The Forgotten Era Of
The work of Jose Delgado, a pioneering star
The Forgotten Era of
BRAIN ITD
By John Horgan
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in brain-stimulation research four decades ago, goes largely
unacknowledged
today.
What
happened?
In the early 1970s Jose Manuel Rodriguez Delgado, a professor of phys-
iology at Yale University, was among the world’s most acclaimed—and
controversial—neuroscientists. In 1970 the New York Times Magazine
hailed him in a cover story as the “impassioned prophet of a new ‘psy-
chocivilized society’ whose members would infl uence and alter their own
mental functions.” The article added, though, that some of Delgado’s Yale
colleagues saw “frightening potentials” in his work.
Delgado, after all, had pioneered that most unnerving of technologies, the
brain chip—an electronic device that can manipulate the mind by receiving
signals from and transmitting them to neurons. Long the McGuffi ns of sci-
ence fi ction, from The Terminal Man to The Matrix, brain chips are now
being used or tested as treatments for epilepsy, Parkinson’s disease, paralysis,
blindness and other disorders. Decades ago Delgado carried out experiments
that were more dramatic in some respects than anything being done today.
ELEC TRIC AL BR AIN-S TIMUL ATION
DE VICES (opposite page), invented
CHIPS
by Jose Delgado for his research
into behavior and motor control,
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were implanted into apes, monkeys
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(shown above), bulls, cats and
humans. Electrodes could remain
implanted for more than two years
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He implanted radio-equipped electrode
a physiology laboratory—plus exposure
trical stimulation methods pioneered by
arrays, which he called “stimoceivers,”
to the writings of the great Spanish neu-
Hess—who shared the 1949 prize with
in cats, monkeys, chimpanzees, gibbons,
roscientist Santiago Ramón y Cajal—left Moniz. “My idea was to avoid loboto-
bulls and even humans, and he showed
him entranced by “the many mysteries
my,” Delgado says, “with the help of
that he could control subjects’ minds and
of the brain. How little was known then.
electrodes implanted in the brain.”
bodies with the push of a button.
How little is known now!” Delgado was
One key to Delgado’s scientifi c suc-
Yet after Delgado moved to Spain in
particularly intrigued by the experiments
cess was his skill as an inventor; a Yale
1974, his reputation in the U.S. faded, of Swiss physiologist Walter Rudolf colleague once called him a “technolog-
not only from public memory but from Hess. Beginning in the 1920s, Hess had
ical wizard.” In his early experiments,
the minds and citation lists of other sci-
demonstrated that he could elicit behav-
wires ran from implanted electrodes
entists. He described his results in more
iors such as rage, hunger and sleepiness out through the skull and skin to bulky
than 500 peer-reviewed papers and in a
in cats by electrically stimulating differ-
electronic devices that recorded data and
widely reviewed 1969 book, but these ent spots in their brains with wires.
delivered electrical pulses. This setup re-
are seldom cited by modern researchers.
In 1946 Delgado won a yearlong fel-
stricted subjects’ movements and left
In fact, some familiar with his early work
lowship at Yale. In 1950 he accepted a them prone to infections. Hence, Del-
assume he died. But Delgado, who re-
position in its department of physiology,
gado designed radio-equipped stimo-
cently moved with his wife, Caroline, then headed by John Fulton, who played
ceivers as small as half-dollars that could
from Spain to San Diego, Calif., is very a crucial role in the history of psychia-
be fully implanted in subjects. His other
much alive and well, and he has a unique
try. In a 1935 lecture in London, Fulton
inventions included an early version of
perspective on modern efforts to treat had reported that a violent, “neurotic”
the cardiac pacemaker and implantable
various disorders by stimulating specifi c chimpanzee named Becky had become
“chemitrodes” that could release precise
areas of the brain.
calm and compliant after surgical de-
amounts of drugs directly into specifi c
struction of her prefrontal lobes. In the
areas of the brain.
When Lobotomies
audience was Portuguese psychiatrist
In 1952 Delgado co-authored the fi rst
Were the Rage
Egas Moniz, who started performing peer-reviewed paper describing long-
b or n i n 1915 in Ronda, Spain, Del-
lobotomies on psychotic patients and term implantation of electrodes in hu-
gado went on to earn a medical degree
claimed excellent results. After Moniz mans, narrowly beating a report by Rob-
from the University of Madrid in the won a Nobel Prize in 1949, lobotomies
ert Heath of Tulane University. Over the
1930s. Although he has long been became an increasingly popular treat-
next two decades Delgado implanted
dogged by rumors that he supported the
ment for mental illness.
electrodes in some 25 human subjects,
fascist regime of Francisco Franco, he
Initially disturbed that his method of
most of them schizophrenics and epilep-
actually served in the medical corps of pacifying a chimpanzee had been applied
tics, at a now defunct mental hospital in
the Republican Army (which opposed to humans, Fulton later became a cau-
Rhode Island. He operated, he says, only
Franco during Spain’s civil war) while he tious proponent of psychosurgery. Del-
on desperately ill patients whose disor-
was a medical student. After Franco gado disagreed with his mentor’s stance.
ders had resisted all previous treatments.
crushed the Republicans, Delgado was “I thought Fulton and Moniz’s idea of Early on, his placement of electrodes in
detained in a concentration camp for fi ve destroying the brain was absolutely hor-
humans was guided by animal experi-
months before resuming his studies.
rendous,” Delgado recalls. He felt it ments, studies of brain-damaged people
)
He originally intended to become an would be “far more conservative” to and the work of Canadian neurosurgeon
y
a
r
x-
eye doctor, like his father. But a stint in
treat mental illness by applying the elec-
Wilder Penfi eld; beginning in the 1930s,
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Penfield stimulated epileptics’ brains
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with electrodes before surgery to deter-
Overview/Brain Implants
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mine where he should operate.
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F
■ Jose M. R. Delgado, a pioneer in brain-implant technology, is perhaps most
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famous for halting a charging bull by merely pressing a button on a device that
Taming a Fighting Bull
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sent signals to the animal’s brain.
de l g a d o show e d that stimulation
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■ In the early 1970s Delgado went from being acclaimed to being criticized. In
of the motor cortex could elicit specifi c
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1974 he moved from the U.S. to Spain and then gradually faded from public
physical reactions, such as movement of
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consciousness and the citation lists of neuroscientists.
the limbs. One patient clenched his fi st
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■ His accomplishments, however, helped to pave the way for modern brain-implant
when stimulated, even when he tried to
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technology, which is enjoying a resurgence today and is improving life for patients
resist. “I guess, doctor, that your electric-
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with epilepsy and such movement disorders as Parkinson’s and dystonia.
ity is stronger than my will,” the patient
G
A
P
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■ Delgado, now 90, recently returned to the U.S., complete with strong opinions
commented. Another subject, turning
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on the promise and perils of the ongoing work.
his head from side to side in response to
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stimulation, insisted he was doing so vol-
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untarily, explaining, “I am looking for
sults varied widely from patient to pa-
C AROLINE DELGADO, shown monitoring
my slippers.”
tient and could be unpredictable even in encephalographic readings from a monkey,
By stimulating different regions of the same subject. In fact, Delgado recalls has assisted her husband since their meeting
the limbic system, which regulates emo-
turning away more patients than he treat-
at Yale University in the 1950s.
tion, Delgado could also induce fear, ed, including a young woman who was
key’s caudate nucleus, a brain region in-
rage, lust, hilarity, garrulousness and sexually promiscuous and prone to vio-
volved in controlling voluntary move-
other reactions, some of them startling in lence and had repeatedly been confi ned ments. A female in the cage soon
their intensity. In one experiment, Del-
in jails and mental hospitals. Although discovered the lever’s power and yanked
gado and two collaborators at Harvard
both the woman and her parents begged
it whenever the male threatened her. Del-
University stimulated the temporal lobe Delgado to implant electrodes in her, he
gado, who never shied from anthropo-
of a 21-year-old epileptic woman while
refused, feeling that electrical stimula-
morphic interpretations, wrote, “The
she was calmly playing a guitar; in re-
tion was too primitive for a case involv-
old dream of an individual overpowering
sponse, she fl ew into a rage and smashed
ing no discernible neurological disorder.
the strength of a dictator by remote con-
her guitar against a wall, narrowly miss-
Delgado did much more extensive re-
trol has been fulfilled, at least in our
ing a researcher’s head.
search on monkeys and other animals, monkey colonies.”
Perhaps the most medically promis-
often focusing on neural regions that
Delgado’s most famous experiment
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ing fi nding was that stimulation of a lim-
elicit and inhibit aggression. In one dem-
took place in 1963 at a bull-breeding
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bic region called the septum could trigger
onstration, which explored the effects of
ranch in Cordoba, Spain. After inserting
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euphoria, strong enough in some cases to
stimulation on social hierarchy, he im-
stimoceivers into the brains of several
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counteract depression and even physical
planted a stimoceiver in a macaque bully.
“fi ghting bulls,” he stood in a bullring
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pain. Delgado limited his human re-
He then installed a lever in the cage that,
with one bull at a time and, by pressing
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search, however, because the therapeutic
when pressed, pacifi ed the bully by caus-
buttons on a handheld transmitter, con-
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benefi ts of implants were unreliable; re-
ing the stimoceiver to stimulate the mon-
trolled each animal’s actions. In one in-
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C AT LIF TED ITS HIND LEG in response to stimu-
lation by an electrode implanted in its brain.
The cat, Delgado says, displayed no discomfort
in this experiment done in the early 1950s.
other disorders characterized by specifi c
brain signals.
Delgado’s research was supported
not only by civilian agencies but also by
military ones such as the Offi ce of Naval
Research (but never, Delgado insists,
by the Central Intelligence Agency, as
some conspiracy theorists have charged).
Delgado, who calls himself a pacifi st,
says that his Pentagon sponsors viewed
stance, captured in a dramatic photo-
Paddy’s stimoceiver to detect distinctive
his work as basic research and never
graph, Delgado forced a charging bull to
signals, called spindles, spontaneously steered him toward military applica-
skid to a halt only a few feet away from emitted by her amygdala. Whenever the
tions. He has always dismissed specula-
him by stimulating its caudate nucleus.
stimoceiver detected a spindle, it stimu-
tion that implants could create cyborg
The New York Times published a front-
lated the central gray region of Paddy’s soldiers who kill on command, like the
page story on the event, calling it “the brain, producing an “aversive reac-
brainwashed assassin in the novel and
most spectacular demonstration ever tion”—that is, a painful or unpleasant
fi lm versions of The Manchurian Candi-
performed of the deliberate modifi cation sensation. After two hours of this nega-
date. (The assassin was controlled by
of animal behavior through external tive feedback, Paddy’s amygdala pro-
psychological methods in the original
control of the brain.” Other articles duced 50 percent fewer spindles; the fre-
1962 film and by a brain chip in the
hailed Delgado’s transformation of an quency dropped by 99 percent within six
2004 remake.) Brain stimulation may
aggressive beast into a real-life version of
days. Paddy was not exactly a picture of
“increase or decrease aggressive behav-
Ferdinand the bull, the gentle hero of a
health: she became “quieter, less atten-
ior,” he asserts, but it cannot “direct ag-
popular children’s story.
tive and less motivated during behavior-
gressive behavior to any specifi c target.”
In terms of scientific significance, al testing,” Delgado wrote. He nonethe-
Delgado believes his experiment on a fe-
less speculated that this “automatic Envisioning a
male chimpanzee named Paddy deserved
learning” technique could be used to “Psychocivilized Society”
more attention. Delgado programmed quell epileptic seizures, panic attacks or
i n 19 69 de l g a d o described brain-
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stimulation research and discussed
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FIGHTING BULL with a stimoceiver in its brain (below) charged Delgado in a Spanish bullring in
its implications in Physical Control of
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1963 (middle two photographs) and then stopped and turned in response to a radio signal
the Mind: Toward a Psychocivilized So-
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from Delgado ( far right). Critics contended that the stimulation did not quell the bull’s
F
ciety, which was illustrated with photo-
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aggressive instinct, as Delgado suggested, but rather forced it to turn to the left. Delgado,
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graphs of monkeys, cats, a bull and two
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who grew up in Ronda, Spain, a bastion of bullfi ghting, admits he felt “frightened” just before
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his signal made the bull abandon the chase.
young women whose turbans concealed
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stimoceivers. (Female patients “have Delgado briefl y collaborated. (One of FEMALE MACAQUE (far left in fi rst photograph)
shown their feminine adaptability Ervin’s students was Michael Crichton,
learned that by pulling a lever in the cage she
could escape encounters with an alpha male.
to circumstance,” Delgado remarked, who wrote The Terminal Man. The The lever sent a signal to a stimoceiver in his
“by wearing attractive hats or wigs to best-seller, about a bionic experiment brain, pacifying him. The alpha male is in the
conceal their electrical headgear.”) Spell-
gone awry, was inspired by the research
pacifi ed state at the far right in the left image
ing out the limitations of brain stimula-
of Ervin, Mark and Delgado.) In their and has become aggressive in the other shot.
tion, Delgado downplayed “Orwellian book, Violence and the Brain, Ervin Delgado carried out many investigations, such
as this one in the early 1960s, into the effects
possibilities” in which evil scientists en-
and Mark suggested that brain stimula-
of brain stimulation on social interactions.
slave people by implanting electrodes in
tion or psychosurgery might quell the
their brains.
violent tendencies of blacks rioting in accused them of trying to create “a soci-
Yet some of his rhetoric had an inner cities. In 1972 Heath, the Tulane ety in which everyone who deviates from
alarmingly evangelical tone. Neurotech-
psychiatrist, raised more questions about
the norm” will be “surgically mutilat-
nology, he declared, was on the verge of
brain-implant research when he reported
ed.” Quoting liberally from Physical
“conquering the mind” and creating “a
that he had tried to change the sexual Control, Breggin singled out Delgado as
less cruel, happier, and better man.” In a
orientation of a male homosexual by “the great apologist for technologic to-
review in Scientifi c American, the late
stimulating his septal region while he talitarianism.” In his 1973 book Brain
physicist Philip Morrison called Physi-
had intercourse with a female prostitute.
Control, Elliot Valenstein, a neurophys-
cal Control “a thoughtful, up-to-date
The fi ercest opponent of brain im-
iologist at the University of Michigan at
account” of electrical stimulation ex-
plants was psychiatrist Peter Breggin Ann Arbor, presented a detailed scien-
periments but added that its implications
(who in recent decades has focused on tifi c critique of brain-implant research by
were “somehow ominous.”
the dangers of psychiatric drugs). In tes-
Delgado and others, contending that the
In 1970 Delgado’s fi eld was engulfed
timony submitted into the Congressio-
results of stimulation were much less pre-
in a scandal triggered by Frank Ervin nal Record in 1972, Breggin lumped cise and therapeutically benefi cial than
and Vernon Mark, two researchers at Delgado, Ervin, Mark and Heath to-
proponents often suggested. (Delgado
Harvard Medical School with whom gether with advocates of lobotomies and
notes that in his own writings he made
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R
JOHN HORGAN, director of the center
ing his research; the minister’s offer was
Delgado’s work as circumstantial evi-
O
for science writings at the Stevens In-
just too good to refuse. “I said, ‘Could I
dence that the U.S. and Soviet Union
TH
stitute of Technology in Hoboken, N.J.,
have the facilities I have at Yale?’ And he
might have secretly developed methods
U
was a staff writer for Scientifi c Ameri-
said, ‘Oh, no, much better!’”
for remotely modifying people’s
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can from 1986 to 1997 and then, until
In Spain, Delgado shifted his focus to
thoughts. Noting that the power and
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recently, a freelance writer. His books
noninvasive methods of affecting the precision of electromagnetic pulses de-
include The End of Science, The Undis-
brain, which he hoped would be more cline rapidly with distance, Delgado dis-
covered Mind and Rational Mysticism.
medically acceptable than implants. An-
misses these mind-control claims as
ticipating modern techniques such as “science fi ction.”
many of the same points as Valenstein.)
transcranial magnetic stimulation, he in-
Except for these fl ashes of publicity,
Meanwhile strangers started accus-
vented a halolike device and a helmet that
however, Delgado’s work no longer re-
ing Delgado of having secretly implanted
could deliver electromagnetic pulses to ceived the attention it once had. Although
stimoceivers in their brains. One woman
specifi c neural regions. Testing the gad-
he continued publishing articles— espe-
who made this claim sued Delgado and
gets on both animals and human volun-
cially on the effects of electromagnetic
Yale University for $1 million, although teers—including himself and his daugh-
radiation on cognition, behavior and em-
he had never met her. In the midst of this
ter, Linda—Delgado discovered that he
bryonic growth—many appeared only in
brouhaha, Villar Palasi, the Spanish could induce drowsiness, alertness and Spanish journals. Moreover, brain-stim-
minister of health, asked Delgado to help
other states; he also had some success ulation studies back in the U.S. bogged
organize a new medical school at the Au-
treating tremors in Parkinson’s patients.
down in ethical controversies, grants
tonomous University in Madrid, and he
Delgado still could not entirely es-
dried up, and researchers drifted to other
accepted, moving with his wife and two
cape controversy. In the mid-1980s an
fields, notably psychopharmacology,
children to Spain in 1974. He insists that
article in the magazine Omni and docu-
which seemed to be a much safer, more
he was not fl eeing the disputes surround-
mentaries by the BBC and CNN cited effective way to treat brain disorders
Brain Implants Today
When Jose Delgado and a few other intrepid scientists fi rst
began exploring the effects of implanting electrodes in the
brain half a century ago, they could not foresee how many
people would one day benefi t from this line of research. By far
the most successful form of implant, or “neural prosthesis,”
is the artifi cial cochlea. More than 70,000 people have been
equipped with these devices, which restore at least
rudimentary hearing by feeding signals from an external
microphone to the auditory nerve. Brain stimulators have
been implanted in more than 30,000 people suffering from
Parkinson’s disease and other movement disorders (including
17-year-old Kari Weiner, shown at the right). Roughly the same
number of epileptics are being treated with devices that
K ARI WEINER was confi ned to a wheelchair (left) for seven years by
stimulate the vagus nerve in the neck.
dystonia, a condition that causes uncontrollable muscle spasms.
Work on other prostheses is proceeding more slowly.
Now (right) she walks without assistance, thanks to battery-
t
)
Clinical trials are now under way to test brain and vagus nerve
powered electrodes that were implanted in her brain when she was
righ
stimulation for treating disorders such as depression,
13—and to surgeries that then repaired her twisted muscles and
(
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lengthened her tendons.
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obsessive-compulsive disorder, panic attacks and chronic
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pain. Artifi cial retinas—light-sensitive chips that mimic the
experiments with humans have been carried out, with limited
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eye’s signal-processing ability and stimulate the optic nerve
success. Chips that might restore the memory of those
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or visual cortex—have been tested in a handful of blind
affl icted with Alzheimer’s disease or other disorders are still
t
);
subjects, but they usually “see” nothing more than
a year or two away from testing in rats.
lef
(
phosphenes, or bright spots.
R
The potential market for neural prostheses is enormous. An
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Several groups have recently shown that monkeys can
estimated 10 million Americans grapple with major depression;
WE
control computers and robotic arms “merely by thinking,” as
4.5 million suffer from memory loss caused by Alzheimer’s
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media accounts invariably put it—not telekinetically but via
disease; more than two million have been paralyzed by spinal
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implanted electrodes picking up neural signals. The potential
cord injuries, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and strokes; and
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for empowering the paralyzed is obvious, but so far few
more than a million are legally blind.
— J.H.
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DELGADO, holding two of his brain implants in a
photograph taken in August, once wrote that
human ity should shift its mission from the ancient
dictum “Know thyself” to “Construct thyself.”
than brain stimulation or surgery. Only
in the past decade has brain-implant re-
search revived, spurred by advances in
computation, electrodes, microelectron-
ics and brain-scanning technologies—
and by a growing recognition of the lim-
its of drugs for treating mental illness.
Delgado, who stopped doing re-
search in the early 1990s but still follows
the fi eld of brain stimulation, believes
modern investigators fail to cite his stud-
ies not because he was so controversial
but simply out of ignorance; after all,
most modern databases do not include
publications from his heyday in the
1950s and 1960s. He is thrilled by the
resurgence of research on brain stimula-
tion, because he still believes in its poten-
tial to liberate us from psychiatric dis-
eases and our innate aggression. “In the
near future,” he says, “I think we will be
able to help many human beings, espe-
gado points out, require knowing how technology “has two sides, for good and
cially with the noninvasive methods.”
complex information is encoded in the
for bad,” and we should do what we can
Delgado’s successors have faced brain, a goal that neuroscientists are far
to “avoid the adverse consequences.” We
some of the same questions that he did
from achieving. Moreover, learning should try to prevent potentially destruc-
about possible abuses of neurotechnol-
quantum mechanics or a new language
tive technologies from being abused by
ogy. Some pundits have expressed con-
involves “slowly changing connections
authoritarian governments to gain more
cern that brain chips could allow a which are already there,” Delgado says.
power or by terrorists to wreak destruc-
“controlling organization” to “hack into
“I don’t think you can do that suddenly.”
tion. But human nature, Delgado as-
the wetware between our ears,” as New Brain stimulation, he adds, can only serts, echoing one of the themes of Phys-
York Times columnist William Safi re modify skills and capacities that we al-
ical Control, is not static but “dynamic,”
put it. An editorial in Nature recently ready possess.
constantly changing as a result of our
expressed concern that offi cials in the
But Delgado looks askance at the compulsive self-exploration. “Can you
Defense Advanced Research Projects suggestion of the White House Council
avoid knowledge?” Delgado asks. “You
Agency, a major funder of brain-implant
on Bioethics and others that some scien-
cannot! Can you avoid technology? You
research, have openly considered im-
tifi c goals—particularly those that in-
cannot! Things are going to go ahead in
planting brain chips in soldiers to boost
volve altering human nature—should spite of ethics, in spite of your personal
their cognitive capacities. Meanwhile not even be pursued. To be sure, he says, beliefs, in spite of everything.”
some techno-enthusiasts, such as British
computer scientist Kevin Warwick, con-
M O R E T O E X P L O R E
tend that the risks of brain chips are far
Brain Control: A Critical Examination of Brain Stimulation and Psychosurgery. Elliot S.
outweighed by the potential benefi ts,
Valenstein. John Wiley and Sons, 1973. (A contemporaneous scientifi c critique of the work of
which will include instantly “download-
Delgado and other neuroscientists.)
ing” new languages or other skills, con-
Controlling Robots with the Mind. Miguel A. L. Nicolelis and John K. Chapin in Scientifi c
American, Vol. 287, No. 4, pages 46–53; October 2002.
trolling computers and other devices
Rebuilt: How Becoming Part Computer Made Me More Human.
with our thoughts, and communicating
Michael Chorost.
Houghton Miffl in, 2005. (A personal story on the pros and cons of brain implants.)
telepathically with one another.
The President’s Council on Bioethics Web site is at www.bioethics.gov
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Delgado predicts that neurotechnol-
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An overview of modern brain stimulation can be found at
ON
ogies may never advance as far as many
www.bioethics.gov/transcripts/june04/session6.html
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people fear or hope. The applications en-
Other Web sites extol the utopian possibilities of brain stimulation, www.wireheading.com, or
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visioned by Warwick and others, Del-
deplore it as a government mind-control plot, www.mindjustice.org/
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