Women/'s Education In India
Women of the World
By Victoria A. Velkoff
International Programs Center
WID/98-1
Issued October 1998
The Indian government has ex-
Figure 1.
pressed a strong commitment to-
Infant Mortality Rates, by Mother’s Educational
wards education for all, however,
Level: 1992–93
India still has one of the lowest fe-
male literacy rates in Asia. In
1991, less than 40 percent of the
330 million women aged 7 and
Illiterate
over were literate, which means
today there are over 200 million
illiterate women in India. This low
level of literacy not only has a neg-
Literate
ative impact on women’s lives but
Completed
also on their families’ lives and on
middle school
their country’s economic develop-
ment. Numerous studies show
that illiterate women have high lev-
els of fertility and mortality, poor
High school
nutritional status, low earning po-
and above
tential, and little autonomy within
the household. A woman’s lack of
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
education also has a negative im-
Deaths per 1,000 births
pact on the health and well being
of her children. For instance, a re-
Source: International Institute for Population Sciences, 1995
cent survey in India found that in-
fant mortality was inversely related
to mother’s educational level (Fig-
both sexes in India over the last
ure 1). Additionally, the lack of an
constitution with an article promis-
several decades. In 1971, only 22
educated population can be an im-
ing “free and compulsory educa-
percent of women and 46 percent
pediment to the country’s econom-
tion for all children until they com-
of men were literate (Figure 2)
ic development.
plete the age of 14” (The World
Bank, 1997b). The National Policy
(Register General and Census
The Indian government’s commit-
on Education, which was updated
Commissioner (RGCC), 1977).1
ment to education is stated in its
in 1992, and the 1992 Program of
By 1991, 39 percent of women
Action both reaffirmed the govern-
and 64 percent of men were liter-
ment’s commitment to improving
ate (RGCC, 1993).2 Thus, there
literacy levels, by providing special
has been a large increase in the
attention to girls and children from
proportion of women who are liter-
scheduled castes and scheduled
ate in just 20 years. Despite the
tribes.
improvements in literacy, there
continues to be a large gap be-
Literacy Levels
tween the literacy levels of men
Improving Over Time
and of women. For India as a
1 These rates refer to the population
U.S. Department of Commerce
Although literacy levels are low,
aged 5 and over.
Economics and Statistics Administration
there has been progress in im-
2 These rates refer to the population
BUREAU OF THE CENSUS
proving educational attainment for
aged 7 and over.
2
Women of the World
whole, the gender gap in literacy
Figure 2.
has been decreasing since 1981;
1971
Literacy Rates by Place of Residence: 1971–91
in some states, however the dis-
1981
parity in literacy between the
Percent
1991
100
sexes has been growing.
There are dramatic differences in
80
literacy rates by place of resi-
dence, with rates in rural areas
60
lagging behind rates in urban
areas. In 1991, the urban female
literacy rate was more than twice
40
that of the rural rate, 64 and
31 percent, respectively (RGCC,
20
1993). While there have, however,
been substantial increases in liter-
0
acy rates in both urban and rural
Total
Urban
Rural
Total
Urban
Rural
areas, the gap between the two
Male
Female
sectors has not narrowed appre-
ciably (Figure 2).
Rates are for the population aged 5 and over for 1971 and 7 and older for 1981 and 1991.
Source: Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India, 1977 and 1993
Large Differences in
Literacy Among the States
The differences in literacy rates
among the states are also extreme
(Figure 3). Kerala has the highest
female literacy rate, with over 86
Figure 3.
percent of women literate in 1991.
Female Literacy Rates, by State: 1991
The state with the second highest
female literacy is Mizoram, where
Kerala
nearly 79 percent of women are
Mizoram
literate. On the other hand, there
Goa
Nagaland
are several states that have litera-
Maharashtra
cy rates of less than 30 percent,
Himachal Pradesh
including Bihar and Uttar Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu
the two most populous states. To-
Punjab
gether these two states have over
Tripura
63 million illiterate women. These
Gujarat
literacy levels are highly correlated
Manipur
Sikkim
with the health status of the popu-
West Bengal
lation. Kerala has the lowest infant
Meghalaya
mortality rates and the highest life
Karnataka
expectancies of all the states.
Assam
Conversely, Uttar Pradesh and Bi-
Haryana
har have some of the lowest life
INDIA
expectancies found in India (India
Orissa
Andhra Pradesh
Registrar General (IRG), 1996;
Arunachal Pradesh
IRG 1995).
Madhya Pradesh
As with India as a whole, many
Uttar Pradesh
Bihar
states have large rural-urban dif-
Rajasthan
ferences in female literacy. In 6 of
the 24 states, 25 percent or less of
0
20
40
60
80
100
the women in rural areas are liter-
Percent
ate. In Rajasthan, less than 12
Rates are for the population aged 7 and older.
percent of rural women are literate.
Source: Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India, 1993
Women of the World
3
Figure 4.
Educational Attainment of the Literate Population: 1991
Female
Male
Less than
Less than
Primary
primary
primary
Primary
24%
31%
28%
27%
13%
9%
Higher secondary
Higher secondary
21%
21%
14%
and above
11%
and above
Middle
Middle
10-year secondary
10-year secondary
Primary is 5 years of completed schooling, middle is 8 years, 10-year secondary is 10 years,
and higher secondary and above is 12 years or more.
Source: Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India, 1993
Three Out of Five Girls
estimated that 45 percent of girls
highly gender-stratified society
Attend School Versus
and 41 percent of boys drop out of
such as India (Jeffery and Basu,
Three Out of Four Boys
school between grades 1 and 5
1996; Jejeebhoy, 1995). Of the
(The World Bank, 1997b). Girls
literate women in India, 59 percent
Although literacy rates in India are
are often taken out of school to
have only a primary education or
low, there has been a concerted
help with family responsibilities
less (Figure 4). This level of
effort to encourage girls to attend
such as caring for younger siblings.
education may not be sufficient to
school, which should lead to high-
Girls are also likely to be taken out
meaningfully improve the status of
er literacy rates in the future. In
of school when they reach puberty
these women. Only 41 percent of
1992-93, 75 percent of boys and
as a way of protecting their honor.
the literate population, or 13 per-
61 percent of girls aged 6 to 10
The data on school attendance by
cent of all Indian women, have
years were attending school. As
age show the proportion of girls at-
more than a primary education.
with literacy measures, there are
tending school decreases with age
Gender Gaps in University
large differences in school atten-
while for boys it remains stable. In
dance by state. In six states, over
1992-93, only 55 percent of girls
Education
85 percent of girls aged 6 to 14
aged 11 to 14 were attending
Currently, a very small proportion
were attending school. Not sur-
school compared with 61 percent
of both men and women have a
prisingly, these states also had fe-
of the younger age group (IIPS,
college education, just over 3 per-
male literacy rates that were
1995).
cent of men and 1 percent of
above the national average. In all
women. Although a very small
states except Bihar, Rajasthan,
Beyond Literacy
proportion of the Indian population
and Uttar Pradesh, more than half
Although there are numerous stud-
attends college, women account
of the girls aged 6 to 14 were at-
ies demonstrating a link between
for a third of the students at this
tending school. Although Bihar
education and a variety of demo-
level (Ministry of Human Resource
has the lowest enrollment for both
graphic indicators (i.e., fertility, infant
Development (MHRD), 1993).
boys and girls, there was still a
and child mortality and morbidity),
This sex ratio is found for most
large gender gap, with only 38 per-
more recent studies are finding that
fields of study except: 1) engineer-
cent of the girls attending school
there is a minimum threshold of
ing and commerce, where women
compared to 64 percent of the
education (more than 5 or 6 years)
account for a much smaller pro-
boys (International Institute for
that must be achieved before there
portion of the students; and 2)
Population Science (IIPS), 1995).
are significant improvements in fe-
education, where women account
male autonomy3, particularly in a
for nearly half of all students.
A major educational problem fac-
ing both boys and girls in India is
Alternative Education
3 Autonomy is defined as decision making
that although they may be enrolled
power within the home, economic and
The Non-formal Education (NFE)
at the beginning of the year they
social self-reliance, confidence in inter-
program was created by the Indian
acting with the outside world (Jejeebhoy,
don’t always remain in school. It is
1995).
Government in 1979-80 to reach
4
Women of the World
children that were not in the formal
because daughters will eventually
India Has a Shortage of
education system, particularly girls
live with their husbands’ families,
Female Teachers
and working children. Classes are
and the parents will not benefit di-
held at times that are convenient
rectly from their education. Also,
Lack of female teachers is another
for the students, and the curricu-
daughters with higher levels of
potential barrier to girls’ education.
lum is adapted to their needs. The
education will likely have higher
Girls are more likely to attend
teacher is a local person who has
dowry expenses as they will want
school and have higher academic
been trained to run the NFE center
a comparably educated husband.
achievement if they have female
and the classes are held either in
However, education sometimes
teachers. This is particularly
the teacher’s home or after hours
lowers the dowry for a girl because
true in highly gender-segregated
in already-existing schools. In
it is viewed as an asset by the
societies such as India (Bellew
1994, there were 255,000 centers
husband’s family.
and King, 1993; King, 1990).
serving 6.4 million children.
Currently, women account for only
Approximately 40 percent of the
29 percent of teachers at the pri-
centers are exclusively for girls
Inadequate School
mary level (MHRD, 1993). The
(The World Bank, 1997b). While
Facilities
proportion of teachers who are fe-
the NFE program has the potential
male is even lower at the universi-
to solve many of the problems with
Another barrier to education in
ty level, 22 percent of instructors
access to education, as with any
India is the lack of adequate
(CSO, 1992). These proportions
type of education program, the
school facilities. Many states
reflect the historic paucity of
quality varies from location to loca-
simply do not have enough class-
women with the educational quali-
tion (Rugh, 1994).
rooms to accommodate all of the
fications to be teachers. However,
school-age children. Furthermore,
the proportions are likely to
the classrooms that are available
change in the future as women
Barriers to Education
often lack basic necessities such
currently account for nearly half of
as sanitary facilities or water. In
those being trained as teachers.
There are several reasons for the
Uttar Pradesh, a recent survey
Again there are differences among
low levels of literacy in India, not
found that 54 percent of schools
the states; the states with the high-
the least of which is the high level
did not have a water supply and
est
of poverty. Over one-third of the
80 percent did not have latrines
literacy rates are also the states
population is estimated to be living
(The World Bank, 1997b). Lack
with the highest proportion of fe-
below the poverty line (The World
of latrines can be particularly detri-
male teachers.
Bank, 1997a). Although school at-
mental to girls’ school attendance.
tendance is free, the costs of
Gender Bias in Curriculum
books, uniforms, and transporta-
In some states, the inadequate
Still Exists
tion to school can be too much for
supply of classrooms is further
As long ago as 1965, the Indian
poor families. Poor families are
compounded by the large increase
government agreed to rewrite text-
also more likely to keep girls at
in the number of school-age chil-
books so that men and women
home to care for younger siblings
dren due to high population growth
would not be portrayed in gender-
or to work in family enterprises.
rates. For instance, in 1993, Uttar
stereotyped roles. However, a
If a family has to choose between
Pradesh needed to build 284,000
study of Indian textbooks done in
educating a son or a daughter be-
additional classrooms to achieve
the 1980s found that men were the
cause of financial restrictions, typi-
full enrollment of children age 6 to
main characters in the majority of
cally the son will be chosen.
10 (The World Bank, 1997b). The
lessons. In these lessons, men
need for new classrooms will per-
held high-prestige occupations and
Negative parental attitudes toward
sist as the population continues to
were portrayed as strong, adven-
educating daughters can also be a
grow. On the other hand, in states
turous, and intelligent. In contrast,
barrier to a girl’s education. Many
where population growth rates are
when women were included they
parents view educating sons as
low (e.g., Kerala), the number of
were depicted as weak and help-
an investment because the sons
primary-age children is beginning
less, often as the victims of abuse
will be responsible for caring for
to decline and state governments
and beatings (Kalia, 1988). These
aging parents. On the other hand,
can focus on improving the quality
depictions are strong barriers for
parents may see the education of
of education rather than increasing
improving women’s position in so-
daughterss a waste of money
the supply of classrooms.
ciety.
Women of the World
5
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Education in Developing Coun-
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