alba-
19.9
20.3
20.4
nia.
20.0
17.9
The overall prevalence of cannabis use is rising in
15.0
Asia
UNODC’s cannabis trend indicator, weighted by the
10.0
cannabis using population, showed clear upward trend
annual prevalence
for Asia for the year 2006. Using the year 2000 as a
5.0
baseline, recent annual increases in Asia has been stronger
in % of population age 15-45
than the increase at the global level. The number of
0.0
Asian countries reporting cannabis consumption to have
1998
2001
2003
2006
increased rose from 8 in 2005 to 10 in 2006. In parallel,
Source: Centre for Social and Health Outcomes Research and
the number of Asian countries reporting a decline in
Evaluation, Trends in drug use in the population in New Zealand:
Findings from national household drug surveying in 1998, 2001,
cannabis use fell from 10 to 7 in 2006. Seven Asian
2003 and 2006, Auckland 2007.
118
1. Trends in the world drug markets Cannabis
The overall fall in cannabis use in Australia occurred in
parallel to some decline in availability, although this
could be unrelated to the reduction in use. The propor-
tion of people who had been offered cannabis fell from
21% in 2004 to 17% in 2007.
The attitude towards cannabis use seems to be changing.
Support for the legalization of cannabis fell from 27%
in 2004 to 21% in 2007. In 2004 still 23.2% of Austral-
ians considered it to be ‘acceptable’ to regularly consume
cannabis. This proportion declined to 6.6% in 2007.
Support for higher penalties for cannabis traffickers rose
from 58% in 2004 to 63% in 2007.
Household survey data from New Zealand also showed
a decline of cannabis use in recent years. The annual
prevalence of cannabis use fell 12% from 20.4% among
the population age 15-45 in 2003 to 17.9% in 2007.
The perceived availability of cannabis declined also
declined.
119
1.5 Amphetamine-type stimulants market
1.5.1 Summary Trend Overview
The overall stabilisation which was reported in the ATS
for 2006. While trafficking in ATS end-products
market has continued into the 2006/2007 period. The
remained primarily an intra-regional affair, there are
stabilisation has occurred parallel to some developments
growing indications that increased inter-regional coop-
which may give clues to its root causes. First, the precur-
eration and trafficking are occurring. Trafficking in ATS
sor control programmes which have been increasingly
precursor chemicals continues to be predominantly
put in place to control the main inputs to metham-
inter-regional – with the majority of precursors traf-
phetamine and ecstasy seem to be having an effect. The
ficked out of South, East, and South-East Asia.
ephedrine and pseudo-ephedrine needed for metham-
phetamine manufacture and the P-2-P needed for the
Consumption in this market has enjoyed a healthy
production of amphetamine, and the 3,4-MDP-2-P,
period of overall stability with increases slowing in some
piperonal and safrole needed for the production of
of the main markets. Expansion has slowed in Europe
ecstasy are more difficult to come by now than in the
and Asia and use has declined in North America, but
late 1990s and early 2000s when these markets were
consumption has increased in the Near and Middle East
really expanding. Second, prevention programmes seem
and in Africa. Other shifts may also be occurring. Tab-
to be taking hold, and there appears to be more aware-
leted methamphetamine is increasingly identified in
ness of the risk associated with these drugs in their major
crystalline (crystal) methamphetamine markets in South
markets. This likely has an impact on some consumers
East Asia and the substitution of licit ATS use for illicit
on its own, and on others when combined with less
ATS use has been identified in North America.
availability or higher prices.
It is clear that some of the dynamics of this market are
In some regions, manufacturers are already circumvent-
changing but difficult to say in which direction things
ing controls by substituting controlled precursors with
are moving. Stability in the market could suggest greater
those outside international controls, such as pharmaceu-
innovation on the part of organized crime and, there-
tical preparations, natural ephedra plant extracts, and
fore, a more dynamic market overall. The increase of
uncontrolled chemicals. This type of innovation has
manufacture in ‘super laboratories’ and greater inter-re-
precedent in illicit drug markets and the growing inter
gional trafficking could be part of this.
regional aspect of the ATS market (as opposed to intra
regional) will make this type of substitution more viable.
Trafficking routes continue to develop in places that lack
the enforcement and forensics infrastructure to detect
precursor trafficking. These new routes have a wide
geographical spread and include even Africa and West
Asia, South and Central America, often starting from
East Asia, or South Asia.
Effective precursor control is changing the pattern of
production as well. The contraction in US domestic
manufacture, for example, is being offset by manufac-
ture from Mexico and to some degree Canada. This type
of development probably implies that larger and more
organized international groups are becoming involved in
the trade in some areas. Distribution networks are
thought to be replacing independent dealers in some
market areas.
ATS seizures increased over the past few years but remain
below the level of their peak in 2000. In 2006 they
increased again, but only marginally. A total of 99 coun-
tries and territories reported seizures of ATS to UNODC
123
1.5.2 Production
Global ATS manufacture approximately
The ATS markets encompass two groups of substances:
494 metric mt
the ‘amphetamines group’ (amphetamine, methampheta-
mine, and non-specified amphetamine) and the ‘ecstasy
UNODC conservatively estimates1 that 2006 ampheta-
group’ (MDMA, MDA, and MDE/MDEA).2 Of these,
mine-type stimulants (ATS) manufacture, worldwide,
79% of all ATS manufactured, or 392 mt, were from the
was between 330 mt to 770 mt, with a mid point esti-
amphetamines group of substances. Trends indicate that
mate of approximately 494 mt. (Mid point estimates
global manufacture may be increasing somewhat for the
year to year are not comparable.)
amphetamines group and decreasing for the ecstasy
group. In 2004, the proportion of ATS related to
Manufactur
Fig. 119:
e point-estimates and ranges
amphetamines group was 75%. In 2006, it is estimated
of amphetamine-type stimulants:
that methamphetamine accounted for 68% of the
1990-2006
amphetamines group. This proportion has declined from
1,200
84% in 2003, the first year proportional estimates of the
amphetamine group were made. The increase in global
1,000
manufacture appears to be led by increased ampheta-
mine manufacture for the Near and Middle East.
800
While manufacture estimates are provided in a trend
600
500
480 494
graph, it is important to note that they are only compa-
Metric tons
400
312
rable year-to-year in the broadest of sense. Previous
445 478
manufacture data points represent the best available
200 70
estimate at the time of past publication and are not
revised annually. Thus, if recalculated today the manu-
0
facture point-estimate from the year 2000 would likely
change. Given this caveat, only limited conclusions on
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
the overall trend appear reasonable: 1) following a dra-
ATS Range Estimate
matic increase throughout the 1990s, it appears that
ATS Point Estimate
ATS manufacturing estimates remain largely unchanged
since 2000; 2) substantial regional shifts in ATS appear
Sources: UNODC estimates based on UNODC, Annual Reports
Questionnaire Data / DELTA; International Narcotics Control Board
to be occurring globally; and 3) changes in drug manu-
(INCB), Precursors and chemicals frequently used in the illicit
facturing and trafficking techniques are making ATS
manufacture of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances,
estimates more challenging to develop.
2007 (March 2008); and World Customs Organization (WCO),
Customs and Drugs Report 2006 (June 2007).
Clandestine ATS production is concentrated in North
1 Manufacture of ATS can only be estimated indirectly. Estimates are
America, East & South-East Asia, Europe, Oceania and
based on three sub-components: Global seizures of ATS end-products
Southern Africa
(i.e., drug seizures), inclu. seizures of ATS drugs and estimated drugs
seizures rates; ATS-related chemical precursor seizures, inclu. seizures
of precursor chemicals, estimated seizure rates and estimated end
ATS manufacture is regionally specific, related to both
product synthesis and; ATS consumption (i.e., prevalence rates),
market demand and chemical availability. Metham-
inclu. estimated users globally by drug type, amount typically used
phetamine manufacture is typically located throughout
and seizures of ATS drugs. A methodology to arrive at such estimates
was first developed in UNODC’s report Ecstasy and Amphetamines
East and South-East Asia, North America, and Oceania,
- A Global Survey 2003. The current model assumes the following
where its precursor chemicals are more readily available
globally: the average seizure rates for either precursor chemicals
and demand is high. Amphetamine manufacture contin-
or finished ATS product are estimated at 10%; the average con-
sumer (i.e., from casual use to addict) of amphetamines group drugs
(amphetamine or methamphetamine) uses 30 mg daily of active
ingredient; and the average consumer of the ecstasy group (MDMA,
2
Non-specified amphetamines are cases where States Members did not
MDA, MDEA/MDE) uses three times per week and consumes an
clearly identify of the substance seized. Additionally, a small amount
average of 90 mg of active ingredient per episode. Note, the current
of other synthetic stimulants are also included such as fenetylline,
manufacture model is not designed to account for States Members
methylphenidate, phenmetrazine, methcathinone, amfepramone,
that do not report or under-report.
pemoline, phentermine, 4-MTA, and 2C-B.
124
1. Trends in the world drug markets Amphetamine-type stimulants market
Table 10: Manufacture point-estimates and ranges of ATS, by group (in metric mt): 2006
‘Amphetamines’ Group
‘Ecstasy’ Group (MDMA,
Amphetamine-Type
Based on
(methamphetamine,
MDA, and MDE/MDEA)
Stimulant Total
amphetamine)
Point-Estimate
Range
Point-Estimate
Range
Point-Estimate
Range
Consumption
313
250 - 376
131
117 - 146
445
368 - 521
Drug seizures
439
289 - 571
59
41 - 76
497
330 - 647
Precursor seizures
423
282 - 605
116
77 - 166
539
359 - 770
Overall Average
392
250 - 605
102
41 - 166
494
330 - 770
Overall Average*
392
320 - 469*
102
87 - 120*
494
421 - 574*
*These narrower ranges are calculated on the basis of ‘propagation of error’ statistics.
Sources: UNODC estimates based on UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data / DELTA; International Narcotics Control Board (INCB),
Precursors and chemicals frequently used in the illicit manufacture of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances, 2007 (March 2008);
and World Customs Organization (WCO), Customs and Drugs Report 2006 (June 2007).
Manufactur
Fig. 120:
e estimates of amphetamine-type stimulants, by type: 1990-2006
800
700
600
494
500
90
400
113 126
113
102
300
54
63
88
126
70
200
278 291
278
266
Metric ton equivalents 100
0
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Methamphetamine
Amphetamine
Amphetamines Group
Ecstasy Group
Sources: UNODC estimates based on UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data / DELTA; INCB, Precursors and chemicals frequently
used in the illicit manufacture of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances, 2007 (March 2008); WCO, Customs and Drugs Report
2006 (June 2007); UNODC, 2007 World Drug Report (and previous years); and UNODC, Ecstasy and Amphetamines – Global Survey
2003.
ues to take place largely in Europe.3 While there is lim-
detected worldwide produced methamphetamine,
ited ecstasy manufacture in East and South-East Asia, it
making methamphetamine the most widespread of all
predominately occurs in North America, Western
the ATS. The detection and dismantling of metham-
Europe and Oceania.
phetamine laboratories is a key strategy in the reduc-
tion of ATS manufacture. Following consistent
Precursor chemical seizures and detections of small
increases in the number of globally detected ATS labo-
laboratories drop
ratories throughout the 1990s – peaking at a record
high of 18,639 in 2004 – detections fell to 8,245 in
Methamphetamine can be manufactured using a vari-
2006. While the number of clandestine laboratories
ety of licit precursor chemicals and simple processes.
detected worldwide has decreased dramatically, meth-
Manufacture takes place in industrial-sized mega and
amphetamine manufacture has not. Methampheta-
super-laboratories4 and the more common small kitch-
mine is increasingly manufactured in super or
en-laboratories. The unfortunate convenience of man-
mega-laboratories.
ufacture is such that nearly every ATS laboratory
In the absence of consistent forensic data on laboratory
3 The exception to this is methamphetamine production (Pervitine)
precursors, synthesis processes and production capacity
located in the Czech Republic.
(i.e., frequency of cycle, amount of output, and purity
4
The USA defines a mega-lab as the capability to produce 1,000 kg or
more per production cycle; a super-lab is defined as the capability to
levels), ATS precursors seizures can provide some addi-
produce 10 lbs (4.5 kg) or more per production cycle.
tional, albeit limited, information on manufacture
125
World Drug Report 2008
A
Fig. 121: TS laboratories (all sizes) reported to UNODC, by type: 1996-2006
20,000
18,639
16,000
13,436
11,253
12,000
9,781
8,598
8,245
7,404
7,028
8,000
laboratories
4,000
Number of dismantled
1,085
1,535
1,868
0
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Methamphetamine
967
1,396 1,658 7,019 6,609 8,166 9,323 10,660 17,851 12,782 7,647
Other ATS labs
118
139
210
385
419
432
458
593
788
654
598
ATS lab total
1,085 1,535 1,868 7,404 7,028 8,598 9,781 11,253 18,639 13,436 8,245
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data / DELTA.
trends. According to reports, ATS related precursor
as well as small quantities of piperonal and safrole
chemical seizures declined in 2006 to their lowest level
used in the manufacture of ecstasy.7
in five years.5 Expressed in ATS (drug weight equiva-
lents), seizures were flat throughout the mid-1990’s, but
The decline of ATS precursor chemical seizures in 2006
beginning in 2000 rose to 62 mt peaking in 2004 at a
was due to the fall in seizures of ephedrine (from 40.3
record high of 323 mt. In 2006, the amount (in drug
to 30.2 mt; a 25% decrease) and pseudoephedrine (from
weight equivalents) fell to 29 mt.
0.8 to 0.7 mt; a 12% decrease). Decreases were also
noted in ecstasy precursors 3,4-MDP-2-P (from 12,924
Global seizures of ATS precursors in 2006 included:
to 8,816 litres; a 32% decrease), piperonal (from 6.2 mt
to just 107 grams) and safrole (from 5,707 to 39 litres).
•
30.2 mt of ephedrine and 0.7 mt of pseudoephe-
The pre-precursor phenylacetic acid also decreased from
drine, suffi
cient to manufacture some 20 mt of
47.7 mt to 1.1 mt.8
methamphetamine;
These declines are due in part to increased enforcement
and changes in manufacture and trafficking. The com-
•
2,607 litres of P-2-P6, suffi
cient to manufac-
bination of effective precursor controls throughout
ture 1.3 mt of amphetamines; as well as 1.1 mt of
North America, the International Narcotics Control
phenylacetic acid (a chemical precursor capable
Board’s (INCB) increasingly utilized precursor Pre-Ex-
of producing P-2-P and thus a ‘pre-precursor’ for
port Notification (PEN) system, Project PRISM , and
the manufacture of amphetamine and metham-
successes from Operation Crystal Flow, have all stemmed
phetamine), suffi
cient to manufacture some 1.6 mt
the flow of precursors.9 According to INCB reports, the
of amphetamine; in addition small quantities of
2007 Operation Crystal Flow alone identified 35 suspi-
norephedrine (6 kg) were seized which is also used to
cious transactions and prevented the diversion of 52 mt
manufacture amphetamine;
of precursor chemicals (capable of producing approxi-
mately 48 mt of methamphetamine).10 This is equiva-
•
8,816 litres of 3,4-MDP-2-P (also known as PMK),
suffi
cient to manufacture 7.1 mt of ecstasy (MDMA);
7
Piperonal, safrole, oils rich in safrole, and isosafrole are all precursors
for the production of 3,4-MDP-2-P and thus pre-precursors for the
manufacture of ecstasy.
5 Precursor seizure source data come from the International Narcotics
Control Board, 2007 Precursors and chemicals frequently used in the
8
It should be noted that 2005 was an exceptional year for phenylacetic
illicit manufacture of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances, 2007
acid seizures. Excluding that year, there is an increasing trend in
and prior years (New York, 2008) unless otherwise noted. Mexico did
phenylacetic acid seizures.
not submit their Form D precursor seizure data to INCB for pub-
9
Project PRISM (Precursors Required In Synthetic drug Manufacture)
lication in the 2007 precursor report, however this information was
refers to the INCB sponsored multi-country task force investigating
provided in the Annual Report Questionnaire (ARQ). These seizures
precursors diversion required in the synthetic drug manufacture.
were considerable and therefore included in all calculations based on
10 Operation Crystal Flow, was a six-month operation in 2007 used to
precursors chemicals.
monitor consignments of ephedrine and pseudoephedrine shipped to
6 P-2-P (1-phenyl-2-propanone), also known as benzyl methyl ketone
countries in Africa, the Americas and West Asia. International Narcotics
(BMK), is typically used for the manufacture of amphetamine but
Control Board, Precursors and chemicals frequently used in the illicit manu-
can be also used for the production of methamphetamine.
facture of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances, 2007 (March 2008).
126
1. Trends in the world drug markets Amphetamine-type stimulants market
Reported seizur
Fig. 122:
es of ATS precursors, expressed in metric ton ATS equivalents: 1996-2006
350
323
Ecstasy precursors (3,4-MDP-2-P, safrole,
300
isosafrole, piperonal)
Amphetamine/ methamphetamine
250
precursor (P2P seized in USA)
Amphetamine precursors (P2P, phenylacetic
200
acid, norephedrine)
Methamphetamine precursors
150
(pseudoephedrine, ephedrine)
119
ATS Trend
100
62
43
54
26
22
25
50
22
39
29
0
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Precursors in metric ton ATS equivalents
Source: UNODC calculations based on INCB data and conversion factors, INCB, Precursors and chemicals frequently used in the illicit
manufacture of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances, 2007 (March 2008, and previous years) and UNODC, Annual Reports Ques-
tionnaire Data / DELTA.
lent to more than 20% of the current methamphetamine
Trafficking routes continue to develop in places that lack
manufacture estimate.
the enforcement and forensics infrastructure to detect
precursor trafficking. For example, according to recent
Tactics in clandestine manufacture changing
reports, illicit shipments totalling over 120 mt of prima-
Given the volume and availability of ATS worldwide, it
rily pseudoephedrine (and some ephedrine) were identi-
is likely that the reported decreases in seized precursor
fied as being either sent or smuggled through countries
chemicals reflect changes in manufacture methods and
in Africa (Burundi, D.R. of Congo, Ethiopia, Ghana,
trafficking routes. There is growing evidence of manufac-
Kenya, Nigeria, Somalia, Sudan, UR. of Tanzania and
ture involving precursors outside international controls
Zambia) and West Asia (I.R. of Iran), Iraq, Syrian Arab
Republic, and the United Arab Emirates).14 This amount
such as pharmaceutical preparations, natural ephedra
alone would represent approximately 80 mt of metham-
plant extracts, and currently unrestricted chemicals (e.g.,
phetamine, or one-third of current global production
benzaldehyde, N-acetyl-pseudoephedrine acetate, phe-
estimates.15 Countries in South and Central America
nyl-acetylcarbinol, N-methyl-DL-alanine).11 Several
identified attempted diversions of significant amounts
Western European countries reported multi-ton ephedra
of pseudoephedrine in 2006, including, Bolivia, Chile,
plant extract diversions and seizures in 2006. Germany
Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, El Salvador, and
alone reported an attempted 800 mt diversion.12 Twenty-
Guatemala.16 These diversions have recently been
eight per cent of the 739 kg of pseudoephedrine seized
reported in the form of pharmaceutical preparations. An
was in the form of a pharmaceutical preparation.13
unconfirmed 2008 report identified a significant seizure,
11 These chemicals are precursors and pre-precursors used in the creation
undertaken by Guatamalan authorities, of pharmaceuti-
of illicit ATS, for example: benzaldehyde can be used in the manu-
cal preparations (i.e., pseudoephedrine tablets) in a mar-
facture of either amphetamine or methamphetamine; N-Acetylpseu-
itime shipment from Hong Kong.17 Modest amounts of
doephedrine acetate for methamphetamine; phenylacetylcarbinol
is a precursor to the methamphetamine precursors ephedrine and
ATS precursors also have been seized by Argentine and
pseudoephedrine and; and N-methyl-d,l-alanine for the creation of
Costa Rican authorities. Most of these interceptions
methamphetamine (albeit a less cost-effective process). UNODC,
Annual Reports Questionnaire Data; International Narcotics Control
were likely destined for Mexican laboratories.
Board, Precursors and chemicals frequently used in the illicit manufac-
ture of narcotic drugs and psychotropic, 2007 (March 2008); Drug
Enforcement Administration, Office of Diversion Control at the 4th
International Forum on the Control of Precursors for ATS, Tokyo
preparations, and are often used in clandestine manufacture.
Japan, February 2008; New Zealand National Drug Intelligence
Bureau, 2006 Clandestine drug laboratory (clan lab) report, (April
14 International Narcotics Control Board, Precursors and chemicals fre-
2007).
quently used in the illicit manufacture of narcotic drugs and psychotropic,
2007 (March 2008), HONLEA 17th, Nairobi, Sept 2007.
12 International Narcotics Control Board, Precursors and chemicals fre-
quently used in the illicit manufacture of narcotic drugs and psychotropic,
15 Ibid.
2007 (March 2008).
16 International Narcotics Control Board, Precursors and chemicals fre-
13 Pharmaceutical preparations are drugs intended for human or vet-
quently used in the illicit manufacture of narcotic drugs and psychotropic,
erinary use, presented in their finished dosage form (e.g., pills and
2007 (March 2008).
tablets). Over-the-counter cold medicines in pill form or bulk pre-
17 Agence France Presse, “Guatemala seizes illegal pseudoephedrine from
cursors tableted into pill form would be classified as pharmaceutical
Hong Kong”, April 25, 2008.
127
World Drug Report 2008
USA: Number of r
Fig. 123:
eported methampheta-
North American (all sizes, excludes USA)
Fig. 124:
mine laboratory incidents (all sizes):
methamphetamine laboratories report-
1996-2006
ed: 1996-2006
20,000
50
17,199
39 39
16,000
40
34
29
12,144
30
12,000
10,182
23
2423
9,024
19
18
7,990
20
16
17
8,000
6,894
13
14
6,832
6,437
12
13
10
7
10
6
6
4
4,000
1,604
2
1,352
879
-
-
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Methampehtamine laboratories incidents
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Methampehtamine laboratories incidents
Mexico
Canada
ATS Lab Trend
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data / DELTA
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data / DELTA
Methamphetamine manufacture indicates global
da’s methamphetamine manufacture and role as an
shifts
exporter nation has been increasing over the last few
years. There are indications that Canadian metham-
Comprehensively enacted precursor controls which,
phetamine is intended for distribution in the UK, Aus-
inter alia, reduced the availability of pseudoephedrine-
tralia, New Zealand, Japan, and the USA.21
based cold medicines, combined with sustained law
enforcement pressure, have had a dramatic impact upon
While the number of laboratories seized in Mexico and
domestic manufacture of methamphetamine in the
Canada remains small compared to the USA, the labo-
USA.18 After steady increases throughout the mid-1990s
ratories seized tend to produce significant amounts of
the number of clandestine laboratory incidents report-
ATS end product. 15 of the 23 (65%) methampheta-
edly peaked at 17,199 in 2004. Since then the number
mine laboratories seized in Canada in 2006 were super
of laboratories incidents has declined to the lowest levels
laboratories with the capacity to produce nine or more
since 2000 and preliminary data for 2007 suggest that
kilograms of methamphetamine per production cycle.
this decline continued.19
Only one reported laboratory seized was classified as a
small kitchen lab.22
The number of detected methamphetamine laboratories
in the USA remained high. In 2006, the 6,832 labratory
The number of methamphetamine laboratories disman-
incidents in the USA accounted for 88% of all disman-
tled by the Mexican authorities has increased over the
tled methamphetamine laboratories worldwide.
last decade, with 24 reported in 2006.23 However, recent
reports indicate that production has expanded geo-
Gaps in the domestic market are being filled
graphically, and is now found in the centre of the coun-
The contraction in US domestic manufacture is being
try where previously no production existed. Clandestine
offset by manufacture from Mexico and, to some degree,
manufacture has been reported in nine of the country’s
Canada.20 Mexican drug organizations appear to be
31 states.24 The Mexican authorities have greatly reduced
circumventing chemical restrictions in order to maintain
the amount of imports of methamphetamine precursors
significant methamphetamine manufacture. Similarly,
and have upgraded import control regulations in 2008.
distribution networks have replaced smaller independ-
Mexico intends to eliminate the retail of products con-
ent dealers and are expanding in many the USA. Cana-
taining methamphetamine precursors in 2009. Despite
18 Office of National Drug Control Policy, Drug Facts – Methampheta-
21 ARQ; Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP): Drug Situation
mine; www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/drugfact/methamphetamine/
Report 2006; National Drug Intelligence Center, National Drug
index.html
Threat Assessment 2008, Nov.,2007.
19 Note, lab incidents are defined to include all counts of various
22 ARQ; National Drug Intelligence Center, National Methampheta-
types of laboratories (e.g., extraction, manufacturing, cutting, and
mine Threat Assessment 2008, Dec., 2007.
packaging), chemical dumpsites, and drug processing chemical and
23 This also includes counts of combination laboratories which produce
glassware seizures. Source: Drug Enforcement Administration, www.
both methamphetamine and cocaine.
usdoj.gov/dea/concern/map_lab_seizures.html
24 Drug Enforcement Administration, Office of Diversion Control at
20 National Drug Intelligence Center, National Methamphetamine
the 4th International Forum on the Control of Precursors for ATS,
Threat Assessment 2008 (Dec., 2007).
Tokyo Japan, February 2008.
128
1. Trends in the world drug markets Amphetamine-type stimulants market
Number of A
Fig. 125:
TS laboratories, all sizes, excluding North America reported to UNODC: 1996-2006
1,500
1,200
900
600
300
-
Number of repoted ATS laboratories
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Oceania
West & Central Europe
East and South-East Asia
East Europe
Southern Africa
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data / DELTA.
these commendable actions, reduced licit ephedrine and
In 2006, the Czech Republic reported 418 clandestine
pseudoephedrine imports are being offset by criminal
methamphetamine laboratory detections, a 60% increase
organizations' importation of derivatives of pseudoephe-
over 2005.27 This is 88% of all the European metham-
drine. Preliminary data suggest that precursor and clan-
phetamine laboratories reported to UNODC in 2006.
destine laboratory seizures may have increased in
Government reports identify methamphetamine exports
2007.25
to Germany, Slovakia, and Austria. To date, the reported
laboratories seized in Europe are small kitchen laborato-
Methamphetamine manufacture grows in many
ries, limiting overall manufacture and distribution of
other regions
methamphetamine. However, it is likely that larger labo-
ratories could exist. In 2006 EUROPOL reported
In 1996, 163 ATS laboratories were dismantled or iden-
increased exportation, transhipment and diversion of
tified outside of North America. As of 2006, that number
ephedrine and pseudoephedrine in the countries of the
increased eight-fold to 1,301 laboratories. These are
European Union. This included attempts to divert ephe-
predominately methamphetamine laboratories. The
drine supplies from Asia into the Netherlands (known
strongest growth was seen in the Oceania, Europe (West,
only as a location for the manufacture of amphetamine,
Central, and Eastern), East and South-East Asia, and the
not methamphetamine). In addition attempts were made
Southern Africa region.
to tranship ephedrine from Asia, via the Democratic
Republic of the Congo, into Belgium, probably for final
Methamphetamine manufacture in Europe
shipment to Mexico.28
is increasing
Reports of methamphetamine manufacture in East and
Europe reported the largest increase in methampheta-
mine laboratories outside of North America. In 2006,
South-East Asia are increasing
the majority of laboratories were discovered in a limited
Over the last decade, the dismantling of methampheta-
number of countries in West and Central Europe (421)
mine laboratories has been reported in Cambodia,
and East Europe (56). These include laboratories in the
China, Hong Kong (SAR of China), Indonesia, Malay-
Czech Republic (418), the Republic of Moldavia (56),
sia, Myanmar, Taiwan (Province of China), Thailand,
Austria (2) and Lithuania (1). Since 2000, several other
the Philippines, the Republic of Korea, and Viet Nam.
European countries have also reported lab seizures
In 2006, the total number of dismantled and reported
including Bulgaria, Germany, Slovakia, Ukraine, and
methamphetamine laboratories in East and South-East
the UK. 26
Asia increased to 66, due to increased detection and
reporting by Chinese authorities which accounted for
25 US Department of State, International Narcotics Control Strategy
80% of all reported laboratories in the region.
Report (INCSR) 2008, Vol 1 (March 2008).
26 The Russian Federation has only reported the seizure of amphet-
ephedrone).
amine laboratories to UNODC. It is possible that these laboratories
could produce methamphetamine. Russia reports seizures of both
27 Known locally as Pervitin.
ephedrine and pseudoephedrine which would point towards the
28 EUROPOL,
Production and Trafficking of Synthetic Drugs and Precur-
production of methamphetamine (or methcathinone as known as
sors, The Hague, 1 March 2007.
129
World Drug Report 2008
Czech Republic: Number of metham-
Fig. 126:
Number of East and South-East Asia
Fig. 127:
phetamine laboratories reported to
methamphetamine laboratories
UNODC (all sizes): 1996-2006
(all sizes): 1996-2006
500
75
66
418
64
63
400
60
49
49
300
45
248261
188
29
200
30
21
18
104
16
13
13
100
15
16 14 19 27 28 28
-
-
Methampehtamine laboratories seized
Methamphetamine laboratories seized
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data / DELTA.
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data / DELTA.
Compared to other regions the number of East and
to the northeast provinces (Shenyang and Liaoning).32
South-East Asia laboratories seized is small, however
Methamphetamine manufacture in Myanmar appears to
the production facilities detected in the region are
be increasing. In 2006, eight clandestine methampheta-
often of the super- and mega-lab variety.29 For exam-
mine laboratories were detected, the highest number
ple, in 2006 and 2007 several methamphetamine
reported to UNODC to date. As has been the case in
mega-laboratories were reported in Indonesia, Malay-
the past, most manufacture is concentrated in the east-
sia, Cambodia, and the Philippines.30 To date most
ern and northern parts of the Shan State and the Wa
mega-laboratories have been reported in East and
region. This area borders China and Thailand and
South-East Asia. The Philippine authorities disman-
exports primarily to those countries. Smuggling tableted
tled three clandestine mega-laboratories and one stor-
methamphetamine into China and Viet Nam through
age warehouse in 2006. In April 2007, police
the Lao People’s Democratic Republic and Cambodia
uncovered the first methamphetamine lab in Cambo-
remains a problem.
dia (Kampong Speu province) and seized nearly six
The Philippines remains a significant producer, transit
mt of drug-related chemicals. and in 2006, authori-
country and consumer of crystal methamphetamine
ties dismantled the largest clandestine methampheta-
(‘shabu’). In 2006, four clandestine laboratories were
mine laboratory ever uncovered in Malaysia.
discovered along with three chemical warehouses. Pre-
liminary reports for 2007, indicate the number of clan-
The Chinese authorities reported the detection and
destine laboratories more than doubled with nine
dismantling of 53 methamphetamine producing labora-
laboratories and 13 chemical warehouses discovered.
tories in 2006, a 43% increase over 2005 reports (37).31
According to reports, drug manufacture is handled by
Previously, the majority of the clandestine metham-
transnational organized crime syndicates working in
phetamine manufacture activity in China occurred in
concert with local drug groups.33 In the Philippines,
the south-eastern provinces of Fujian and Guangdong.
ephedrine is smuggled into the country by using misla-
However, controls in both provinces tightened which
belled shipment documents. It is then synthesized using
shifted production to central China, and more recently
the thionyl chloride process. Labs have primarily been
concentrated near the greater Metro Manila area, how-
29 A mega-lab is defined as the capability to produce 1000 kg or more
per production cycle; a super-lab is defined as the capability to pro-
32 US Department of State, International Narcotics Control Strategy
duce 10 lbs (4.5 kg) or more per production cycle.
Report (INCSR) 2008, Vol 1 (March 2008); Presentation by Mr.
30 International Narcotics Control Board, 2007 Annual Report (March
Zhao Wanpeng, Deputy Director of International Cooperation Divi-
2008); US Department of State, International Narcotics Control Strat-
sion, Narcotics Control Bureau, Ministry of Public Security, People’s
egy Report (INCSR) 2008, Vol 1 (March 2008).
Republic of China, “Measures Implemented in China for the preven-
31 China reported a total of 86 drug laboratories for 2006 in the Annual
tion of Illicit Production of Synthetic Drugs and their Precursors”, at
Report Questionnaire. However, it should be noted that these fig-
Conference “Europe-Asia Cooperation on Synthetic Drugs and their
ures are considerably lower than those reported by China in their
Precursors”, Paris, 6-7 March 2007.
Country Report at the 31st meeting of Heads of National Drug Law
33 Philippines Country Report, presented by Mr. Romeo Cruz, Vice
Enforcement Agencies, Asia and the Pacific (HONLAP), Bangkok
Chairman Dangerous Drug Board, at the 4th International Forum
(November 2007), which cites 132 drug processing locations.
on the Control of Precursors for ATS, Tokyo Japan, February 2008.
130
1. Trends in the world drug markets Amphetamine-type stimulants market
ever increased law enforcement efforts have pushed pro-
Gurgaon (2006).40 Additionally, the Republic of Korea,
duction to other areas such as Southern Tagalog, the
a low-level consumer nation which last reported a meth-
Bicol, and Mindanao region.34
amphetamine laboratory to UNODC in 2001, discov-
ered a mobile methamphetamine laboratory in 2007.41
Sub-regional shifts may be signs of effective
enforcement
As an additional way to determine the importance of
countries as methamphetamine producers in South-East
Indonesia has been reporting increasing methampheta-
Asia, UNODC analyses the extent to which they were
mine seizures for the past several years. Prior to 2005,
identified (mentioned) as the origin 'or source' of the
the country reported only nominal seizures, since then
seizure in information provided in the Annual Reports
however, significant seizures began appearing: 0.4 mt in
Questionnaire.42 Over the 2002-2006 period, countries
2005 and 1.3 mt in 2006. In 2006, a methamphetamine
with the most mentions were China (38%), Philippines
mega-lab of considerable size was reported to UNODC.
(21%), and Myanmar (21%), followed by Thailand
Additionally, reports for 2007 suggest police seized four
(6.4%), Japan (4.3%) and Lao PDR (4.3%).43
laboratories, two of which were crystal methampheta-
mine (‘shabu’) laboratories located in industrial parks in
Oceania amphetamines laboratory seizures begin to
Batam, Riau Islands province.35 A preliminary report
stabilise
suggests that early 2008 seizures of methamphetamine
Amphetamines manufacture steadily increased over the
may be in excess of 2006 totals.
last decade in the Oceania region, where Australia and
Malaysia has also reported increasing ATS seizures since
New Zealand seized 377 and 211 laboratories respec-
2004. In 2006, Malaysia seized one of the largest clan-
tively. In both countries almost all manufacture is meth-
destine methamphetamine mega-labs ever reported.
amphetamine-related.44 There have also been reports of
This laboratory was located in Kulim, utilized the less
methamphetamine manufacture in some of the island
common P-2-P precursor, and contained several hun-
countries of the Oceania region, including Guam and
dred kilograms of finished and semi-processed metham-
Fiji. While most incidents appear isolated, several sig-
phetamine.36 In March 2008 another methamphetamine
nificant trafficking and manufacture cases from Fiji were
mega-lab was discovered by authorities in an industrial
reported between 2002 and 2004.45 With neither the
park in Senai Johor. Arrests included nationals from
necessary legislation nor the enforcement capabilities in
Canada, Mexico, and Singapore.37 The combination of
place to prevent, detect, or seize precursor chemicals
mega-laboratory reports and increased seizures mean
there is concern over the vulnerability of some island
that production could be intensifying further south in
countries to illicit market expansion.
the region.
The stabilization of Australian domestic production is
As law enforcement efforts increase in countries where
the result of a combination of factors including: aggres-
methamphetamine manufacture is established, there is
sively pursuing the operators of clandestine metham-
evidence that production is becoming more interna-
phetamine laboratories, placing restrictions on
tional. For example, India, one of the largest exporters
over-the-counter sales of pharmaceuticals containing
of licit ephedrine and pseudoephedrine, discovered a
pseudoephedrine and monitoring such sales via Project
clandestine methamphetamine related extraction labora-
STOP. Project STOP is a system which notifies pharma-
tory in Mumbai in 2007.38 Authorities seized 290 kg of
pseudoephedrine destined for Australia and arrested five
40 UNODC, Amphetamine-Type Stimulants (ATS): Trends in South and
South West Asia (Presentation April 2007); UNODC, ATS Trafficking
persons including two from Singapore and one Mexican
Route Information and Select Seizures and Production Facility Seizures
national.39 Previous manufacture attempts have been
in East Asia and the Pacific (February, 2007)
reported in Kolkata (2003), Hyderabad (2004), and
41 Current situation and recent trends about ATS in Korea (Republic),
presentation by Jiyeon Kim, Narcotics Control Team, Korea Food
and Drug Administration, at the 4th International Forum on the
34 U.S. Department of State, 2008 International Narcotics Control Strat-
Control of Precursors for ATS, Tokyo Japan, February 2008.
egy Report, March 2007.
42 Information based on 47 mention of the origin of domestic metham-
35 The Jakarta Post, ‘Authorities promise more supervision of industrial
phetamines seized from 24 countries.
zones’, October 30, 2007.
43 Mentions of Japan as a source country reflects the difficulty in iden-
36 UNODC,
Patterns and Trends of Amphetamine-type Stimulants (ATS)
tifying source countries and transit countries. Japan has reported no
and Other Drug of Abuse in East Asia and the Pacific 2006 (June
clandestine manufacture to UNODC.
2007)
44 Australian Attorney-General’s Department: Australian Regional Situ-
37 The Star (Malaysia), ‘Mega drug lab busted’, March 8, 2008; The
ation Report 2005-06; New Zealand National Drug Intelligence
Straits Times (Singapore), S’poreans nabbed in big drug busts in
Bureau, 2006 Clandestine Drug Laboratory (Clan Lab) Report, April
Malaysia, April 7, 2008.
2007. Both sets of figures include methamphetamine-related extrac-
38 United Nations Commodity Trade Statistics Database, 2006
tion laboratories.
39 India Country Report on Trends in Precursor Control, presented by Dr.
45 McCusker, R. (2006). Transnational crime in the Pacific Islands: real
Saji Mohan and Vinod Ratti, at the 4th International Forum on the
or apparent danger? Australian Institute of Criminology, #308, March
Control of Precursors for ATS, Tokyo Japan, February 2008.
2006.
131
World Drug Report 2008
Oceania: amphetamines laboratories r
Fig. 128:
eported to UNODC: 1996-2006
600
574
588
515
511
500
387
400
300
240
200
159
137
96
100
66
58
'Amphetamines' laboratories seized
-
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data / DELTA.
cists as to whether a customer is eligible to purchase
pseudoephedrine as the predominate precursor. Opera-
pseudoephedrine-based pharmaceuticals. Piloted in
tors of clandestine laboratories in both countries also
2006, the Queensland based program, is believed to
show great flexibility in utilizing other methods such as
have partially contributed to a 23% decline in the
red phosphorus (with iodine or hydriodic acid), lithium
number of clandestine laboratories discovered in that
and anhydrous ammonia, ephedrine, natural ephedra
State. The program is being implemented nationally as
extracts, and P-2-P.50
part of the Government’s strategy to reduce the diver-
sion of precursor chemicals.46 Australian methampheta-
Methamphetamine manufacture in southern Africa
mine prices increased by an estimated 70% between
continues to grow
2000 and 2006.47 State-police reports indicate that
The number of dismantled clandestine methampheta-
purity levels rose by some 35% from 2000-2005, before
mine laboratories in South Africa increased 55% from
falling in 2006.48 This is consistent with increased con-
2005 to 2006, with 17 reported to UNODC. There are
trol activities initiated in 2006. Household survey data
no indications that South African methamphetamine
showing a corroborative pronounced decrease in meth-
(known locally at ‘tik’) is produced for export – manu-
amphetamine use in 2007.
facture growth appears to be for increasing domestic
In 2004, the number of laboratories reported by New
consumption. This is reflected in demand indicators for
Zealand authorities increased to 182, by 2006 authori-
methamphetamine, notably in Cape Town, and more
ties reported 211. Evidence suggests that manufacture
recently in the areas in Gauteng Province (Pretoria and
may be increasingly spreading to regions in the South
Johannesburg). South Africa, is one of the world's larg-
Island and is managed and financed by organized crime
est importers of licit ephedrine and pseudoephedrine.51
networks.49
In 2006, South Africa legally imported 7.2 mt of ephe-
drine and 9.7 mt of pseudoephedrine, of which 10 kg
The manufacture methods used in the clandestine labo-
of ephedrine, and no pseudoephedrine, were reported
ratories in Australia and New Zealand are broadly simi-
seized.52
lar. For example, the majority of both Australian (82%)
and New Zealand (77%) clandestine methamphetamine
laboratories now use hypo-phosphorous synthesis with
46 Australian Crime Commission (ACC), Illicit Drug Data Report
50 P-2-P is typically used for the manufacture of amphetamine, but can
2005-2006, May 2007.
be also used for the production of methamphetamine.
47 Prices were weighted by reported methamphetamine seizures amounts
51 International Narcotics Control Board, 2007 Annual Report (March
between 2003 and 2006.
2008); US Department of State, International Narcotics Control
48 Weighted by reported methamphetamine seizures between 2003 and
Strategy Report (INCSR) 2008, Vol 1 (March 2008).
2006 period.
52 United Nations Commodity Trade Statistics Database; International
49 New Zealand Police presentation at the global ISDMP experts’s meet-
Narcotics Control Board, 2007 Annual Report (March 2008); Inter-
ing, Tokyo Japan, February 2008; New Zealand National Drug Intel-
national Narcotics Control Board, Precursors and chemicals frequently used
ligence Bureau, 2006 Clandestine Drug Laboratory (Clan Lab) Report,
in the illicit manufacture of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances, 2007
April 2007
(March 2008).
132
1. Trends in the world drug markets Amphetamine-type stimulants market
South Africa: Methamphetamine laboratories r
Fig. 129:
eported to UNODC (all sizes): 2002-2006
20
17
15
11
10
4
5
1
Methamphetamine laboratories seized -
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data / DELTA.
Growth of amphetamine laboratories stabilized; but
facture of amphetamine and, to a lesser extent, metham-
locations shifted
phetamine. Europe as a whole accounts for about 92%
of the 2,607 litres of seized P-2-P reported globally in
After a decade of steady increase, reported global
2006. Because P-2-P was seized primarily in Poland,
amphetamine laboratory seizures have stabilized.53 The
Denmark, and the Russian Federation, it is likely that
number of dismantled amphetamine laboratories rose
the precursor was associated with the production of
from 82 in 1996 to 649 in 2004 before settling at 513
amphetamine.
in 2006.54 Amphetamine-only laboratories were 156
while amphetamine and other ATS manufacture
Turkey reported the discovery of 12 clandestine ampheta-
accounted for 357 (70%). Most illicit amphetamine
mine (Captagon) laboratories in 2006, the largest seizure
manufacture continues to take place in Europe, where
of laboratories the country has reported to UNODC.55
79% of the 156 amphetamine laboratories dismantled
The lab types included both manufacturing and tableting
in 2006 were found. Similarly, of the 26 countries
operations. At least two of the clandestine laboratories
reporting the dismantling of clandestine amphetamine
were located in industrial facilities in the southern city of
producing laboratories over the 2000-2006 period, 19
Gaziantep, bordering Syria. In addition, the INCB
(73%) were in Europe.
reported that 197 litres of P-2-P were also seized there in
2006; the largest seizure of its kind by Turkey in recent
Between 1996-2006 there were 918 clandestine amphet-
years.56 It could be that increased control in Bulgaria has
amine laboratories reported in Europe. The largest
led to a shift in production to Turkey.57
numbers of dismantled laboratories were reported by
the Russian Federation (526 or 57%), Poland (126 or
Outside of Europe, the largest numbers of dismantled
14%), the Netherlands (88), Germany (52), the UK
amphetamine laboratories were reported by the USA (29)
(34), Bulgaria (19), and Belgium (17). For 2006, the
and India (3).58 In previous years, amphetamine laborato-
largest number of laboratories in Europe were reported
ries were also dismantled in Canada (22 in 2000), Indo-
by the Russian Federation (79), followed by Poland
nesia (6 in 2003), Mexico (1 in 2003) and Chile (1 in
(13), Turkey (12), and the Netherlands (8). The number
2002).
of dismantled laboratories in Poland, Germany, and
Belgium declined in 2006.
55 A forensics analysis of the Captagon (originally fenetylline, reported
P-2-P is a precursor chemical used in the illicit manu-
more commonly today as amphetamine) analysis was not provide
to UNODC, however some reports identified bulk amphetamine
and tableted Captagon, therefore the assumption was a combination
including amphetamine.
53 These include amphetamine and non-specified amphetamine labo-
ratories and laboratories that manufactured multiple products; the
56 International Narcotics Control Board, Precursors and chemicals
count excludes exclusive methamphetamine and ecstasy laborato-
frequently used in the illicit manufacture of narcotic drugs and psycho-
ries.
tropic, 2007 (March 2008).
54 These figures include reports from countries which do not have the
57 Annual Reports Questionnaire; EUROPOL, Amphetamine-type
forensic capabilities to differentiate between various types of ATS
Stimulants in the European Union 1998 – 2007 (July 2007).
laboratories, thus some laboratories may include methamphetamine,
58 Incomplete forensics information suggest that the Indian laboratories
ecstasy or some other combination.
were possibly methamphetamine-related.
133
World Drug Report 2008
Number of amphetamine laboratories worldwide, r
Fig. 130:
eported to UNODC (all sizes): 1996-2006
700
649
600
529
513
475
500
319
159
156
376
400
357
161
336
85
132
300
257
115
59
200
142
272
314
330
370
357
82
97
45
244
100
198
221
16
32
66
65
97
'Amphetamines' laboratories seized
-
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Amphetamine and other ATS
Amphetamine
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data/DELTA.
As previously stated, proxy indicator of manufacture is
believed to be mainly amphetamine, is smuggled to the
the reported origin of amphetamine seizures as identi-
countries of the Near and Middle East usually via
fied (“mentioned”) by States Members. Europe as a
Turkey, Syria and Jordan.61 Beginning in 2004, large
whole accounts for nine of the top 10 counties of ori-
quantities were reported seized by Saudi Arabia. The
gin.59 On this basis, the country receiving the most
largest was 12.1 mt in 2006. This is equivalent to the
'origin' mentions is the Netherlands (67 or 28% of such
sum of all UK seizures – the biggest amphetamine
mentions), followed by Poland (41 or 17%), Belgium
market in Europe – from 2000 to 2006. It is believed
(24 or 10%), and the Baltic region (Lithuania, 7%, and
that much of the amphetamine is sourced from clandes-
Estonia, 5%). Comparing these results with those of
tine laboratories in Bulgaria and Turkey. Saudi Arabia
previous years suggests that the importance of the Neth-
also reported large methamphetamine seizures (216 kg).
erlands, Belgium and Germany as producers of amphet-
This is unprecedented for the region and could signal
amine has been declining.
the development of new routes and destinations for this
drug. Declining amounts of an amphetamine-type stim-
European amphetamine precursor seizures increased
ulant, locally known as ‘Maxiton Forte’ are found on the
somewhat over 2005. During 2006, most P-2-P pre-
illicit drug market of Egypt. Maxiton Forte used to be a
cursor seizures were reported in Poland (1,085 litres),
pharmaceutical preparation of dexamfetamine, which
Denmark (590 litres), the Russian Federation (402
used to be produced in Europe (France). This produc-
litres), Turkey (197 litres), the Netherlands (174 litres),
tion, however, has long been stopped. There are indica-
Finland (70 litres), Estonia (51 litres), Bulgaria (32
tions that Maxiton Forte today is actually
litres), and Lithuania (4 litres). Over the last five years
methamphetamine, which is produced in clandestine
the Netherlands reported the largest total P-2-P sei-
laboratories but marketed under the name Maxiton
zures in Europe; but like most ATS precursors, these
Forte. Due inter alia to the lack of forensic reporting, it
seizures have been declining (from 18,238 litres in
is not clear where this production is actually taking
2001 to 6,280 litres in 2004 and 174 litres in 2006).
place, the manufacturing techniques and precursors
Europe as a whole accounted for 92% of global P-2-P
used, or the purity of the end product.
seizures in 2006. No P-2-P was reported seized in Asia,
a notable producer region.
Global ecstasy manufacture is shifting as
Countries in the Near and Middle East and North
the importance of Europe as the main ecstasy
Africa, while generally not producers of ATS, are greatly
manufacture area continues to decline
affected by its manufacture. Saudi Arabia and neigh-
bouring countries are significant markets for the con-
The number of dismantled and reported ecstasy pro-
sumption of ‘Captagon’.60 Illicit Captagon, which is
ducing laboratories in 2006 was 55 (in just six coun-
tries). This is a 10% decline over (upwardly revised)
59 Information based on 237 mentions on the origin of domestic
amphetamine seizures from 47 countries over the 2002-2006
amphetamine.
period.
61 Limited forensics reports do not allow for the identification of the
60 Originally the trade name for fenetylline, a metabolic precursor for
specific substances in the Captagon.
134
1. Trends in the world drug markets Amphetamine-type stimulants market
Number of ‘ecstasy gr
Fig. 131:
oup’ laboratories worldwide, reported to UNODC (all sizes): 1996-2006
100
86
80
70
62
64
61
58
60
55
49
40
34
22
22
20
Ecstasy laboratories reported
0
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data/DELTA.
2005 levels (61 laboratories). The largest numbers of
Between 2002 and 2006, States Members reported that
dismantled ecstasy laboratories were reported from the
the origin of most ecstasy seizures was: the Netherlands
USA (19) and Canada (16), followed by the Nether-
(143 or 42%), Belgium (40 or 12%), Germany (19 or
lands (8) and Australia (7). In addition, some ecstasy
6%), the UK (4% and Canada (11 or 3%), followed by
laboratories were dismantled in Germany, China and
Poland, Estonia, South Africa, Bulgaria and the USA.64
Hong Kong, SAR.
Europe as a whole accounts for 84% of such mentions,
however, as more than half of all countries reporting on
Between 1996 and 2006, 25 countries reported the
the origin of ecstasy to UNODC were European (37
dismantling of a total of 581 ecstasy laboratories to
out 69) these figures have a bias. Countries outside
UNODC. The largest numbers of ecstasy laboratories
Europe which were frequently mentioned as source
were reported in the Netherlands (161), followed by the
countries for ecstasy manufacture include Canada,
USA (139), Canada (104), Australia (41), Belgium (34),
South Africa, USA, China as well as Hong Kong SAR
UK (18), and Germany (17). The number of laborato-
of China.
ries discovered in the Netherlands and Belgium peaked
in 2000 and has since declined; Germany’s manufacture
Over the period of 2001 to 2005, European seizures of
has been consistently low and the UK has not reported
ecstasy precursors (expressed in potential MDMA man-
an ecstasy laboratory to UNODC since 2002. At the
ufacture equivalents) accounted for 60% of global
same time, detections in the USA, Canada and Australia
ecstasy precursor seizures. In 2005, this proportion fell
have increased.
to 32% and, in 2006, Europe accounted for a mere
16%. North America accounted for 84% of the seizures
Beginning in 2003, laboratories were increasingly
of ecstasy precursors, almost entirely 3,4-MDP-2-P
reported in North America (USA and Canada) and
(PMK) seized in Canada. According to reports, all of the
decreasingly in Europe (specifically the Netherlands and
PMK seized in Canada has been sourced from China,
Belgium).62 Progressively, more ecstasy is being pro-
typically via marine shipment.65 This could be a further
duced in large scale laboratories for the domestic market
indication that the importance of Europe as an ecstasy
within North America. Organized criminal groups, oper-
production site is declining.
ating out of Canada, have become active in the manufac-
ture of ecstasy and are supplying the USA and Australian
ATS markets in Africa and South-America remain
markets. In 2006, all of the ecstasy laboratories identified
comparatively modest
in Canada were of the super-lab variety.63
While domestic production of ATS is very limited in
South America, Africa (except South Africa), and Near
62 A trend towards falling levels of ecstasy production in Europe has
been also identified by EUROPOL. (See EUROPOL, Production and
Trafficking of Synthetic Drugs and Precursors, The Hague, 1 March
64 Information based on 333 mentions on the origin of domestic
2007.
ecstasy seizures from 69 countries over the 2002- 2006 period.
63 International Narcotics Control Board, 2007 Annual Report (March
65 Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP): Drug Situation Report
2008); US Department of State, International Narcotics Control Strat-
2006; National Drug Intelligence Center, National Drug Threat
egy Report (INCSR) 2008, Vol 1 (March 2008).
Assessment 2008, Nov.,2007.
135
World Drug Report 2008
Number of “ecstasy gr
Fig. 132:
oup” laboratories in the Americas and Europe, reported to UNODC
(all sizes): 1996-2006
50
40
30
20
10
Number of Ecstasy Labs Reported
0
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Americas
Europe
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data/DELTA.
and Middle East, drug use surveys conducted in South
America and Africa suggest that consumption is far
from negligible. The defined daily doses (per 1,000
inhabitants) for legally produced Schedule-IV stimu-
lants in the Americas amounted to nearly 11 over the
2004-2006 period: up from around 7 over the 2000-
2002 period, as compared to between 1 and 2 currently
in Europe or Asia. In 2006, Argentina and Brazil had
the first and third highest calculated rate of use of
Schedule-IV stimulants: nearly 17 and 10 daily doses
per 1,000, respectively.66
66 International Narcotics Control Board, Psychotropic Substances 2007:
Statistics for 2006, New York 2008.
136
1. Trends in the world drug markets
1. T
Amphetamine-type stimulants market
1.5.3 Trafficking
Global ATS seizures increase
Seizur
Fig. 133:
e trend of amphetamine-type
stimulants (ATS): 1985 - 2006
Seizures of amphetamine-type stimulant (ATS) increased
48.6
50
47.6
again in 2006, reaching 47.6 mt, just short of their 2000
peak.1 A total of 99 countries and territories reported
40
seizures of ATS to UNODC in 2006, a number similar
to reports received in 2000 (96), and much higher than
30
in 1985 (40).
While trafficking in ATS end-products remains prima-
20
Metric tons
rily intra-regional, there is greater evidence which sug-
gests that increased inter-regional cooperation and
10 4.7
trafficking are occurring.2 Trafficking in ATS precursor
chemicals continues to be predominantly inter-regional
0
– with the majority of precursors trafficked out of East,
and South Asia. Seizure data of ATS end-products pro-
1985
1987
1989
1991
1993
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
2005
vides interesting insights into the relative size and
Ecstasy Group
dynamics of the various sub-markets.3
Amphetamines Group
Trend - ATS
Amphetamines account for the majority of global
Source: UNODC, Annual Report Questionnaire Data/DELTA; and
World Customs Organization (WCO), Customs and Drugs Report
ATS seizures
2006 (June 2007).
The amphetamines group constituted 91% of ATS sei-
A
Fig. 134: TS seizures, by substance type: 2006
zures in 2006. The ecstasy group accounted for the
(47.6 mt)
remaining 9%.4 For the first time since data were
tracked, growth in amphetamine seizures outpaced that
Methamphetamine
33.1%
Non-specified
Non-specified
amphetamines
1 Seizures reported in kilograms, litres and units are converted into
amphetamine
kilogram equivalents: a unit (pill) of ecstasy was assumed to contain
13.5%
13.5%
on average 100 mg of active ingredient (MDMA); a unit of ampheta-
mine/ methamphetamine was assumed to contain 30 mg of active
ingredient; a litre was assumed to equal a kilogram. Until 1999 ‘other
hallucinogens’ were included in data for ecstasy, but the proportion
of ‘ecstasy’ in the total seems to have exceeded 90% in most years
(2000-2006: 90%-95%).
Ecstasy Group
Amphetamine
2 International Narcotics Control Board, 2007 Annual Report (March
9.4%
2008); US Department of State, International Narcotics Control
40.3%
Strategy Report (INCSR) 2008, Vol 1 (March 2008); Royal Canadian
Mounted Police (RCMP): Drug Situation Report 2006.
3 Drug and precursor seizure data are subject to change for a variety
of reasons, such as new or late data being added or revisions in data
Source: UNODC, Annual Report Questionnaire Data / DELTA
already provided by States Members. For example, new data related
to drug seizures from Taiwan, Province of China, between 2000 and
2006 were added which have increased seizure totals several metric
of methamphetamine. Of the 47.6 mt reported seized in
tons in a variety of drugs classes (i.e., ATS, cannabis, and heroin).
2006, amphetamine accounted for 40%, methampheta-
Precursor seizure data sourced from INCB are also often updated in
the following year (e.g., Mexico failed to provide any Form D seizure
mine for 33%, and non-specified amphetamines for
data for 2006 to INCB). Additionally, seizure data reported in what
14%.5
appeared to be thousands of litres of “Maxiton Forte” from Egypt,
were in fact thousands of cubic centimetres, significantly reducing
5 The category of ‘non-specified amphetamines’ comprises stimulants
seizure totals between 2001 and 2006. All data reported in traffick-
where the authorities were unable to forensically identify and report
ing reflect the most up-to-date and accurate information available at
specific substances composition such as. In addition Methcathi-
printing.
none (ephedrone), Captagon (originally fenetylline, today probably
4 The “ecstasy group” includes the substances MDMA, MDA and
amphetamines) and Maxiton Forte (originally dexamfetamine, today
MDEA/MDE, although more than 90% is reported as MDMA.
probably methamphetamine) are included in this category.
137
World Drug Report 2008
Reported seizur
Fig. 135:
es of ATS, by substance type: 2000 - 2006
50
5.0
s
5.1
4.5
4.7
40
4.8
2.9
8.2
3.2
5.6
2.8
8.2
3.6
30
8.5
4.5
3.7
21.4
1.3
6.9
19.2
10.5
4.0
1.6
20
4.4
12.8
35.8
25.5
Metric tons equivalent 10
21.1
20.9
16.8
15.8
14.0
17.1
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2000-06
Average
Methamphetamine
Amphetamine
Non-specified amphetamines
Ecstasy Group
Source: UNODC, Annual Report Questionnaire Data/DELTA.
Between 2000 and 2006, the average amount of ATS
The largest national ATS seizures in 2006 were reported
seized annually was 41 mt, of this about half was meth-
from Saudi Arabia (26%), the USA (15%), China
amphetamine. Since 2002, total reported seizures of
(13%), Myanmar (6%), the UK (5%), Oman and the
ATS have been increasing. These increases in seizures
Netherlands (4%), and Australia and Indonesia (3%
(types/weight) are primarily a result of increases in
each).8 In 2006, the World Customs Organization
reporting. Specifically, reports of large customs intercep-
reported 12.1 mt of amphetamine (Captagon) seized in
tions of amphetamine (termed “Captagon”) made in the
Saudi Arabia, including a single seizure (originating
Near and Middle East since 2004.6
from Turkey) of more than two tons which was inter-
cepted at the Jordanian and Saudi Arabian border. In
In 2006, the majority of ATS seizures worldwide occured
addition, the first significant seizure of methampheta-
primarily in four regions. Patterns were as follows:
mine reported in the region to date, 216 kg of metham-
•
Near and Middle East (32%)
phetamine, was reported in Saudi Arabia.9 Oman
– primarily amphetamine;
reported more than two mt of non-specified ampheta-
mines (Captagon) – the most significant seizure of
•
East and South-East Asia (26%)
amphetamines in this region, outside of Saudi Arabia.
– primarily methamphetamine;
The USA continues to report substantial seizures of meth-
•
North America (17%)
amphetamines originating from the US/Mexico border.
– primarily methamphetamine and ecstasy; and
China reported significant seizures of methamphetamine,
and Myanmar reported more than 2.2 mt of non-specified
•
West and Central Europe (16%)
amphetamines (most likely methamphetamines).10 The
– primarily amphetamine and ecstasy.
UK primarily reported amphetamine seizures, while the
Oceania and Southern Europe each reported 4% of the
Netherlands reported a mix of amphetamine and ecstasy.
ATS seizure total. Three of the four regions above are
Neither reported methamphetamine seizures.
also major manufacturing areas. The exception is the
Near and Middle East where no clandestine manufac-
Trafficking in methamphetamine
ture has been reported to UNODC. The region is
thought to be a transit point for where major diversions
Main methamphetamine markets remain East and
of precursors of amphetamine-type stimulants are occur-
South-East Asia and North America
ring.7
While the amount of methamphetamine seized in 2006
6
Captagon is typically recorded as a non-specified amphetamine since
tablet content is changing and is rarely forensically reported. How-
8
Data for the UK reported in the 2006 ARQ refers to the calendar year
ever, data provided in the World Customs Organization’s, Customs
2005.
and Drugs Report 2006 (June 2007), identified Captagon seized in
9 World Customs Organization (WCO), Customs and Drugs Report
Saudi Arabia as amphetamine.
2006 (June 2007).
7 International Narcotics Control Board, 2007 Annual Report (March
10 Lacking forensic reports, the assumption regionally is methampheta-
2008).
mines.
138
1. Trends in the world drug markets Amphetamine-type stimulants market
Global A
Fig. 136:
TS seizures by region in metric ton equivalents: 1985 - 2006
50
Others
Oceania
40
North America
Near and Middle East/South-West Asia/North Africa
30
West & Central Europe
uivalents
q
East and South-East Asia
Trend - Amphetamines Group
20
Metric ton e 10
0
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Source: UNODC, Annual Report Questionnaire Data/DELTA; World Customs Organization (WCO), Customs and Drugs Report 2006
(June 2007).
Regional br
Fig. 137:
eakdown of methampheta-
larger on average. Over the 2000-2006 period seizures
mine seizures: 2006 (15.8 mt)
in Oceania increased more than 20-fold and European
seizures rose more than 6-fold.
Of the top 10 countries which reported seizures between
2000-2006, seven come from East and South-East Asia,
Oceania
two from North America, and one from Oceania. The
1.4%
East and South-East Asia
largest methamphetamine seizures at the global level
62.0%
during this period were made by China, Thailand, USA,
West & Central
Europe
and Taiwan, Prov. of China. China’s seizures range from
1.0%
3 mt to 21 mt (the highest recorded seizure ever), but
have more recently hovered around 6 mt. Thailand’s
Near and Middle
seizures have been declining since their peak of 10 mt in
North America
East/South-West
34.0%
2000, due to an increase in law enforcement and other
Asia/North Africa
1.4%
controls.11
Seizures in the USA peaked in 2005 and have declined
following changes in legislation controlling precursor
chemicals (specifically over-the-counter pharmaceutical
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data/DELTA
preparations that contained pseudoephedrine). Meth-
amphetamine seizures in Taiwan, Province of China,
peaked at 4 mt in 2003, and have declined since. How-
(15.8 mt) was roughly half that seized in 2000, the
ever, in 2005, more than 2.2 mt of semi-processed
number of countries reporting seizures has increased
“amphetamine,” possibly a methamphetamine interme-
over the same period by more than 50%, to 49 coun-
diate, were reported seized in the country.12
tries. This includes several countries not previously
reporting methamphetamine seizures to UNODC such
Mexico and Myanmar, both major producer and traf-
as Saudi Arabia, Georgia, and Niger. This appears to
ficking countries for methamphetamines, consistently
indicate that methamphetamine trafficking is expanding
report seizure amounts of one mt or less. Indonesia,
intra- as well as inter- regionally.
which reported nominal methamphetamine seizure until
2005 (0.4 mt), seized 1.3 mt in 2006. Preliminary
In 2006, 96% of methamphetamine seizures reported
reports suggest that significant amounts were also seized
were dominated by East and South-East Asia and North
in early 2008.
America. In comparison to 2005, the regions of East and
South-East Asia and North America reported 99% of
11 It is important to note that some countries (e.g., in South-East Asia)
the global seizures of methamphetamine. Proportionally
may inconsistently distinguish between methamphetamine pills,
low seizures were reported in Oceania and Europe in
powder, and crystal forms. While chemically the same, some report
totals as the same drug, while others do not.
2006, however, the weight/amount of seizures is getting
12 Forensics data were unavailable.
139
World Drug Report 2008
Table 11: Top Countries (rank ordered) in methamphetamine seizures (in metric tons): 2000 - 2006
Country (Top 10)
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Total
China
20.9
4.8
3.2
5.8
2.7
6.8
6.1
50.3
Thailand
10.1
8.3
8.6
6.5
2.1
0.8
0.5
37.0
USA
0.0
2.9
1.1
3.9
3.1
5.1
4.5
20.6
Taiwan, Prov. of China
0.8
1.2
1.3
4.0
3.2
1.7
0.2
12.4
Philippines
1.0
1.7
0.9
3.1
0.8
0.1
0.8
8.4
Mexico
0.6
0.4
0.5
0.7
1.0
0.9
0.8
4.8
Myanmar
0.8
1.0
0.4
0.1
0.0
0.4
0.6
3.3
Japan
1.0
0.4
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.1
0.1
3.2
Indonesia
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.4
1.3
1.7
Australia
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.5
0.2
0.1
0.1
1.0
Subtotal
35.3
20.7
16.5
25.2
13.6
16.4
14.9
142.6
Percent of all seizures
98.8%
98.2%
98.4%
98.6%
97.0%
96.0%
94.6%
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data/DELTA
The decline in the percentage of global seizures in the top
•
Smaller amounts leave Myanmar for consump-
10 countries reflects the increasing spread of manufacture
tion in the north-eastern provinces of India and
and trafficking. For example, in 2006 Saudi Arabia
Bangladesh;
reported its first seizure of methamphetamine, at 216 kg,
it was the largest in the region.
•
Shipments from Myanmar via Th
ailand to Malaysia,
Indonesia, Singapore and Brunei Darussalam;
Methamphetamine East and South-East Asia may be
•
Lao PDR (Vientiane) is a signifi cant transit point
shifting
to Th
ailand via Nong Khai and to Bangkok; also
As more national and international controls are put in
to Lao PDR (Pakse) and expanding transit point to
place – on precursor chemicals in particular - the market
Cambodia via Stueng Treng and Presh Vihar on to
appears to be shifting gradually to areas where control
Phnom Penh;
regimes are weak, leading to an increase in both intra-,
and inter-regional trafficking. There is increasing evi-
•
Cambodia (Phnom Penh) is a staging point for tran-
dence to support that this may be occurring in Asia and
sit to Poipet and on to Th
ailand (Bangkok); also to
between Asia, Oceania, North America and, to a lesser
South Viet Nam (Ho Chi Minh);
extent, Europe.
•
From China to Hong Kong SAR of China, the Phil-
Important trafficking routes in Asia are:
ippines, Malaysia, Republic of Korea, Taiwan prov-
•
From Myanmar to China (Yunnan Province); traffi
ck-
ince of China and/or Japan;
ing along this route has increased. In 2006, the Chinese
•
From Hong Kong SAR of China to Japan, Australia,
authorities reported some 55% of their total metham-
New Zealand, Guam (USA), and Th
ailand;
phetamine seizures as having taken place in Yunnan
•
From the Philippines to the Republic of Korea,
province (a transit point to the rest of the country and
Malaysia, Brunei Darussalam, Taiwan province of
abroad);
China, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, the USA (in-
•
From China (Yunnan Province) to the Guangxi,
cluding Guam) and Canada;
Guangdong, Fujian provinces, and Hong Kong SAR
•
From Th
ailand to Malaysia, Taiwan province of Chi-
of China for export to Taiwan, Province of China,
na, the Republic of Korea as well as to various other
Japan, Indonesia, and the Philippines;
international markets;
•
From Myanmar to Th
ailand, either directly or
•
Ephedrine and pseudoephedrine from India to Can-
indirectly via Lao PDR or Cambodia. Although
ada and Myanmar; also to Malaysia possibly via Sri
traditionally only ‘yaba’ (methamphetamine tablets)
Lanka;
originated in Myanmar, over the last few years reports
also show that there has been ‘ice’ (crystal metham-
•
Ephedrine and pseudoephedrine from West Asian
phetamine) production originating in Myanmar;
countries (e.g., Th
e Islamic Republic of Iran)
140
1. Trends in the world drug markets Amphetamine-type stimulants market
US-Mexico bor
Fig. 138:
der seizures of
Countries r
Fig. 139:
eporting seizures of metham-
methamphetamine: 2001-2006
phetamine: 2000-2006 (excludes North
America and East and South-East Asia)
3,500
35
33
2,894 2,881
30
3,000
30
27
2,422
2,500
25
22
23
1,880
19
2,000
20
15
1,500
1,314 1,202
15
1,000
10
Reporting seziures (#)
500
5
Seized Methamphetamine (Kg)
0
0
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Source: US National Drug Intelligence Center, National Metham-
phetamine Threat Assessment 2008 (Dec. 2007)
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire data
to Somalia and the Democratic Republic of the
phetamine traffickers in the Great Lakes, Pacific,
Congo and on to North America or Oceania.
Southeast, Southwest, and West Central Regions. They
have also introduced highly addictive crystal metham-
In 2005, the authorities of the Republic of Korea
phetamine into these markets.16
reported that 70% of seized methamphetamine origi-
nated in China. By 2006 nearly all (99%) seized meth-
Preliminary reports for 2007 suggest substantial declines
amphetamine originated in China.13
in seizures on the USA/Mexico boarder, consistent with
increased control of the Mexican authorities on domes-
In North America trafficking remains predominately
tic production and trafficking of methamphetamine.
intra regional
Among other things, Mexico has drastically reduced the
Most methamphetamine-related trafficking in North
import of methamphetamine precursor chemicals and is
America takes place (i) within the USA, (ii) from
moving to ban all preparations containing ephedrine
Mexico to the USA, and to a lesser extent (iii) from
and pseudoephedrine in 2009.17
Canada to the USA. While there is increasing smug-
Inter-regional methamphetamine trafficking is reported
gling of methamphetamine from Canada to the USA,
from other regions
the most significant problem remains the metham-
phetamine trafficked to the United States from Mexi-
The number of countries reporting seizures of metham-
can super-labs.14 According to the Mexican authorities,
phetamine increased from 15 in 2000 to 30 in 2006,
most of the methamphetamine produced in Mexico is
indicating that methamphetamine is spreading in geo-
for export to the USA. Between 2001 and 2006, the
graphical terms. While most of this expansion has
amounts of methamphetamine seized by the US author-
occurred in Europe, several new counties reporting first-
ities along the south-west border with Mexico increased
time methamphetamine seizures were identified. For
from 1.3 tons to 2.8 tons.15 This represented about
instance, Saudi Arabia, Georgia, and Niger all reported
75% of all reported US seizures in 2006. This signifi-
seizures (some very large) for the first time in 2006.18
cant increase followed the tightening of precursor
According to the World Customs Organization, in 2006,
chemical control in Canada and in the USA. Organ-
there were two seizures totalling 216 kg of metham-
ized criminal groups in Mexico have expanded their
phetamine in Saudi Arabia.19 This was the first signifi-
methamphetamine distribution networks and consoli-
cant seizure in the region. Neither source country or
dated much of the previously independent metham-
16 National Drug Intelligence Center, 2008 National Drug Threat,
13 UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire.
October 2007.
14 A ‘super lab’ is defined by the US authorities as a clandestine labora-
17 International Narcotics Control Board, 2007 Annual Report (March
tory which can produce more than 10 pounds (i.e. more than 5 kg) of
2008); US Department of State, International Narcotics Control Strat-
methamphetamine over a production cycle. US Department of State,
egy Report (INCSR) 2008, Vol 1 (March 2008).
International Narcotics Control Strategy Report (INCSR) 2008, Vol 1
18 In 2005 Argentina, Dominican Republic, Portugal, and Ukraine
(March 2008).
reported first-time methamphetamine seizures to UNODC.
15 National Drug Intelligence Center, National Methamphetamine
19 World Customs Organization, Customs and Drugs Report 2006 (June
Threat Assessment 2008 (Dec. 2007).
2007).
141
World Drug Report 2008
Global amphetamine seizur
Fig. 140:
es: 2000-2006
24
21.4
19.2
18
12.8
12
8.5
4.4
6
3.2
4.0
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Amphetamines sezied (metric tons)
East and South-East Asia
Near and Middle East /South-West Asia/ North Africa
Europe
Trend - Amphetamine
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data; and World Customs Organization (WCO), Customs and Drugs Report 2006
(June 2007).
specific forensics were reported.20
Distribution of amphetamine seizur
Fig. 141:
es, by
region: 2000-2006 (10.5 mt avg. per year)
Trafficking in amphetamine
Amphetamine trafficking continues to be concentrated in
East and South-East
Europe – but seizures rise sharply in the Near and Middle
West & Central
Asia
Europe
East
7%
41%
In 2006, amphetamine seizures were 19.2 mt, with the
Near and Middle East /South-West Asia accounting for
Southeast Europe
the bulk (67%). Europe accounts for 32%, with Western
Near and Middle
7%
and Central Europe at 27% and South-East Europe at
East /South-West
All Other Regions
5%. Small amounts (0.6%) were also reported in South
Asia
2%
America, Oceania, and East and South-East Asia. Sev-
43%
eral new first-time reports of amphetamine seizures were
received, including Iran (IR), and Nepal. Amphetamine
seizures from 2000 to 2006 increased 500%, fuelled by
the increase in the Near and Middle East/South-West
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data / DELTA.
Asia.
Over the 2000-2006 period, some 57% of the global
Amphetamine production and trafficking are concen-
amphetamine seizures occurred in Europe, mainly in
trated in Europe, making Europe’s amphetamine sei-
West and Central Europe (48%) and in Southeast
zures a reasonable proxy for global amphetamine seizures.
Europe (8%). The Near and Middle East/South-West
Amphetamine seizures increased between 1980 and
Asia region accounted for 33% although amounts in this
1997, before falling towards the end of the 1990s.
area may be underreported.21 East and South-East Asia
Between 2000 and 2006, European amphetamine sei-
accounted for 7% – all reported in 2005.22
zures more than doubled.
Between 2000 and 2006, the top 10 European countries
20 Pakistan reported a 16 kg seizure in 2004.
which reported seized amphetamine accounted for 92%
21 Significant seizure levels began in 2001. Due to a lack of forensics
of all European seizures and 45% of global seizures. Since
reporting, captagon seizures are typically recorded as non-specified
amphetamines, unless specifically identified as amphetamines. In
2000, the UK has seized 12 mt of amphetamines or
2006, the World Customs Organization reported a 12.1 mt inter-
1/3rd of the European total. The next largest seizures in
ception of captagon in Saudi Arabia, which the report identified as
Europe came from the Netherlands with 15%, followed
amphetamine.
closely by Bulgaria at 13% of all European seizures.
22 This region is not known for amphetamine production, and in 2005
China and Taiwan, Province of China, both reported large isolated
seizures of amphetamines (5.2 mt total). Regional experts believe
amphetamine due to a lack of forensics reporting. Thus, regional
that these are likely methamphetamine which has been recorded as
amounts of this specific substance may be overstated.
142
1. Trends in the world drug markets Amphetamine-type stimulants market
Table 12: Top European Countries (rank ordered) in amphetamine seizures (in metric tons): 2000-2006
Country (Top 10)
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Total
United Kingdom
1.77
1.72
1.41
1.65
1.39
2.04
2.04
12.01
Netherlands
0.58
0.48
0.88
0.59
2.03
0.63
5.19
Bulgaria
0.21
0.06
0.18
0.59
1.46
1.12
0.88
4.50
Germany
0.27
0.26
0.36
0.48
0.56
0.67
0.71
3.32
Sweden
0.10
0.25
0.33
0.33
0.44
0.42
0.42
2.28
Poland
0.14
0.19
0.16
0.19
0.24
0.46
0.33
1.72
Norway
0.09
0.09
0.21
0.22
0.23
0.12
0.32
1.28
Belgium
0.08
0.08
0.50
0.21
0.18
0.12
1.15
Finland
0.08
0.14
0.13
0.11
0.10
0.11
0.13
0.80
France
0.06
0.15
0.27
0.08
0.11
0.08
0.75
Subtotal
2.7
3.4
3.9
4.9
5.1
7.3
5.7
33.0
Percent of all seizures
86.7%
86.3%
88.6%
84.7%
82.5%
53.5%
82.1%
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data/DELTA
Amphetamines (includes non-specifi
Fig. 142:
ed amphetamines) seized in Europe: 1980-2006
10
8
6
4
2
Seizures (Metric Tons)
0
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Amphetamine
Amphetamines
Non-specified Amphetamines
Trend - Amphetamines Group
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data.
Non-specified amphetamines in Europe are more likely
labs in Turkey, some of which were on the border with
to be amphetamine-based than methamphetamine-
Syria, could have necessitated a new source of supply.
based.23 Seizures have declined slightly since their 2004
peak, consistent with reports of shortages in Europe of
One of the more interesting trends within Europe has
P-2-P24, its main precursor. This decline may also reflect
been the continuing shift of production and trafficking
indications of amphetamine (Captagon) manufacture
in amphetamine to both the new-EU and non-EU
shifting towards the Near and Middle East, the largest
States Members. In 1996, the EU-15 countries accounted
consumer market for captagon. The discovery of several
for 97% of all European amphetamine seizures.25 This
declined to 65% in 2006. The data show similar declines
when compared to the rest of the world, as greater
23 It is reasonable to assumed that the bulk of non-specified ampheta-
amounts of amphetamines are seized in the Near and
mines in Europe were actually amphetamine, since little metham-
Middle East region.
phetamine is reported in Europe save for the Czech Republic and
it surrounds. Reported in metric tons from converted kilogram
equivalents- assuming a dose/unit to be equivalent to 30 milligrams.
Excludes ecstasy seizures.
25 EU-15 refers to the 15 countries in the European Union before the
24 EUROPOL,
Synthetic Drugs and Precursors, presentation given by the
expansion on 1 May 2004. These include Austria, Belgium, Den-
EUROPOL Drug Unit at the Europe-Asia Conference on Synthetic
mark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg,
Drugs and their Precursors, Paris, 6-7 March 2007.
Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, and United Kingdom.
143
World Drug Report 2008
Pr
Fig. 143:
oportion of amphetamine seizures in EU-15 countries versus all European countries and
global total: 1996 – 2006
100%
80%
60%
40%
Seziures (%)
20%
0%
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
EU15 Proportion to Europe
EU15 Proportion to World
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data.
Trafficking in the amphetamines group
(Bulgaria and Turkey) and trafficked and marketed as
Captagon to Near and Middle East countries. Saudi
Overall amphetamines seizures remain concentrated in
Arabia is the largest such market in the region. Capta-
South-East Asia, North America and Europe
gon typically transits over land through Turkey, Syria,
Many countries continue to have difficulties with foren-
and Jordan before arriving in Saudi Arabia.26 The grow-
sic identification and reporting of seized substances.
ing seizure volume appears inconsistent given the small
Therefore, it is helpful to examine synthetic stimulants
number of clandestine laboratories reported by authori-
within the broader amphetamines group (i.e., ampheta-
ties in Bulgaria (3) and Turkey (12) in 2006. Addition-
mine, methamphetamine, and non-specified ampheta-
ally, Oman reported seizing more than two mt of
mine). Within this context seizure statistics suggest that
non-specified amphetamines (i.e., Captagon) destined
global trafficking in amphetamines increased strongly in
for Saudi Arabia – the second most significant seizure of
the mid 1990s, peaking in 2000. Seizures have been
amphetamines in this region. The trafficking of large
climbing again since 2002, driven largely by reports
from the Near and Middle East.
volumes of methamphetamines through the region to an
as yet undetermined market is cause for concern.
Global seizures increased again in 2006, almost reaching
2000 levels. Seizure data suggest that the dominance of
the South East Asian market, historically the main
amphetamines group market, may be in decline. In
2000, South-East Asia accounted for 81% of the 43.6
mt of amphetamines seized globally. By 2006, that
amount dropped to 28% (12 mt), with rising seizures in
the Near and Middle East (15 mt or 35%). North
America accounted for (15%) and West and Central
Europe (13%) of the 2006 total.
With significant seizures reported in the Near and
Middle East
The extremely large amount of seizures reported from
the Near and Middle East region points to the need for
further analysis on sources, forensic information and
destinations. Saudi Arabia reported a seizure of 12.1 mt
in 2006, equivalent to the sum of all UK seizures, the
biggest amphetamine market in Europe, from 2000 to
26 ARQ; World Customs Organization (WCO), Customs and Drugs
Report 2006 (June 2007). Additionally, there are reports of Saudi
2006. Amphetamine tablets for the Near and Middle
Arabia seizures originating from the United Arab Emirates and Leba-
East have typically been produced in Southeast Europe
non.
144
1. Trends in the world drug markets Amphetamine-type stimulants market
Global seizur
Fig. 144:
es of the amphetamines group, by region: 1985 - 2006
50
s
40
30
20
Metric ton equivalent
10
0
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
East and South-East Asia
West & Central Europe
Near and Middle East /South-West Asia/ North Africa
North America
Oceania
Others
Trend - Amphetamines Group
Source: UNODC, Annual Report Questionnaire Data/DELTA; and World Customs Organization (WCO), Customs and Drugs Report 2006
(June 2007).
Regional shifts in amphetamines gr
Fig. 145:
oup seizures: 2000 - 2006
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
Amphetamines seizures (%)
0%
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Near and Middle East /South-West Asia/ North Africa
East and South-East Asia
Source: UNODC, Annual Report Questionnaire Data/DELTA; and World Customs Organization (WCO), Customs and Drugs Report 2006
(June 2007).
145
World Drug Report 2008
Global seizur
Fig. 146:
es of amphetamines(a), 1996 - 2006
50
)
40
(b
nts
l
e
v
a
30
qui
c
ton e
20
tri
e
M
10
0
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
(a) Amphetamine, methamphetamine and related stimulants.
(b) 1 unit is assumed to be equal to 30 mg; 1 litre is assumed to be equal to 1 kg.
Year
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Metric ton
equivalents(e)
10
15
14
33
44
26
23
37
30
41
43
SEIZURES OF AMPHETAMINES (a) in % of world total and kg equivalents (b)
-
2,000
4,000
6,000
8,000
HIGHEST RANKING COUNTRIES - 2006
10,000
12,000
14,000
Saudi Arabia (28%)
12,267
China (14%)
6,074
USA (13%)
5,786
Myanmar (7%)
2,821
(c)
United Kingdom (5%)
2,038
Oman (5%)
2,022
Indonesia (3%)
1,255
(d)
Australia (2%)
1,038
Bulgaria (2%)
876
SEIZURES OF AMPHETAMINES (a) in kg equivalents (b)
and % BY REGION - 2006
Philippines (2%)
767
Near and Middle East /South-West Asia
15,039
Mexico (2%)
753
(35%)
Turkey (2%)
729
East and South-East Asia (28%)
12,132
Germany (2%)
723
North America (15%)
6,599
Netherlands (1%)
634
West & Central Europe (13%)
5,556
Thailand (1%)
600
Nigeria (1%)
516
Southeast Europe (4%)
1,620
Sweden (1%)
460
Oceania (3%)
1,231
Norway (0.9%)
387
West and Central Africa (1%)
518
Poland (0.8%)
332
Southern Africa (0.7%)
Jordan (0.8%)
328
315
South Africa (0.7%)
315
East Europe (0.3%)
111
Syria (0.6%)
273
59
South America (0.1%)
Spain (0.5%)
198
Central Asia and Transcaucasian countries
2
Taiwan, Prov. of China (0.5%)
196
(0%)
(a) Amphetamine, methamphetamine and related stimulants (excludes ecstasy group substances).
(b) 1 unit is assumed to be equal to 30 mg; 1 litre is assumed to be equal to 1 kg.
(c) Data refer to 2005 England and Wales only.
(d) Total seizures reported by national as well as state & territory law enforcement agencies which may result in double counting.
(e) Total metric ton seizures between 2002 and 2005 were revised to reflect the addition of data from Taiwan, Province of China.
146
1. Trends in the world drug markets Amphetamine-type stimulants market
Inter
Fig. 147:
ception of amphetamines, 1995 - 2006
AMPHETAMINES INTERCEPTED - WORLD: 1996 - 2006
AMPHETAMINES INTERCEPTED - ASIA: 1996 - 2006
50
40
40
30
30
equivalents
equivalents
n 20
n
o
o 20
tric t
tric t
e
e
10
M
M 10
0
0
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
AMPHETAMINES INTERCEPTED - AMERICAS: 1996 - 2006
AMPHETAMINES INTERCEPTED - EUROPE: 1996 - 2006
7
10
6
8
5
6
4
equivalents
equivalents
n
n
o
3
o
4
tric t
2
tric t
e
e
M
M
2
1
0
0
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
AMPHETAMINES INTERCEPTED - AFRICA*: 1996 - 2006
AMPHETAMINES INTERCEPTED - OCEANIA: 1996 - 2006
2.5
1.5
2.0
1.2
1.5
0.9
equivalents
n
o
1.0
0.6
tric t
e
Metric ton equivalents
M
0.5
0.3
0.0
0.0
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Increase in 2001 due to huge seizures of Maxiton Forte in Egypt
(reported in litres); conversion rate used: 1 litre = 1 kg
147
1. Trends in the world drug markets Amphetamine-type stimulants market
Trafficking in Ecstasy
ania's proportion increased from 1% to 12%, Southeast
Europe and East and South-East Asian both went from
Ecstasy seizures continued to decline in 2006; regional
negligible seizures to 6% and 3% of global totals, respec-
shifts continue
tively. Additionally, the number of countries which
In 2006, 4.5 mt of ecstasy were reported seized, which
reported seizures has more than doubled: 32 counties
continues the declining trend begun in 2004.27 This
reported seizures in 1995, while in 2006 the number
trend is also consistent with ecstasy manufacturing esti-
reached 78.
mates which suggest a decline. The largest seizures over
North America and Oceania gain in importance
the 2000-2006 period were reported from the countries
of West and Central Europe (51%), followed by North
Europe remains a main illicit manufacturing region for
America (22%), the Oceania region (14%), and East
MDMA globally, with the Netherlands and Belgium the
and South-East Asia (8%). During this time a total of
most commonly cited 'source' countries. However, as
39 mt of ecstasy were seized. The largest ecstasy seizures
manufacture continues to shift and spread, the impor-
in 2006 were reported by the USA (26%), followed
tance of these territories as source countries is declining.
closely by the Netherlands (24%), then Australia (12%),
A shift in ecstasy labs has been identified since 2003,
Canada (8%), the UK (7%), Turkey (4%) and France
with an increase in North American labs (USA and
(3%).28
Canada) and a decrease in European labs (principally
the Netherlands and Belgium). In 2006, all of the ecstasy
Despite the dominance of West and Central Europe in
laboratories identified in Canada were of the super-lab
the ecstasy trade, the general trend has been towards an
variety.29
increase in ecstasy production, trafficking and abuse
outside this region. This is clearly reflected in seizure
Ecstasy manufacture is becoming increasingly sophisti-
statistics. The share of West and Central Europe in
cated, characterized by greater efficiency in manufac-
global ecstasy seizures fell from 79% in 1995 to 43% in
ture, more specialized staff, and facilitators.30 In Europe,
2006. As the proportions in West and Central Europe
ecstasy trafficking is conducted by many small traffick-
declined, several other regions showed increases. For
ing groups of various nationalities. Ecstasy is typically
example, in 1995 North America accounted for 20% of
sourced primarily in the Netherlands, Belgium before
ecstasy seizures, rising to 34% by 2006. Similarly, Oce-
being trafficked to its final destination.31
Global ecstasy seizur
Fig. 148:
es: 1995 - 2006
9
8.2
8
6.9
6
5.0
4.7
4.8
5.1
4.5
4.5
5
Seized (metric tons)
3
2.2
1.5
2
1.0
1.0
0
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Ecstasy
Trends- Ecstasy
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data / DELTA.
29 US Department of State, International Narcotics Control Strategy
Report (INCSR) 2008, Vol 1 (March 2008).
30 EUROPOL, Synthetic Drugs and Precursors, presentation given by
27 A reported pill of ecstasy was assumed to contain on average 100 mg
the EUROPOL Drug Unit to the Europe-Asia Conference, Paris,
of MDMA.
6-7 March 2007.
28 Data for the UK refer to 2004; 2004 data are used as proxy for 2005
31 German Narcotica Drugs Annual Report 2007, Bundeskriminalamt,
seizures.
(Wiesbaden, 2008)
149
World Drug Report 2008
Changes pr
Fig. 149:
oportions of ecstasy seized, by region: 1995 and 2006
Southeast
North America
Europe
34%
6%
Oceania
West &
North
America
12%
Central
Oceania
Europe
20%
1%
79%
East and South-
West & Central
East Asia
Europe
2%
44%
Others
0%
Others
2%
Ecstasy Seized: 1995
Ecstasy Seized: 2006
(1 Metric ton)
(4.5 Metric tons)
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data / DELTA.
Trafficking of ecstasy from Europe to North America
Oceania remains an important destination country
and some other regions was controlled by criminal
for ecstasy
groups of Israeli origin.32 However, the importance of
According to Australian authorities the main origin
these trafficking groups was significantly reduced by law
countries in 2005/06 for shipments of ecstasy to Aus-
enforcement in 2002. Canada-based Asian criminal
tralia were, in order of weight, Canada, Belgium, the
organizations are now the principal suppliers to the US.
UK and France. However, the largest ecstasy importa-
Reports find that they have largely reconstituted the
tion to Australia of 1.2 million Ecstasy tablets sourced
ecstasy market and have greatly increased manufacture
in Canada, arrived via Hong Kong, SAR, which may
in Canada and distribution operations in several US
indicate an increase in Asian organised crime connec-
cities.33 This is reflected in US seizure statistics, which
tion.35
report declining ecstasy seizures along the east coast, and
increasing seizures along the Canadian border. In 2005
the Canadian authorities reported that 85% of the
ecstasy seized was domestically produced and 15% came
from Europe. By 2006, they reported 99% domestically
produced with only 1% being imported from Europe.
Reports from the Canadian authorities also find that
only super-lab capacity ecstasy labs—termed ‘economic-
based’ labs—are now found in Canada.34 Controlled by
sophisticated organized crime groups, end products
from these labs have been trafficked as far as Australia
and Colombia via air, postal, and marine routes. Many
recent shipments were found to have included multiple
drugs and precursors chemicals, such as ecstasy with
marijuana, cocaine, and/or ephedrine to other coun-
tries.
32 US Department of State, International Narcotics Control Strategy
Report (INCSR) 2008, Vol 1 (March 2008).
33 US National Drug Intelligence Center, 2008 National Drug Threat
Assessment, October 2007.
34 Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP): Drug Situation Report
35 Australian Crime Commission, Illicit Drug Data Report 2005/06,
2006.
Canberra 2007.
150
1. Trends in the world drug markets Amphetamine-type stimulants market
Changes pr
Fig. 150:
oportions of ecstasy seized, by region: 1995 and 2006
9,000
8,000
)
(b
7,000
nts
l
e
6,000
5,000
quiva
m e
4,000
3,000
Kilogra
2,000
1,000
0
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
(a) Separate reporting of 'Ecstasy' seizures only started with the new ARQ. Before, Ecstasy seizures were included under the
category of 'hallucinogens'. Trend data shown above refer to the broader category for 1996-1999 and for Ecstasy for 2000-
2006. Over the 2000-2006 period, Ecstasy accounted for 93% of the broader category.
(b) 1 unit is assumed to be equivalent to 100mg of MDMA.
Year
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Kilogram
1,461 2,222
951 4,651 4,993 4,537 6,865 4,811
8,209
5,132
4,460
equivalents
SEIZURES(a) OF ECSTASY in kg equivalents and in % of world total
0.000
200.000
400.000
600.000
HIGHEST RANKING COUNTRIES - 2006 800.000
1000.000
1200.000
USA (26%)
1,140
Netherlands (24%)
1,076
(b)
Australia (12%)
536
Canada (8%)
366
(c)
United Kingdom (7%)
295
Turkey (4%)
159
France (3%)
149
SEIZURES(a) OF ECSTASY (KG equivalents and %) BY
Germany (2%)
108
REGION - 2006
Bulgaria (2%)
80
West & Central Europe (43%)
1,928
Belgium (1%)
48
North America (34%)
1,532
Spain (1%)
48
China (1%)
45
Oceania (12%)
537
Hungary (0.9%)
39
Southeast Europe (6%)
262
Russian Federation (0.8%)
34
East and South-East Asia (2%)
106
Sweden (0.7%)
29
East Europe (1%)
44
Mexico (0.6%)
26
Malaysia (0.5%)
24
Southern Africa (0.5%)
23
South Africa (0.5%)
23
Caribbean (0.3%)
14
Switzerland (0.5%)
22
South America (0.2%)
7
reported
by
** data refer to Italy (0.5%)
21
2003.
West and Central Africa (0.1%)
4
Japan (0.4%)
20
Serbia & Montenegro (0.4%)
North Africa (0%)
1
19
(a) Seizures as reported (street purity); units converted into weight equivalents (100mg / unit)
(b) Total seizures reported by national as well as state & territory law enforcement agencies which may result in double counting.
(c) Data refer to 2005 England and Wales only.
151
1. Trends in the world drug markets
1. T
Amphetamine-type stimulants market
1.5.4 Consumption
Amphetamines and
Methamphetamine consumption dominates ATS use3
related synthetic stimulants
at the global level
Amphetamines group users are three-times the number
UNODC conservatively estimates, that there are
of ecstasy users
between 15 and 16 million methamphetamine users
worldwide, a figure similar to that for heroin or cocaine
An estimated 24.7 million people in the world, equiva-
at the global level. The number of amphetamine users is
lent to 0.6% of the population age 15-64 consumed
estimated to be lower, at around 4 million people. A
amphetamines in 2006.1 UNODC estimates ecstasy
further 5 million people are estimated to consume vari-
users to number approximately 9 million world-wide
ous diverted pharmaceutical preparations or other illegal
(0.2%), a third of the number of amphetamines group
synthetic stimulants (e.g., methcathinone).
users.2 Neither estimate has changed substantially com-
pared to last year or the beginning of the new millen-
nium. Together, these figures exceed use levels for cocaine
Users of
Fig. 152:
‘amphetamines group’
substances, by type (N = 24.7 million)
and heroin, combined.
Other
Estimated number of amphetamine-type
Fig. 151:
amphetamines
stimulant users: 2003-2006
and diverted
30
26.2
licit
24.9
24.8
24.7
amphetamines
25
22%
Meth-
20
amphetamine
Amphetamine
62%
15
16%
9.7
7.9
8.6
9.0
10
Users of ATS (Millions)
5
Source: UNODC estimate
-
2003
2004
2005
2006
3 Most countries do not differentiate in detail to what extent drug
users are taking methamphetamine, amphetamine or other synthetic
Amphetamines Group
stimulant. However, member states have repeatedly reported distinct
Ecstasy Group
regional characteristics to UNODC which help to establish reason-
able orders of magnitude at the regional level. For example, ampheta-
Source: UNODC estimate
mines group users in East and South-East Asia consume primarily
methamphetamine; users in Europe take primarily amphetamine,
with a few exceptions, notably the Czech Republic with consumes
methamphetamine. National household surveys show that about half
1 The
amphetamines group includes methamphetamine, amphetamine,
of the stimulant users in North America use methamphetamine.
and non-specified amphetamine (e.g., fenetylline, methylphenidate,
‘Captagon’ use, which is widespread in the Near and Middle East,
phenmetrazine, methcathinone, amfepramone, pemoline, phenter-
typically represents the use of amphetamine (often in combination
mine), but excludes ecstasy group drugs.
with caffeine). Users of the amphetamines group in South Africa
2 Ecstasy group includes primarily MDMA, but also MDA, MDEA/
(‘tik’) and in North Africa (‘Maxiton Forte’), in contrast, appear to
MDE. However, forensics has identified changes in the last several
use methamphetamine. In addition, information is available that
years suggesting that much of what consumers believe to be ecstasy
in most parts of South America, Central America, the Caribbean as
containing MDMA is actually a variety of other substances such as
well as in Western, Central and Eastern Africa and in some parts of
methamphetamine, ketamine, and other often uncontrolled sub-
southern Africa and Asia, the amphetamines group consists primarily
stances.
of various diverted pharmaceutical preparations.
153
World Drug Report 2008
Table 13: Annual prevalence estimates of amphetamines use, by region: 2006
Estimated number
In percent of
Compared to
Region
of users annually
population 15-64 years
Global Average
Europe
2,490,000
0.45
Below
West and Central Europe
1,950,000
0.61
Average
South-East
Europe
180,000
0.21
Below
Eastern
Europe
350,000
0.24
Below
Americas
5,670,000
0.96
Above
North
America
3,720,000
1.27
Above
South
Americas*
1,960,000
0.66
Above
Asia
13,750,000
0.53
Average
East and South East Asia
13,230,000
0.90
Above
All Other Asian Regions
520,000
0.05
Below
Oceania
470,000
2.14
Above
Africa
2,260,000
0.43
Below
Global
24,650,000
0.58
* Includes South and Central America and the Caribbean. "Above"global average is defined as greater than 10% and "below"is less than
10% of the global average.
Sources: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire; Government reports; reports of regional bodies; and UNODC estimates.
South-East Asia continues to be the world’s largest
Br
Fig. 153:
eakdown of amphetamines users,
amphetamines market, followed by North America
by region (N = 24.7 million)
and Europe
Africa
Europe
Nearly 14 million people or 55% of the world’s amphet-
Oceania
9%
10%
amines users are estimated to live in Asia. Most of them
2%
North
are methamphetamine users in East and South-East
America
Asia. Ninety seven per cent of all amphetamines used in
15%
Asia are consumed in the East and South-East sub-re-
gion. The total number of amphetamines users in North
America is estimated at around 3.7 million people or
South
15% of global users. Europe accounts for 10% of all
Asia
Americas*
users or 2.7 million people. The number of ampheta-
56%
8%
mines users in Africa is estimated at 2.3 million repre-
senting about 9% of global users. Reports from South
America (including the Caribbean and Central America)
indicate that there are an estimated 2 million people,
*Includes South and Central America, and the Caribbean.
equivalent to 8% the of global estimate. About 0.6 mil-
lion people use amphetamines in the Oceania region
Sources: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire; Govt. reports;
(2% of the global total).
reports of regional bodies; and UNODC estimates.
At the sub-regional level, the highest annual prevalence
America by El Salvador; in South America by Brazil; and
rates of amphetamines use are reported by the countries
in Africa, by Nigeria (and some other West African
in the Oceania region (2.1%), followed by North Amer-
countries), Egypt, and South Africa.
ica (1.3%), Central America (1.2%), the Caribbean
(1%), East and South-East Asia (0.9%) and West and
Amphetamines use is slowing globally
Central Europe (0.6%). The average annual prevalence
rate in Africa is estimated at 0.4%.
Both UNODC estimates of the total number of amphet-
amines users, and analysis of expert perceptions, suggest
The highest prevalence rates in the Oceania region are
that following strong increases in the 1990s, the growth
reported by Australia; in North America by the United
in amphetamines use is slowing. The increases of the
States; and in Europe by the UK, Estonia and Latvia. In
1990s were due to rapidly rising methamphetamine use
the East and South-East Asian region, the highest preva-
in East and South-East Asia. Increases in Europe and in
lence is reported by the Philippines and Thailand; in the
North America also contributed to the global rise of the
Caribbean by the Dominican Republic; in Central
1990s.
154
1. Trends in the world drug markets Amphetamine-type stimulants market
Amphetamines use tr
Fig. 154:
ends as perceived
Amphetamines use tr
Fig. 155:
ends as perceived
by experts: 1992-2006
by experts regional contribution to
105
104.4
104.8
global change: 1992-2006
104.7
105
104
Oceania
103
104
101.9
Africa
102
Americas
100.9
103
Europe
100.5
101 100.0
Asia
102
100
Baseline: 1992 = 100
99
101
Baseline: 1992 = 100
98
100
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006
Sources: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data, UNODC
Sources: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data, UNODC
Field Offices, UNODC’s Drug Use Information Network for Asia
Field Offices, UNODC’s Drug Use Information Network for Asia
and the Pacific (DAINAP), UNODC, Global Assessment
and the Pacific (DAINAP), UNODC, Global Assessment
Programme on Drug Use (GAP), Govt. reports, EMCDDA, CICAD,
Programme on Drug Use (GAP), Govt. reports, EMCDDA, CICAD,
HONLEA reports and local studies.
HONLEA reports and local studies.
Amphetamines use tr
Fig. 156:
ends as perceived by experts, changes in regions: 1992-2006
(baseline: 1992=100)
107
106
105
104
103
102
101
100
99
Baseline: 1992 = 100
98
97
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Asia
Europe
Africa
Oceania
Americas
Global
Sources: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data, UNODC Field Offices, UNODC’s Drug Use Information Network for Asia and the
Pacific (DAINAP), UNODC, Global Assessment Programme on Drug Use (GAP), Govt. reports, EMCDDA, CICAD, HONLEA reports and
local studies.
Weighted growth rates of expert perceptions of use
Thirty-five countries identified a stable trend, 31
between 1992 and 2006 were highest in Asia and below
reported an increase, and 10 saw a decrease.5
average in all other regions.4 In general growth of
The increases noted by experts were sub regionally spe-
amphetamines consumption has slowed in Asia and
cific, with notable patterns. For example, the European
Europe. Amphetamines use in Africa has been growing,
States Members that identified worsening conditions
but the overall increases over the 1992-2006 period have
were nearly all 'North Eastern' (Belarus, Estonia and
been clearly below the global average. The Americas
Latvia) or 'South-Eastern' (Albania, Bulgaria, Czech
appear to be experiencing some declines in recent years.
Republic and Moldova) European countries. Most West
and Central European counties noted stability, except
4 Trends as reported by national experts in response to UNODC’s
Annual Reports Questionnaire. Points allocated for trend data:
Spain which reported some improvement. In the Amer-
‘strong increase’ 2; ‘some increase’: 1; stable: 0; ‘some decline’ -1;
icas, Mexico and the countries on Mexico’s southern
‘strong decline’ -2. Reported drug use trends were weighted by the
proportion of amphetamines users in a country expressed as a per-
centage of global amphetamines use. If all countries had reported
5 Increases and decreases were coded from strong increase/decrease or
‘some increase’, the global trend line would have increased by one
some increase/decrease, and represent the unweighted number of
point each year and would have reached 114 by 2006.
member states responding.
155
World Drug Report 2008
Table 14: Experts perceptions of changing regional amphetamines use, by region: 2006
Member
Use
Percent Use
Percent Use
Use
Percent Use
State
Use Prob-
Region
Problem
Problem
Problem
Problem
Problem
Experts
lem Stable
Increased*
Increased
Stable
Decreased*
Decreased
Responding
Europe
34
11
32%
22
65%
1
3%
Americas
14
6
43%
7
50%
1
7%
Asia
19
9
47%
2
11%
8
42%
Oceania
1
1
100%
0
0%
0
0%
Africa
8
4
50%
4
50%
0
0%
Global
76
31
41%
35
46%
10
13%
*Identifies increases/decreases ranging from either some to strong, unweighted by user population.
Sources: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data.
USA: Annual pr
Fig. 157:
evalence of ampheta-
Methamphetamine use declines in North America
mines use among students: 1991-2007
The downward trend of amphetamines use in North
14
America continues, specifically among youth. The
12
downward trend among US students started after 2001,
10
with large declines in use by 10th and 12th graders.
Lower levels of use were associated with reports of
8
decreased availability and a greater perception of risk.
6
The decline was more pronounced for methampheta-
4
mine use among North American students. Between
Percent of Students
1999 and 2007 methamphetamine use fell by 65% for
2
students in the USA and 72% for students in Ontario,
0
Canada. Continued risk awareness in combination with
policies to reduce supply (e.g., improved precursor con-
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
trols) have contributed to these declines.
Average
8th Grade
While methamphetamine use remained relatively stable,
10th Grade
12th Grade
overall stimulants use rose in the US in 2006. This could
Source: NIDA, Monitoring the Future, Overview of Key Findings in
be related to methamphetamine users switching to stim-
2007, Bethesda Maryland, April 2008.
ulants with greater availability. Methamphetamine use
continues to be most prevalent in the West of the coun-
boarder (Guatemala and El Salvador) indicated a wors-
try, with rates between two and five times higher than in
ening amphetamines use problem. In Asia, experts
other areas.7
believe the problem is worsening in three distinct sub-
regions: the countries located on India’s east boarder
Another indication that stimulant substitution may be
(Nepal, Bangladesh, and China), China and it’s regions
occurring in the USA can be seen in data from work-
in the southern coast (Hong Kong SAR and Macao
place drug testing, where the downward trend observed
SAR), and the Near East (Jordan, Syria, and Lebanon).
since mid-2005 began to change direction in 2007.
However, experts in Asia also perceived an improvement
Workplace drug testing results show methamphetamine
in the amphetamines use problem in several of the island
on a consistent decline since its peak in 2004.
nations within the China Sea, including Japan, Philip-
pines, Indonesia, and Malaysia.6
In North America, the declines in methamphetamine
use reported from the USA and Canada have been partly
offset by reports of rising use in Mexico, reflecting grow-
6 It is important to note that some South-East Asian nations dis-
ing methamphetamine production in that country.
tinguish between methamphetamine pills, powder, and crystalline
methamphetamine. In some countries one form of the drug may be
Though the bulk of methamphetamine produced in
decreasing as it is replaced with another form. For example, Thailand
Mexico is destined for the US market, small amounts
reported a decrease in the use of methamphetamine pills, while
simultaneously identifying increased use of crystalline methampheta-
mine.
7 SAMHSA
(2007),
National Survey on Drug Use and Health, 2006.
156
1. Trends in the world drug markets Amphetamine-type stimulants market
USA and Canada (Ontario): Annual pr
Fig. 158:
ev-
USA: Annual pr
Fig. 159:
evalence of stimulants
alence of methamphetamine use among
and methamphetamine use among the
students: 1999-2007
population (12 and older): 2002-2006
5
1.5
1.4
1.4
4.2
3.6
1.2 1.2
4
3.5
3.2
1.1
3.0
2.6
3
2.4
1.0
0.8
0.8
2.0
0.7 0.7
0.7
2
1.5
0.5
1
Annual prevalence (%)
5.0
3.9
3.3
2.2
1.4
0
Annual prevalence (%)
1999
2001
2003
2005
2007
0.0
Canada Students (Ontario, 7-12th Grade)
Stimulants
Methamphetamine
USA Students (8-12 Grade)
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Sources: CAMH, Drug Use among Ontario Students, 1997-2007,
Source: SAMHSA (2007), National Survey on Drug Use and
Toronto (2007) and NIDA, Monitoring the Future, Overview of
Health, 2006
Key Findings in 2006, Bethesda Maryland (May 2007).
remaining in the country are sufficient to increase local
USA: Positive workplace drug tests for
Fig. 160:
amphetamine: 2003-2007
availability. Additionally, Mexico, Guatemala and El
Salvador indicated worsening amphetamines use prob-
0.6%
0.52%
lems.8
0.49%
0.48%
0.5%
0.44%
0.42%
Shifts in use seen in Europe
0.4%
0.32%
0.33%
States Members experts in Europe percieved an overall
0.28%
stabilisation in the use of amphetamine. In 2006, 22
0.3%
European countries reported a stabilization of ampheta-
0.18%
mine use, 11 reported an increase. The increases were
0.2%
0.14%
Positive tests (%)
concentrated in Northeast and Southeast Europe, while
0.1%
most of Western and Central Europe shows stable levels
of use.9
0.0%
Europe’s largest amphetamine market, the United King-
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
All Amphetamines Group
dom, has shown the most significant downward trend.
Methamphetamine
Annual prevalence of amphetamine use in England and
Wales fell from 3.2% in 1996 to a plateau of 1.3% in
Source: Quest Diagnostics, Drug Testing Index (March 2008)
2007, a 60% decline in the overall number of users.
Investments in prevention as well as measures to limit
alence rates (0.2%) are half the European average (0.5%)
supply seem to have been partly responsible for the decline.
and are now among the lowest in Europe.
According to a study on EU countries, UK spent twice the
EU average on supply and demand interventions.10
Use is slowing in Asia
Sweden has also witnessed significant decreases in
The proportion of Asian countries reporting an increase
amphetamines use. Sweden’s annual amphetamine prev-
in methamphetamine use dropped from 54% to 47% in
2006 (19 countries responding), while the number of
countries reporting decreases methamphetamine use
8
Annual report questionnaire (2006).
rose from 19% to 42% in 2006. However, weighing
9 Spain was the only country reporting any decline in amphetamines
use in 2006.
country’s expert perceptions by their estimated metham-
10 Drug related expenditure amounted to €68 in the UK or 0.35%
phetamine using population, shows a continuing net
of GDP, more than twice the EU average (0.15%). Higher levels
increase in use in the region.
have been only reported by the Netherlands (€139 per capita or
0.66% of GDP) and Sweden (€107 per capita or 0.47% of GDP.
Increases in methamphetamine use are mainly reported
(See EMCDDA, Public Expenditure on Drugs in the European Union,
2000-2004).
by countries of South, East and South East Asia (Nepal,
157
World Drug Report 2008
England and W
Fig. 161:
ales: Annual prevalence
Thailand: Methamphetamine-r
Fig. 162:
elated
of amphetamine use among the general
admissions to treatment: 1994-2006
population (age 16-59): 1996-2007
203,072
3.5
3.2
35,000
3.0
30,403
3.0
30,000
29,235
2.5
2.1
25,000
23,621
2.0
1.6 1.6
19,253
1.5 1.4
20,000
1.3 1.3
16,134
21,165
1.5
19,489
15,000
14,529
1.0
10,024
Annual prevalence (%)
Number in treatment 10,000
0.5
4,036
5,000
1,113
-
477
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
-
Source: Home Office, Drug Misuse Declared: Findings from the
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2006/07 British Crime Survey, London (Oct. 2007).
Sources: Office of the Narcotics Control Board, Thailand Narcotics
Annual Report 2003, UNODC, Improving ATS Data and Informa-
Bangladesh, China, Hong Kong SAR, Macao SAR, and
tion Systems Project (AD/RAS/01/F97), UNODC, Drug Use Infor-
Myanmar). In contrast, the countries which account for
mation Network for Asia and the Pacific (DAINAP).
the bulk of all methamphetamine use in Asia (Thailand,
Malaysia, Philippines, and Indonesia) report a stabiliza-
Thailand: Pr
Fig. 163:
evalence of methampheta-
mine use: 2001-200712
tion or decline.11 12
9
Japan continues to be Asia’s most lucrative metham-
7.80
phetamine market. Following strong increases since the
1970s, all data for Japan suggest that methamphetamine
6
use stabilized or even declined in recent years. Lifetime
prevalence rate of methamphetamine was reported to
have amounted to 0.4% of the population age 15 and
3
2.40
2.40
1.46
1.79
above in 2003, falling to 0.3% by 2005. General stabi-
0.70
0.75
lization was also seen in lifetime prevalence of metham-
0.15
phetamine use in the country’s student population (age
0
2001
2003*
2006
2007*
13–15): 0.39% in 2000, 0.44% in 2002 and 0.4% in
Lifetime Prevalence- General Population
2006.
Methamphetamine prevalence (%)
Last year Prevalence- General Population
A continued decline in methamphetamine use (‘yaba’ or
*UNODC estimate for annual prevalence.
methamphetamine pills) was reported by the Thai
Sources: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data; UNODC,
Patterns and Trends of Amphetamine-type Stimulants (ATS) and
authorities for the year 2006.13 Surveys conducted in
Other Drug of Use in East Asia and the Pacific 2006 (June 2007)
and prior years; and UNODC, Drug Use Information
Network for Asia and the Pacific (DAINAP).
2003 and 2007 reported lower prevalence rates14 than
11 Note, in Patterns and Trends of Amphetamine-type Stimulants (ATS)
and Other Drugs of Use in East Asia and the Pacific 2006, (UNODC,
previous surveys.15
Regional Centre for East Asia and the Pacific June 2007), Thailand
reported a decreasing methamphetamine pill problem and an increas-
14 It is possible that the government crack-down on the market in 2003
ing crystalline methamphetamine problem. Differences are related
has led to a reduction in self-reporting behaviours among the general
to the clarity of the drug reporting question, the timing of data and
population. This in turn is lowering lifetime prevalence results. The
differences in key experts who report. These differences in reporting
more recently reported lifetime prevalence rates would be equivalent
are expected to be resolved in the future.
to 2 million less people reporting that they have ever tried metham-
12 The new household survey, conducted in 2007, reported an annual
phetamines than in 2001. These results illustrate that drug use self-
prevalence rate of a 0.145%; UNODC continues to report the preva-
report data continue to influenced by police operations in the ‘war on
lence rate at a conservative 0.75% .
drugs’, thereby continuing to under-estimate the national prevalence
13 However, an increase in crystalline methamphetamine (‘ice’) was also
of methamphetamine use in Thailand.
noted. UNODC (Regional Centre for East Asia and the Pacific),
15 UNODC (Regional Centre for East Asia and the Pacific), Patterns
Patterns and Trends of Amphetamine-type Stimulants (ATS) and Other
and Trends of Amphetamine-type Stimulants (ATS) and Other Drugs of
Drugs of Use in East Asia and the Pacific 2006, (June 2007).
Use in East Asia and the Pacific 2006, (June 2007).
158
1. Trends in the world drug markets Amphetamine-type stimulants market
Japan: Reported violations against stimulants law: 1950-2006
Fig. 164:
55,664
24,022
25,000
32,140
19,937
19,156
20,000
15,267
15,332
15,000
13,456
Arrests 10,000
5,000
-
1950
1955
1965
1971
1973
1975
1977
1979
1981
1983
1985
1987
1989
1991
1993
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
2005
Arrests
Trend
Sources: Ministry of Health and Social Welfare, National Police Agency of Japan and UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data.
Seizures of methamphetamine pills in Thailand point to
2007 indicates that ATS use may be on the rise in the
an ongoing reduction of trafficking, and thus indirectly
country.18 This early indicator of increased use could be
to an ongoing reduction of use. However, seizures of
a sign of drug spill-over into the general community due
crystalline methamphetamine (‘ice’) are rising. Treat-
to increasing manufacture and trafficking.
ment demand appeared to be stabilizing in 2006.
Ongoing decline in the Oceania region
In terms of sheer volume, China has one of the world’s
largest methamphetamine markets, although the meth-
Household surveys, conducted in Australia have shown
amphetamine prevalence rates are probably lower than
a steady decline of methamphetamine use, from an
in several of the other South-East Asian countries.16
annual prevalence rate of 3.7% in 1998, to 2.3% in
Reports in 2006 identified large increases in the use of
2007, a decrease of 32%.19
methamphetamine pills and crystalline methampheta-
Data collected through the Drug Use Monitoring in
mine. China reports that, of registered drug users in
Australia (DUMA) system suggests that the trend
2004, 1.7% used ATS, while that number grew to
towards a modest decline of methamphetamine use also
11.1% in 2007.17 These rates are consistent with
continued in subsequent years. DUMA regularly drug-
increases in reported clandestine methamphetamine
tests arrestees within 48 hours of custody in selected
laboratories and rising seizures in recent years.
sites across the country. After a substantial increase
The Philippines is a major manufacturing and traffick-
throughout the late 1990s peaking in 2003 (28%) the
ing location and continues to have the world’s highest
proportion of those arrestees testing positive for meth-
estimated annual methamphetamine prevalence rate
amphetamine, declined slightly to 24% in 2007. The
(6%). Although relatively stable at high levels for the
decline has been substantial in Queensland the tradi-
past several years, the Philippine authorities now report
tional location of most dismantled methamphetamine
(expert perceptions) that methamphetamine use levels
laboratories, followed by sites in Western Australia and
were on the decline in 2006.
Southern Australia. While overall methamphetamine
use appears to have stabilized, some data point to an
In Indonesia, authorities reported a decline of metham-
ongoing increase in the use of ‘crystal ice’ and increased
phetamine use to UNODC in their reply to the Annual
injecting of methamphetamine.20
Reports Questionnaire for 2006. However, data for
18 UNODC, Drug Use Information Network for Asia and the Pacific
16 To date, no national drug-related household survey has ever been
(DAINAP), 2007. Last updated April 28, 2008.
undertaken in China.
19 Population age 14 and older. It must be noted though that a direct
17 Zhao Wanpeng, Deputy Director of International Cooperation
comparison of the 1998 and the 2001 household survey data in
Division, Narcotics Control Bureau, Ministry of Public Security,
Australia could be - potentially - misleading as the underlying
presentation entitled ‘Drug data collection in China’, 4th International
methodology for the surveys changed quite substantially during this
Forum on the Control of Precursors for ATS, Tokyo Japan, February
period.
2008.
20 National Alcohol and Drugs Research Centre, University of New
159
World Drug Report 2008
Australia: annual pr
Fig. 165:
evalence of amphet-
New Zealand: Annual pr
Fig. 166:
evalence of am-
amines use among the population
phetamines use among the population
(14 and older): 1993-2007
(15-45 years): 1998-2006
4%
3.7%
6%
3.4%
5.0%
3.2%
5%
3%
4.0%
2.3%
4%
3.4%
2.0%
2.1%
2.9%
2%
3%
2%
1%
0.9%
0.9%
0.8%
Annual prevalence (%)
Annual prevalence (%) 1%
0.1%
0%
0%
1993
1995
1998
2001
2004
2007
1998
2001
2003
2006
Source: Australian Institute for Health and Welfare (AIHW), 2007
Amphetamines
Methamphetamine
National Drug Strategy - Household Survey 2007, Canberra (April
2007).
Source: Centre for Social and Health Outcomes Research and
Evaluation (SHORE), Trends in drug use in the population in New
The situation in New Zealand followed similar patterns.
Zealand: Findings from national household drug surveying in
1998, 2001, 2003 and 2006 (March 2007).
New Zealand household survey for the population aged
15-45 showed that annual prevalence of the ampheta-
mines group peaked in 2001 at 5% of the population,
first six months of 2007.22 While the rate of increase in
but has since decreased to 3.4%. Crystalline metham-
Cape Town has slowed, evidence suggests that use is
phetamine peaked at the same time at 0.9%, but has
spreading to other areas. Increases in the proportion of
remained relatively stable ever since.
treatment demand for methamphetamine have been
reported in treatment centres in Pretoria, and are emerg-
The New Zealand Arrestee Drug Use Monitoring (NZ-
ing in Durban.23
ADAM) program also tests people who have recently
been arrested (for drug consumption) at several sites
Potential for increases in Near and Middle East and
around the country. Reports from the program have
other regions
identified that between 2005 and 2007 nationwide
methamphetamine positive tests among arrestees
Limited information regarding ATS use is available on
declined slightly, from 12.4% to 11.7%. However, posi-
the Near and Middle East region, however recent reports
tive tests for amphetamine have increased dramatically
suggest that use is increasing at a rapid pace. According
from 2.7% to 13.5% during the same period. While the
to reports from the INCSR25, rising levels of use of an
bulk of positive tests for either drug occur in the more
ATS marketed under the name Captagon have been
populous North Island, lab and seizure evidence sug-
reported in Saudi Arabia.24 The report, citing news
gests that use may be spreading increasingly to the South
sources and Government officials, states that the number
Island.
of drug addicts rose from 109,000 in 2002 to 150,000
in 2005, and between 2006 and 2007, drug use increased
Growth in use reported from southern Africa slows
an additional 17%.25 The most recent treatment data
provided in the Annual Report Questionnaire identified
Amphetamines use in Africa has been increasing slowly
ATS as the most common drug for treatment in the
over the last few years. Much of this growth is fuelled by
rapidly increasing methamphetamine use in South
Africa. Accounting for less than 1% of all substance
22 SACENDU, Monitoring Alcohol & Drug Use Trends in South Africa
related treatment demand, until the end of 2002, treat-
(2007)
23 SACENDU (2007), Monitoring Alcohol & Drug Use Trends in South
ment for methamphetamine as a proportion of total
Africa. Research Brief Vol 10(2).
treatment in Cape Town21 rose to 15% in 2004, 30% in
24 A recent analysis of Captagon (originally fenetylline, reported more
2005, before stabilising at 40% in 2006 and 41% in the
commonly today as amphetamine) analysis was not provide to
UNODC, however data provided in the World Customs Organiza-
tion’s, Customs and Drugs Report 2006 (June 2007), identified Capta-
South Wales - Methamphetamine in Victoria 2004-2007: Forms &
gon seized in Saudi Arabia as amphetamine.
purity (April 2008).
25 US Department of State, International Narcotics Control Strategy
21 Atlantis and
Wochester
Report (INCSR) 2008, Vol 1 (March 2008).
160
1. Trends in the world drug markets Amphetamine-type stimulants market
country. These reports of significant increases correlate
with the dramatic increases in trafficking that have been
reported over the last several years. For example, in
2000, 291 kg of ATS were seized – by 2006 that number
increased to 12.3 metric tons. And, for the first time, in
2006 these seizures included reports of methampheta-
mine. Significant seizures (2 mt) were also reported by
neighbouring Oman in 2006 and other counties in the
region.26
Rising levels of ATS use in South America
Rising levels of ATS use have been reported from South
America (Argentina, Peru), Central America (Guate-
mala, El Salvador), and the Caribbean (Dominican
Republic). In these regions ATS originate mainly from
licit channels. The defined daily doses per 1,000 inhab-
itants for legally produced Schedule-IV stimulants in
the Americas amounted to nearly 11 over the 2004-
2006 period, up from levels around 7 over the 2000-
2002 period or rates between 1 and 2 currently in
Europe or Asia. In 2006, Argentina, the United States,
and Brazil led the world with the highest calculated rate
of use of the Schedule-IV stimulants at nearly 17, 12,
and 10 daily doses per 1,000, respectively.27
26 In order of magnitude the following regional countries reported ATS
seizures greater than 10 kg in 2006: Jordan (328 kg), Syria (273 kg),
Lebanon (111 kg), Kuwait (17 kg), and Iran (16 kg). Other regional
countries also reported ATS seizures (in amounts under 10 kg):
Israel, United Arab Emirates, Pakistan, Bahrain, and Qatar.
27 INCB, 2007 Psychotropic Substances, New York 2008.
161
World Drug Report 2008
Ecstacy
Global distribution of ecstasy use: 2006
Fig. 167:
(9 million users)
Ecstasy use concentrated in Western Europe
and North America
Asia
23%
Oceania
With year on year global prevalence unchanged, ecstasy
8% Africa
use is estimated to affect approximately 9 million people
2%
or 0.2% of the population age 15-64.28 There are about
South
3 million ecstasy users in Europe, accounting for a third
America*
8%
of ecstasy users worldwide. About 90% of them are
located in West and Central Europe. The annual preva-
lence rate of ecstasy use is estimated at 0.8% of the
population in West and Central Europe, similar to the
Europe
levels reported from North America (0.8%). Drug use
33%
North
trends of Western Europe are largely stable but continue
America
growing in several East and South-East European coun-
26%
tries. Ecstasy use levels in North America reflect some
2.4 Million users.
Sources: Annual Reports Questionnaire data, Government
The annual ecstasy prevalence rates in the Oceania
reports, reports of regional bodies, UNODC estimates.
region (3.2%) have generally begun to stabilize. Regard-
Global ecstasy consumption has stabilized
less, these are still considerably higher than in any other
region. Ecstasy prevalence in Asia remains low (0.1%).
With the massive increases in the 1990s, ecstasy use
However, Asia, notably East and South-East Asia, have
peaked at an estimated 9.7 million users in 2004. Data
become growing ecstasy markets over the last few years.
now suggest that ecstasy use has stabilized at the global
In addition, some countries in South America (Argen-
level over the last few years. Stabilization is mainly due
tina, Chile, Peru)have reported rising levels of ecstasy
to a significant decline reported over the last few years
use.
from North America.
Table 15: Annual prevalence of ecstasy use: 2006 (or latest year available)
Estimated number
In percent of
Compared to
Region
of users annually
population 15-64 years
Global Average
Europe
2,945,000
0.54
Above
West and Central Europe
2,624,000
0.82
Above
South-East
Europe
204,000
0.24
Above
Eastern
Europe
117,000
0.08
Below
Americas
3,094,000
0.53
Above
North
America
2,367,000
0.81
Above
South
Americas*
727,000
0.25
Above
Asia
2,103,000
0.08
Below
East and South East Asia
1,981,000
0.13
Below
All Other Asian Regions
122,000
0.01
Below
Oceania
706,000
3.21
Above
Africa
199,000
0.04
Below
Global
9,047,000
0.21
*Includes South and Central America, and the Caribbean. "Above" global average is defined as greater than 10% and "below" is less
than 10% of the global average.
Sources: Annual Reports Questionnaire data, various Government reports, reports of regional Bodies, UNODC estimates
28 Caveat: what is often sold as ecstasy is actually a combination of
many substances, including methamphetamine. ONDCP, National
Drug Control Strategy, 2008 Annual Report; Japan Ministry of Health
and Welfare, Kanto Ecstasy Project, Ecstasy in Japan (2003-2006).
164
1. Trends in the world drug markets Amphetamine-type stimulants market
A
Fig. 168: TS/Ecstasy use trends as perceived by experts29: 1992-2006
105
103
101
Baseline: 1992 = 100
99
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
ATS
Ecstasy
Sources: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data, UNODC Field Offices, UNODC’s Drug Use Information Network for Asia and the
Pacific (DAINAP), UNODC, Global Assessment Programme on Drug Use (GAP), Govt. reports, EMCDDA, CICAD, HONLEA reports and
local studies.
Table 16: Experts perceptions of changing regional ecstasy use, by region: 2006
Member
Percent
Percent
Use Prob-
Percent
Use Prob-
State
Use Prob-
Use Prob-
Use
Region
lem
Use Prob-
lem
Experts
lem
lem Stable
Problem
Increased*
lem Stable
Decreased*
Responding
Increased
Decreased
Europe
27
7
26%
15
56%
5
19%
Americas
11
5
45%
6
55%
0
0%
Asia
13
4
31%
3
23%
6
46%
Oceania
1
0
0%
1
100%
0
0%
Africa
5
1
20%
4
80%
0
0%
Global
57
17
30%
29
51%
11
19%
*Identifies increases/ decreases ranging from either some to strong, unweighted by user population.
Sources: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data.
In 2006, 29 countries identified a stable ecstasy trend
bers that identified worsening conditions, five could be
over 2005,2917 noted an increase, and 11 reported a
plotted in a trapezoid region from Albania, Bulgaria and
decrease.30
the Republic of Moldova in the North, to Turkey and
Cyprus in the South. All other Central and West Euro-
The increases noted by experts were sub-regionally spe-
pean counties noted stability or decreases.31 In the
cific. For example, of the seven European States Mem-
Americas, increases were specific only to South Ameri-
can countries: most increases were reported in the west-
29 Trends as reported by national experts in response to UNODC’s
ern and southern sub-regions of South American (i.e.,
Annual Reports Questionnaire. Points allocated for trend data:
Argentina, Chile, and Peru). However, experts reported
‘strong increase’ 2; ‘some increase’: 1; stable: 0; ‘some decline’ -1;
no decreases in ecstasy use in the Americas for 2006. In
‘strong decline’ -2. Reported drug use trends were weighted by the
proportion of ecstasy users in a country expressed as a percentage of
Asia, 46% of the experts responding believe the ecstasy
global amphetamine use. If all countries had reported ‘some increase’,
use problem has improved in the region along the China
the global trend line would have increased by one point each year
and would have reached 113 by 2005. Ecstasy trend data were sys-
Sea. Improvements were noted by Japan, the Philip-
tematically collected only as of 2000. As there are indications from a
pines, Hong Kong SAR, Indonesia, and Malaysia.32
number of countries that ecstasy trends in the 1990s showed similar
growth rates as ATS in general, the latter trends are shown in the
graph for the period 1992-1999 and are thus used as a proxy for the
31 No regional patterns were identified with the European countries
likely ecstasy trends.
reporting use decreases.
30 Increases and decreases were coded from strong increase/decrease or
32 Note, in Patterns and Trends of Amphetamine-type Stimulants (ATS)
some increase/decrease, and represent the unweighted number of
and Other Drugs of Use in East Asia and the Pacific 2006, (UNODC,
States Members responding.
Regional Centre for East Asia and the Pacific June 2007), Japan
165
World Drug Report 2008
USA: Ecstasy use among the general
Fig. 169:
USA and Canada (Ontario): Annual pr
Fig. 170:
ev-
population (age 12+): 2002-2006
alence of ecstasy use among students:
1999-2007
1.5
1.3
7
6.3
5.6
6
1.2
5.1
5
3.9
0.9
0.9
4
3.2
3.2
0.9
0.8
0.8
2.7
2.8
2.4
3
0.6
2
1
Annual prevalence (%)
4.0
6.0
4.1
4.5
3.5
Annual prevalence (%)
0.3
0
1999
2001
2003
2005
2007
Canada Students (Ontario, 7-12th Grade)
0
USA Students (8-12 Grade)
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Sources: CAMH, Drug use among Ontario students, 1997-2007,
Source: SAMHSA, Office of Applied Studies, National Survey on
Toronto (2007) and NIDA, Monitoring the future, overview of key
Drug Use and Health, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, and 2006.
findings in 2007, Bethesda Maryland (April 2008).
Worsening use conditions were, however, reported for
Europe’s largest ecstasy market, has seen notable decreases
mainland China.
in the annual prevalence of the general population. As
of 2007, England and Wales reported a decrease of 18%
Youth drives consumption in North America
in prevalence from the peak in 2002.
Although, according to household surveys, there has
Ecstasy rates are rising contrary to the stable trends in
been a very slight increase in ecstasy use among the gen-
West and Central Europe, in South-East Europe as well
eral population in 2006, long term trends are declining
in Eastern Europe (from far lower levels). With the excep-
to stable in the USA. General population surveys in the
tion of Croatia, all of the experts from the East and
USA found a decline in the use of ecstasy from 1.3% of
South-East European countries reporting to UNODC in
the population (age 12 and above) in 2002 to 0.9% in
England and W
Fig. 171:
ales: Annual prevalence
2006.
of ecstasy use: 1994-2007
The annual prevalence of ecstasy use among high-school
2.5
2.2
students of the province of Ontario, Canada, declined
2.0
by around one third from 2001 and 2007. However,
2
1.8
1.8
ecstasy use among USA high-school students in 2007
1.7
2.0
1.6
showed an increase in prevalence over 2005 estimates.
1.5
1.8
1.5
The rates remain lower than the peak levels reported in
1.2
2001, and are still lower than in 1999.
1
The increasing trend between 2005 and 2007 was driven
in large part by increases in use amongst 10th and 12th
Annual prevalence (%)
grade students. Increased use in ecstasy among teens
0.5
appears related to the declining perceptions of drug risk
and attitudes of disapproval of its use, following many
0
years in which the opposite trends were observed.
1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006
Possible shifts in use in Europe detected
Source: Home Office, Drug Misuse Declared: Findings from the
2006/07 British Crime Survey, London (Oct. 2007).
European trends reflect an overall stabilization or decline
in the traditional ecsta
