Reducing Behavior Problems In The Elementary School Classroom
IES PRACTICE GUIDE
WHAT WORKS CLEARINGHOUSE
Reducing Behavior Problems
in the Elementary School Classroom
NCEE 2008-012
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
The Institute of Education Sciences (IES) publishes practice guides in education
to bring the best available evidence and expertise to bear on the types of systemic
challenges that cannot currently be addressed by single interventions or programs.
Authors of practice guides seldom conduct the types of systematic literature searches
that are the backbone of a meta-analysis, although they take advantage of such work
when it is already published. Instead, authors use their expertise to identify the
most important research with respect to their recommendations, augmented by a
search of recent publications to ensure that research citations are up-to-date.
Unique to IES-sponsored practice guides is that they are subjected to rigorous exter-
nal peer review through the same office that is responsible for independent review
of other IES publications. A critical task for peer reviewers of a practice guide is to
determine whether the evidence cited in support of particular recommendations is
up-to-date and that studies of similar or better quality that point in a different di-
rection have not been ignored. Because practice guides depend on the expertise of
their authors and their group decisionmaking, the content of a practice guide is not
and should not be viewed as a set of recommendations that in every case depends
on and flows inevitably from scientific research.
The goal of this practice guide is to formulate specific and coherent evidence-based
recommendations for use by educators to address the challenge of reducing behav-
ior problems in elementary school classrooms. The guide provides practical, clear
information on critical behavior-related topics and is based on the best available
evidence, as judged by the panel. Recommendations presented in this guide should
not be construed to imply that no further research is warranted on the effectiveness
of particular strategies for preventing and intervening with behavior problems.
IES PRACTICE GUIDE
Reducing Behavior Problems
in the Elementary School Classroom
September 2008
Panel
Michael Epstein (Chair)
UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA–LINCOLN
Marc Atkins
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS–CHICAGO
Douglas Cullinan
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERsity
Krista Kutash
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH FLORIDA
RESEARCH AND TRAINING CENTER FOR CHILDREN’S MENTAL HEALTH
Robin Weaver
PRINCIPAL, HARMONY HILLS ELEMENTARY SCHOOL
Sta
Michelle Woodbridge
Jennifer Yu
Mary Wagner
SRI INTERNATIONAL
NCEE 2008-012
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
This report was prepared for the National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional
Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences under Contract ED-07-CO-0062 by the What
Works Clearinghouse, which is operated by Mathematica Policy Research, Inc.
Disclaimer
The opinions and positions expressed in this practice guide are the authors’ and do
not necessarily represent the opinions and positions of the Institute of Education Sci-
ences or the U.S. Department of Education. This practice guide should be reviewed
and applied according to the specific needs of the educators and education agency
using it, and with full realization that it represents the judgments of the review
panel regarding what constitutes sensible practice, based on the research that was
available at the time of publication. This practice guide should be used as a tool
to assist in decisionmaking rather than as a “cookbook.” Any references within the
document to specific education products are illustrative and do not imply endorse-
ment of these products to the exclusion of other products that are not referenced.
U.S. Department of Education
Margaret Spellings
Secretary
Institute of Education Sciences
Grover J. Whitehurst
Director
National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance
Phoebe Cottingham
Commissioner
September 2008
This report is in the public domain. While permission to reprint this publication is
not necessary, the citation should be:
Epstein, M., Atkins, M., Cullinan, D., Kutash, K., and Weaver, R. (2008). Reducing Behav-
ior Problems in the Elementary School Classroom: A Practice Guide (NCEE #2008-012).
Washington, DC: National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance,
Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from http://
ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/publications/practiceguides.
This report is available on the IES website at http://ies.ed.gov/ncee and http://ies.
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Reducing Behavior Problems
in the Elementary School Classroom
Contents
Introduction
1
The What Works Clearinghouse standards and their relevance to this guide
2
Overview
5
Scope of the practice guide
11
Checklist for carrying out the recommendations
13
Recommendation 1. Identify the specifics of the problem behavior and the
conditions that prompt and reinforce it
14
Recommendation 2. Modify the classroom learning environment to decrease
problem behavior
22
Recommendation 3. Teach and reinforce new skil s to increase appropriate
behavior and preserve a positive classroom climate
29
Recommendation 4. Draw on relationships with professional col eagues and
students’ families for continued guidance and support
37
Recommendation 5. Assess whether schoolwide behavior problems warrant
adopting schoolwide strategies or programs and, if so, implement ones shown
to reduce negative and foster positive interactions
44
Appendix A. Postscript from the Institute of Education Sciences
51
Appendix B. About the Authors
54
Appendix C. Disclosure of potential conflicts of interest
56
Appendix D. Technical information on the studies
57
References
72
( iii )
REDuCIng BEhAvIOR PROBlEMS In ThE ElEMEnTARy SChOOl ClASSROOM
List of tables
1. Institute of Education Sciences levels of evidence for practice guides
3
2. Recommendations and corresponding level of evidence to support each
6
3. Example tal y-mark data col ection tool for a high-frequency behavior problem 20
4. Example entry sheet for a low-frequency problem behavior
20
( iv )
Introduction
as those meeting the criteria of the What
Works Clearinghouse (http://ies.ed.gov/
This guide is intended to help elementary ncee/wwc), have a privileged position. In
school educators as well as school and all cases, we pay particular attention to
district administrators develop and imple-
patterns of findings that are replicated
ment effective prevention and intervention across studies.
strategies that promote positive student
behavior. The guide includes concrete rec-
The process for deriving the recommen-
ommendations and indicates the quality of dations began by collecting and examin-
the evidence that supports them. Addition-
ing research studies that have evaluated
ally, we have described some, though not the impacts of individual, classwide, and
all, ways in which each recommendation schoolwide behavioral interventions. Re-
could be carried out. For each recommen-
search conducted in the United States in
dation, we also acknowledge roadblocks the last 20 years was reviewed by the What
to implementation that may be encoun-
Works Clearinghouse (WWC) to determine
tered and suggest solutions that have the whether studies were consistent with WWC
potential to circumvent the roadblocks. standards.
Finally, technical details about the stud-
ies that support the recommendations are Behavioral interventions almost always in-
provided in Appendix D.
clude multiple components. This bundling
of components presents challenges when
We, the authors, are a small group with ex-
reviewing levels of evidence for each rec-
pertise in various dimensions of this topic ommendation because evidence of the im-
and in research methods commonly used pact of specific intervention components
in behavior research. The evidence we on students’ behavior cannot formally be
considered in developing this document attributed to one component of an inter-
ranges from experimental evaluations, to vention. Identification of key components
single-subject research studies,1 to expert of each intervention therefore necessar-
analyses of behavioral intervention strat-
ily relied, to a significant degree, on the
egies and programs. For questions about panel’s expert judgment.
what works best, high-quality experimen-
tal and quasi-experimental studies,2 such After identifying key components of in-
dividual interventions, the interventions
and their key components were placed in
1. Single-subject studies rely on the comparison
of intervention effects on a single participant or
a working matrix that helped us identify
group of single participants, where outcomes of
features that were common to multiple
the participant are compared in nontreatment
interventions and, therefore, were logi-
(baseline) phases and in treatment phases. Some
cal candidates for generally successful
single-subject methods use subsequent with-
practices.
drawal and reapplication of treatment to estimate
effects. Others estimate effects using several
intervention becomes the probable cause of those
baselines with variable-length durations for dif-
differences. Quasi-experimental studies, such as
ferent subjects (see Horner et al. 2005).
studies that match intervention participants with
2. Experimental studies, often called randomized
individuals who are similar on a range of charac-
controlled trials, estimate effects of interventions
teristics, also are used to estimate effects of inter-
by comparing outcomes of participants who are
ventions. However, because quasi-experimental
randomly assigned to experimental and one or
approaches cannot rule out pre-existing differ-
more comparison groups (Schwartz, Flamant,
ences between participants and the group created
and Lellouch 1980). Using random assignment
by matching as reasons for different outcomes,
rules out any pre-existing differences between
they are considered to be less valid approaches
groups as a reason for different outcomes and the
for estimating intervention effects.
( 1 )
IntroductIon
The panel determined the level of evi-
It is important for the reader to remember
dence for each recommendation by con-
that the level of evidence is not a judg-
sidering the effects of the intervention ment by the panel of how effective each of
as determined by the WWC (table 1), the these five recommended practices would
contribution of each component to the be when implemented in a classroom or
impacts found in the evaluation, and the school or of what prior research has to
number of evaluations conducted on the say about an intervention’s effectiveness
behavioral interventions that included the or whether the costs of implementing it
component.3
are worth the benefits it might bestow.
Instead, these levels of evidence ratings
Strong refers to consistent and generaliz-
reflect judgments by the panel of the qual-
able evidence that an intervention strategy ity of the existing research literature to
or program causes an improvement in be-
support a causal claim that when these
havioral outcomes.4
recommended practices have been imple-
mented in the past, positive effects on stu-
Moderate refers either to evidence from dent behaviors have been observed. They
studies that allow strong causal conclu-
do not reflect judgments by the authors
sions but cannot be generalized with as-
of the relative strength of these positive
surance to the population on which a rec-
effects or the relative importance of these
ommendation is focused (perhaps because individual recommendations.
the findings have not been widely repli-
cated) or to evidence from studies that The What Works Clearinghouse
are generalizable but have more causal standards and their relevance to
ambiguity than offered by experimental this guide
designs (statistical models of correlational
data or group comparison designs for For the levels of evidence in table 1, we rely
which equivalence of the groups at pretest on WWC evidence standards to rate the
is uncertain).
quality of evidence supporting behavioral
prevention and intervention programs and
Low refers to expert opinion based on rea-
practices. The WWC addresses evidence for
sonable extrapolations from research and the causal validity of programs and prac-
theory on other topics and evidence from tices according to WWC standards. Infor-
studies that do not meet the standards for mation about these standards is available
moderate or strong evidence.
at http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/references/
review_process. Each study is assessed ac-
3. A number of specific classwide and schoolwide
cording to standards and placed into one
interventions are cited in this guide as examples
of three categories:
of programs that include both components that
align with the panel’s recommendations of ef-
• Meets Evidence Standards for random-
fective strategies to reduce student behavior
ized controlled trials and regression
problems and rigorous research methods in the
discontinuity studies that provide the
study of program effectiveness. Other programs
strongest evidence of causal validity.
with similar components may be available. The
panel recommends that readers consult the WWC
website regularly for more information about in-
• Meets Evidence Standards with Reser-
terventions and corresponding levels of evidence
vations for all single-subject research
(http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/reports/).
studies5 and quasi-experimental studies
4. Following the WWC guidelines, we consider
a positive, statistically significant effect or an
5. At the time this practice guide was developed,
effect size greater than 0.25 as an indicator of
the WWC did not have standards for assessing
positive effects.
the validity of single-subject studies (although a
( 2 )
InTRODuCTIOn
Table 1. Institute of Education Sciences levels of evidence for practice guides
In general, characterization of the evidence for a recommendation as strong requires both studies with
high internal validity (i.e., studies whose designs can support causal conclusions) and studies with high
external validity (i.e., studies that in total include enough of the range of participants and settings on
which the recommendation is focused to support the conclusion that the results can be generalized to
those participants and settings). Strong evidence for this practice guide is operationalized as:
• A systematic review of research that generally meets the standards of the What Works Clearing-
house (WWC) (see http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/) and supports the effectiveness of a program, prac-
tice, or approach with no contradictory evidence of similar quality; OR
Strong
• Several well-designed, randomized controlled trials or well-designed quasiexperiments that gener-
ally meet the WWC standards and support the effectiveness of a program, practice, or approach,
with no contradictory evidence of similar quality; OR
• One large, well-designed, randomized controlled, multisite trial that meets the WWC standards
and supports the effectiveness of a program, practice, or approach, with no contradictory evi-
dence of similar quality; OR
• For assessments, evidence of reliability and validity that meets the Standards for Educational and
Psychological Testing.a
In general, characterization of the evidence for a recommendation as moderate requires studies with
high internal validity but moderate external validity, or studies with high external validity but mod-
erate internal validity. In other words, moderate evidence is derived from studies that support strong
causal conclusions but where generalization is uncertain, or studies that support the generality of a
relationship but where the causality is uncertain. Moderate evidence for this practice guide is opera-
tionalized as:
• Experiments or quasiexperiments generally meeting the WWC standards and supporting the ef-
fectiveness of a program, practice, or approach with small sample sizes and/or other conditions
of implementation or analysis that limit generalizability and no contrary evidence; OR
• Comparison group studies that do not demonstrate equivalence of groups at pretest and there-
Moderate
fore do not meet the WWC standards but that (a) consistently show enhanced outcomes for par-
ticipants experiencing a particular program, practice, or approach and (b) have no major flaws
related to internal validity other than lack of demonstrated equivalence at pretest (e.g., only one
teacher or one class per condition, unequal amounts of instructional time, highly biased outcome
measures); OR
• Correlational research with strong statistical controls for selection bias and for discerning influ-
ence of endogenous factors and no contrary evidence; OR
• For assessments, evidence of reliability that meets the Standards for Educational and Psychological
Testingb but with evidence of validity from samples not adequately representative of the popula-
tion on which the recommendation is focused.
In general, characterization of the evidence for a recommendation as low means that the recommenda-
tion is based on expert opinion derived from strong findings or theories in related areas and/or expert
Low
opinion buttressed by direct evidence that does not rise to the moderate or strong level. Low evidence
is operationalized as evidence not meeting the standards for the moderate or high level.
a. American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, and National Council on Measure-
ment in Education (1999).
b. Ibid.
( 3 )
InTRODuCTIOn
with no design flaws and random-
Following the recommendations and sug-
ized controlled trials that have prob-
gestions for carrying out the recommen-
lems with randomization, attrition, or dations, Appendix D presents more in-
disruption.
formation on the research evidence that
supports each recommendation.
• Does Not Meet Evidence Screens for
studies that do not provide strong evi-
Dr. Michael Epstein
dence of causal validity.6
Dr. Marc Atkins
Dr. Doug Cullinan
Dr. Krista Kutash
panel was being convened to develop evidence
Ms. Robin Weaver
standards for single-subject studies). To ensure
that the single subject studies cited in this report
met basic criteria for supporting causal state-
ments, a special review process was established
for these studies. A review protocol was prepared
to assess the design of each study. This protocol
was reviewed by the chair of the panel develop-
ing evidence standards for single-subject studies.
Five WWC reviewers with backgrounds in single-
subject research methodology received training
6. Studies that were eliminated included those
on this protocol and then applied the protocol
with major design flaws that seriously under-
to the relevant single subject studies. Reviewers
mined the technical adequacy of the research,
were directed to identify issues that could com-
such as comparison studies that did not establish
promise the validity of the study, and these is-
equivalent groups at baseline. In addition, only
sues were examined by a second reviewer. Only
studies conducted in the United States in the last
studies that reviewers deemed valid are refer-
20 years that examine the effects on student be-
enced in this practice guide.
havioral outcomes were included in the review.
( 4 )
Reducing Behavior
Looking to these prevention fundamen-
Problems in the
tals should always be the first step in
Elementary School
promoting good behavior at school. How-
ever, some teachers have a class in which
Classroom
one or a few students exhibit persistent
or significant problem behaviors—those
that are disruptive, oppositional, distract-
Overview
ing, or defiant. Sometimes when a number
of students in a classroom demonstrate
Much of the attention currently given to such behaviors, it can create a chaotic en-
improving students’ academic achieve-
vironment that is a serious impediment
ment addresses issues of curriculum, to learning for all students. In these cases
instructional strategies, and interven-
teachers have exhausted their classroom
tions or services for struggling learn-
management strategies without success-
ers, and rightfully so. However, even fully eliminating the obstacles to learning
after addressing these issues, barriers that problem behaviors pose. The purpose
still remain for some students. An esti-
of this practice guide is to give teachers
mated one-third of students fail to learn additional tools to help them deal proac-
because of psychosocial problems that tively and effectively with behaviors that
interfere with their ability to fully attend seriously or consistently fail to meet class-
to and engage in instructional activities, room expectations.
prompting a call for “new directions for
addressing barriers to learning.”1 These This practice guide offers five concrete
new approaches go beyond explicitly aca-
recommendations (see table 2) to help ele-
demic interventions to take on the learn-
mentary school general education teachers
ing challenges posed by problematic stu-
reduce the frequency of the most common
dent behavior and the ways schools deal types of behavior problems they encoun-
with it. Approaches aimed at improving ter among their students. The recommen-
school and classroom environments, in-
dations begin with strategies teachers can
cluding reducing the negative effects of use immediately on their own initiative in
disruptive or distracting behaviors, can their classrooms (recommendations 1–3),
enhance the chances that effective teach-
then broaden to include approaches that
ing and learning will occur, both for the involve resources from outside the class-
students exhibiting problem behaviors room. We recognize that teachers encoun-
and for their classmates.
ter situations where they need the guid-
ance, expertise, and support of parents
In many schools general education ele-
and other teachers or behavior profession-
mentary classrooms are generally orderly, als (for example, a school psychologist or
teacher-student and student-student rela-
behavior specialist) in the school or com-
tionships are positive, and teaching and munity, and that school administrators
learning go on without major disruption. play a critical role in enabling mentoring
Teachers in such classrooms recognize the and collaborative opportunities for staff
importance of preventing significant be-
(recommendation 4). We also acknowledge
havior problems and are effectively using that the social and behavioral climate of
fundamental prevention tools—engaging a classroom can reflect the climate of the
instruction, well-managed classrooms, school more broadly, and we address the
and positive relationships with students. contributions of schoolwide strategies or
programs to improving student behavior
1. Adelman and Taylor (2005).
(recommendation 5).
( 5 )
OvERvIEW
Table 2. Recommendations and corresponding level of evidence to
support each
Recommendation
Level of evidence
1. Identify the specifics of the problem behavior and the conditions that
prompt and reinforce it. Every teacher experiences difficulty at one time
or another in trying to remedy an individual student’s behavior problem
that is not responsive to preventative efforts. Because research suggests
that the success of a behavioral intervention hinges on identifying the
specific conditions that prompt and reinforce the problem behavior (i.e.,
Moderate
the behavior’s “antecedents” and “consequences”), we recommend that
teachers carefully observe the conditions in which the problem behavior
is likely to occur and not occur. Teachers then can use that information
to tailor effective and efficient intervention strategies that respond to
the needs of the individual student within the classroom context.
2. Modify the classroom learning environment to decrease problem behav-
ior. Many effective classroom-focused interventions to decrease stu-
dents’ problematic behavior alter or remove factors that trigger them.
These triggers can result from a mismatch between the classroom set-
ting or academic demands and a student’s strengths, preferences, or
Strong
skills. Teachers can reduce the occurrence of inappropriate behavior
by revisiting and reinforcing classroom behavioral expectations; rear-
ranging the classroom environment, schedule, or learning activities to
meet students’ needs; and/or individually adapting instruction to pro-
mote high rates of student engagement and on-task behavior.
3. Teach and reinforce new skills to increase appropriate behavior and
preserve a positive classroom climate. We recommend that teachers
actively teach students socially- and behaviorally-appropriate skills
to replace problem behaviors using strategies focused on both indi-
vidual students and the whole classroom. In doing so, teachers help
Strong
students with behavior problems learn how, when, and where to use
these new skills; increase the opportunities that the students have to
exhibit appropriate behaviors; preserve a positive classroom climate;
and manage consequences to reinforce students’ display of positive
“replacement” behaviors and adaptive skills.
4. Draw on relationships with professional colleagues and students’ fami-
lies for continued guidance and support. Social relationships and col-
laborative opportunities can play a critical role in supporting teachers
in managing disruptive behavior in their classrooms. We recommend
Moderate
that teachers draw on these relationships in finding ways to address
the behavior problems of individual students and consider parents,
school personnel, and behavioral experts as allies who can provide
new insights, strategies, and support.
( 6 )
OvERvIEW
5. Assess whether schoolwide behavior problems warrant adopting school-
wide strategies or programs and, if so, implement ones shown to reduce
negative and foster positive interactions. Classroom teachers, in coordi-
nation with other school personnel (administrators, grade-level teams,
and special educators), can benefit from adopting a schoolwide ap-
proach to preventing problem behaviors and increasing positive social
Moderate
interactions among students and with school staff. This type of sys-
temic approach requires a shared responsibility on the part of all school
personnel, particularly the administrators who establish and support
consistent schoolwide practices and the teachers who implement these
practices both in their individual classrooms and beyond.
Source: Authors’ compilation based on analysis described in text.
Fundamental to these recommendations specific behavior a student exhibits, its
is the notion that behavior is learned—
effects on learning, and when, where, and
children’s behaviors are shaped by the how often it occurs. This information can
expectations and examples provided by provide important clues to the underlying
important adults in their lives and by their purpose of the problem behavior and a
peers.2 In the elementary grades, general foundation for developing effective ap-
education classroom teachers are argu-
proaches to mitigate it.
ably the most important adults at school
for the large majority of students. As such, The second recommendation points to
they can play a critical role both in pro-
classroom conditions or activities that
actively teaching and reinforcing appro-
teachers can alter or adapt to influence
priate student behaviors and in reducing the frequency or intensity of problem be-
the frequency of behaviors that impede haviors. When teachers understand the
learning. Accepting responsibility for the behavioral hot spots in their classroom
behavioral learning of all students is a in terms of timing, setting, and instruc-
natural extension of the responsibility for tional activities, for example, they can pro-
the academic learning of all students that actively develop classwide and individual
general education teachers exercise with student strategies (such as a change in
such purpose every day. The goal of this instructional groupings, the seating plan,
practice guide is to help teachers carry out or the order or pace of reading and math
their dual responsibility by recommending instruction) to reduce the contribution of
ways to shape and manage classroom be-
these classroom factors to students’ prob-
havior so that teaching and learning can lem behaviors.
be effective.
The third recommendation recognizes
Understanding what prompts and rein-
that, just as poor academic performance
forces problem behaviors can be a power-
can reflect deficits in specific academic
ful tool for preventing them or reducing skills, some students’ failure to meet be-
their negative impacts when they occur. havioral expectations reflects deficits in
The first recommendation emphasizes specific social or behavioral skills. And
teachers’ gathering information about just as explicit instruction can help stu-
important aspects of problem behaviors dents overcome some academic deficits,
in their classrooms—for example, the explicit instruction can help students learn
the positive behaviors and skills they are
2. Bandura (1977).
expected to exhibit at school. Showing
( 7 )
OvERvIEW
students how they can use appropriate multiple actors (teachers, students, sup-
behaviors to replace problem behaviors port personnel, specialists), multiple set-
and consistently providing positive rein-
tings ( classrooms, hallways, lunch room,
forcement when they do so can increase playground), and multiple goals (enhanc-
students’ chances of experiencing social ing academic performance, encouraging
and behavioral success.
development of the whole child). Positive
behavior is more likely to thrive when re-
Recognizing the collective wisdom and lationships at all levels are trusting and
problem-solving abilities of school staff, supportive and reflect a shared commit-
the fourth recommendation encourages ment to establish a healthy school and
teachers to reach out to colleagues in the community.
school—other classroom teachers, spe-
cial educators, the school psychologist, In the classroom, for example, positive
or administrators—to help meet the be-
teacher-student interactions are at the
havioral needs of their students. Similarly, heart of the recommendation regarding
by engaging family members, teachers can modifying classroom environment and
better understand their students’ behavior instructional factors to improve student
issues and develop allies in intervening behavior. Associations have been found
both at school and at home to help stu-
between positive interactions with teach-
dents succeed. When behavior problems ers and increases in students’ social skills,
warrant the services of behavioral or men-
emotional regulation, motivation, engage-
tal health professionals, teachers are en-
ment, cooperation with classroom rules
couraged to play an active role in ensuring and expectations,4 and academic perfor-
that services address classroom behavior mance. Associations also have been noted
issues directly.
between negative interactions with teachers
and increases in students’ risk for school
The fifth recommendation reflects an un-
failure.5 Teachers show the warmth, re-
derstanding that a teacher may be more spect, and sensitivity they feel for their
successful in creating a positive behavioral students through small gestures, such as
environment in the classroom when there welcoming students by name as they enter
also are schoolwide efforts to create such the class each day, calling or sending posi-
an environment. Just as teachers can docu-
tive notes home to acknowledge good be-
ment and analyze the nature and contexts havior, and learning about their students’
of behavior problems in the classroom, interests, families, and accomplishments
school leadership teams can map the be-
outside of school. Teachers also can help
havioral territory of the school and use the students develop peer friendships by hav-
information to develop prevention strate-
ing them work together, thereby learning to
gies and select and implement schoolwide share materials, follow directions, be polite,
programs for behavior intervention and listen, show empathy, and work out dis-
support when warranted.
agreements. Fostering students’ social and
emotional development can improve their
Several principles run throughout these interactions and attitudes toward school,
recommendations. One relates to the im-
thereby reducing problem behaviors.6
portance of relationships in any focus on
student behavior. Schooling is “an intrin-
sically social enterprise.”3 Student behav-
4. Greenberg et al. (2003); Hamre and Pianta
(2005); Pianta et al. (2002); Solomon et al. (1992);
ior is shaped by and exhibited and inter-
Wentzel (2003); Zins et al. (2004).
preted in a social context that involves 5. Hamre and Pianta (2005).
3. Bryk and Schneider (2002), p. 19.
6. Zins et al. (2004).
( 8 )
OvERvIEW
Enabling the development of strong ing, and systemic process of professional
teacher-teacher relationships in support development”10 that involves building
of collaborative problem-solving regarding trusting relationships among school staff,
student behavior is central to the fourth taking on issues of personal culture and
recommendation. Schools with strong, social disparities, and engaging the entire
trusting staff relationships are more likely school community in creating a welcom-
to have teachers who are willing to engage ing environment for all students and their
in new practices and, consequently, who families.
can help to produce gains in student out-
comes.7 The fifth recommendation also Additionally, the panel recognizes the
reflects the importance of relationships need for and ability of school staff to
in seeking to establish “a schoolwide cul-
translate the recommendations into ac-
ture of social competence.”8 Changes in tions that are appropriate to their specific
practices, structures, or programs within contexts. One clearly important contex-
schools are unlikely to be implemented, tual factor is the age and developmental
sustained, or effective in the long term stage of the students with whom teachers
without concerted attention to enhanc-
work. The ways that recommendations
ing the fundamental relationships within involving rewards for positive behavior
schools.
are carried out, for example, will neces-
sarily look different in 1st and 5th grade
Another principle that underlies the pan-
classrooms, because different forms of
el’s recommendations is the critical need motivation are appropriate to students’
for increased cultural competence in de-
developmental stages. Schools in large
veloping positive relationships in school urban districts often encounter different
and community contexts. As our school kinds and intensities of behavior issues
and community populations become in-
than schools in affluent suburbs and have
creasingly diverse, all school staff are chal-
different forms and levels of resources in
lenged to learn about, become sensitive to, and outside the school to address them.
and broaden their perspectives regarding The panel honors the insights of school
what may be unfamiliar ways of learn-
staff in understanding what will work in
ing, behaving, and relating. Teachers can their schools, classrooms, and communi-
establish an inclusive classroom environ-
ties. Thus, recommendations emphasize
ment through practices such as using and processes and procedures that can be
reinforcing language that is gender neutral adapted to a wide range of contexts rather
and free of stereotypes, selecting curric-
than providing specific recipes that may
ular materials that reflect and honor the have limited applicability.
cultures and life experiences of students
in the class, encouraging and respecting Finally, the recommendations emphasize
the participation of all students in class-
the importance of being data driven. This
room activities, and holding high expecta-
means having current, timely information
tions for all learners.9 School leaders can about behavior problems and successes
be proactive in supporting opportunities at the school, classroom, and student lev-
for expanding the cultural competence of els, such as where and when the behav-
school staff through “a vigorous, ongo-
ioral hot spots occur in the school and
during the school day, which classroom
instructional periods or transitions are
7. Bryk and Schneider (2002).
associated with increased behavioral dis-
8. Vincent, Horner, and Sugai (2002), p. 2.
ruptions, which students exhibit the most
9. Davis (1993); Gay (2000); Harry and Kalyanpur
(1994); Shade, Kelly, and Oberg (1997).
10. Howard (2007), p. 16.
( 9 )
OvERvIEW
challenging behaviors and when they are strategies to improve behavior at school.
most likely to occur, and what strategies Monitoring the effectiveness of strategies
teachers have found to be effective in im-
by continuing to collect and review data
proving classroom behavior. Without a also can support continuous improvement
solid foundation in these kinds of data, to achieve maximum results. Challenging
interventions might not just be ineffective, behaviors are learned over a long period
but might even exacerbate the problems of time; acquiring positive behaviors also
they are meant to solve. Observation and takes time. Monitoring progress and cel-
documentation of student, classroom, and ebrating small achievements along the
school behavior challenges can be invalu-
way can help sustain the efforts needed
able in targeting resources and changing to bring success.
( 10 )
Scope of the
for 80–90 percent of students.14 This em-
practice guide
phasis on prevention is reflected in many
of the panel’s recommendations that in-
volve, for example, collecting data on inci-
The purpose of this practice guide is to dents of problem behaviors, communicat-
help school staff promote positive stu-
ing expectations and reinforcing positive
dent behavior and reduce challenging behaviors, and managing classrooms ef-
behaviors in U.S. elementary schools—
fectively to avoid negative behaviors. We
those serving students in kindergarten draw on the considerable research that
through 5th grades. Because most stu-
explicitly addresses prevention strategies
dents, including students who receive and intervention programs related to chil-
special education services, spend the dren’s behavior and mental health needs
majority of their school day in general in this guide. But the research on the most
education classrooms,11 the teachers in intensive interventions that are provided
those classrooms play a central role in to students with the most serious behavior
influencing students’ behaviors. Thus, problems (tier 3), often outside the general
they are a primary focus of this practice education classroom, is not the primary
guide. Elementary school principals and focus of this guide. Rather, the panel sug-
other administrators also are an audience gests strategies to help general education
for the recommendations presented here classroom teachers address the needs of
because they establish the structures and students for whom preventive approaches
direct the resources needed to support are insufficient to head off behavior prob-
teachers and other school staff in promot-
lems but whose behavior does not warrant
ing positive environments in classrooms removal from their classrooms.
and schoolwide.
A focus on providing recommendations
In the panel’s view, improving the behav-
to help general education teachers deal
ioral climate at school must begin with with problem behaviors in part reflects
an emphasis on prevention—heading off
the fact that many teachers come to the
behavior problems through programs and classroom poorly prepared to manage the
approaches that set, encourage, and rein-
range of behaviors common among today’s
force positive behavioral expectations for students.15 Indeed, only one-third of prin-
all students. These “universal prevention cipals believe that their teachers are well
programs”12 often are described as the first prepared to maintain order in the class-
component of a three-tiered prevention room, and only 30 percent believe that
model13 and, when applied to children’s teachers are well prepared to meet the
behavioral health, are considered to be needs of students with disabilities.16 Im-
effective in preventing behavior problems proving teachers’ preparation in classroom
and behavior management at colleges and
11. Wagner, Marder, and Chorost (2004).
universities could be an important step in
improving students’ behavior at school.
12. Kutash, Duchnowski, and Lynn (2006).
13. Commission on Chronic Illness (1957). The
Further, ongoing professional develop-
three-tiered model of behavioral supports in-
ment provided by districts or schools is
cludes an emphasis on matching the intensity of
the intervention to the severity of the behavior
problem, including primary or universal (school-
14. Office of Special Education Programs (2008);
wide) strategies, secondary targeted intervention
Sugai et al. (2000); Sugai, Sprague, et al. (2000).
efforts, and tertiary or intensive individual sup-
15. Levine (2006); MetLife, Inc. (2006).
port for students with the most severe problems
(Sugai et al. 2000).
16. Levine (2006).
( 11 )
SCOPE Of ThE PRACTICE guIDE
much more likely to focus on building Recommendations for changes to teacher
the instructional skill set of teachers than preparation and teacher professional
on strategies for managing classroom be-
development programs are beyond the
havior. For example, a national study that scope of this practice guide. However, such
involved general education teachers who changes must be addressed by institutions
had students with disabilities in their lan-
of higher education and school districts if
guage arts classes indicated that teach-
teachers and their schools are to be fully
ers received an average of 60 hours per successful in addressing the diversity of
year of professional development, or 180 students’ behavioral support needs.
hours over a three-year period. Yet only
36 percent of students had teachers who Finally, the charge presented to the panel
reported receiving at least 8 hours of pro-
in developing this guide stressed that
fessional development related to behav-
we focus on students’ behavior. There-
ior management in that time, whereas 81 fore, any academic outcomes that might
percent had teachers who received that be attributed to interventions were not
level of professional development related considered to be evidence for their effec-
to reading and language arts instruction.17 tiveness. Only behavioral outcomes were
These data raise the question of whether considered in evaluating the strength of
increasing teachers’ capacity to promote evidence for an intervention. Also, we did
positive student behavior and to deal ef-
not consider the effects of interventions on
fectively with problem behavior should be adults (parents or teachers) in evaluating
a higher priority for both preservice and the evidence for their effectiveness.
ongoing professional development.
Within these parameters, the panel reached
consensus on the five recommendations
17. Special Education Elementary Longitudinal
that follow and on the implementation
Study, Wave 1 Teacher Survey (2001).
steps associated with them.
( 12 )
Checklist for carrying out the
Recommendation 4.
recommendations
Draw on relationships with
professional colleagues and students’
Recommendation 1.
families for continued guidance and
Identify the specifics of the problem
support
behavior and the conditions that
prompt and reinforce it
Collaborate with other teachers for con-
tinued guidance and support.
Concretely describe the behavior prob-
lem and its effect on learning.
Build collaborative partnerships with
school, district, and community behavior
Observe and record the frequency and experts who can consult with teachers when
context of the problem behavior.
problems are serious enough to warrant help
from outside the classroom.
Identify what prompts and reinforces
the problem behavior.
Encourage parents and other family
members to participate as active partners
Recommendation 2.
in teaching and reinforcing appropriate
Modify the classroom learning
behavior.
environment to decrease problem
behavior
Recommendation 5.
Assess whether schoolwide
Revisit, re-practice, and reinforce class-
behavior problems warrant adopting
room behavior expectations.
schoolwide strategies or programs
and, if so, implement ones shown to
Modify the classroom environment to reduce negative and foster positive
encourage instructional momentum.
interactions
Adapt or vary instructional strategies to
Address schoolwide behavior issues by
increase opportunities for academic success involving a school improvement team.
and engagement.
Collect information on the hot spots
Recommendation 3.
throughout the school, such as the frequency
Teach and reinforce new skills to
of particular schoolwide behavior problems
increase appropriate behavior and
and when and where they occur.
preserve a positive classroom climate
Monitor implementation and outcomes
Identify where the student needs ex-
using an efficient method of data collection
plicit instruction for appropriate behavior.
and allow ample time for the program to
work.
Teach skills by providing examples,
practice, and feedback.
If warranted, adopt a packaged inter-
vention program that fits well with identi-
Manage consequences so that reinforc-
fied behavior problem(s) and the school
ers are provided for appropriate behavior context.
and withheld for inappropriate behavior.
( 13 )
Recommendation 1.
recent single-subject studies examined
Identify the specifics of the effectiveness of interventions cho-
the problem behavior
sen for individual students after teach-
ers gathered data on the antecedents
and the conditions that and consequences of students’ problem
prompt and reinforce it behaviors, as opposed to interventions
selected without attention to these fac-
tors.2 Findings demonstrated greater suc-
cess in reducing inappropriate behaviors
Every teacher experiences difficulty
through the use of approaches based
at one time or another in trying to
on the gathered data. An emerging lit-
remedy an individual student’s behavior
erature provides further evidence that
problem that is not responsive to
general educators can play a key role in
preventative efforts. Because research
this information-gathering process by
suggests that the success of a behavior
identifying the context of a problem be-
intervention hinges on identifying the
havior (when, where, and why a problem
specific conditions that prompt and
behavior occurs) and selecting appropri-
reinforce the problem behavior (that
ate strategies that meet students’ needs.
is, the behavior’s “antecedents” and
But more research is needed to deter-
“consequences”), we recommend that
mine whether consistent results can be
teachers careful y observe the conditions obtained when the strategies are imple-
in which the problem behavior of an
mented by a teacher without professional
individual student is likely to occur
consultation.3
and not occur. Teachers then can use
that information to tailor effective and
Brief summary of evidence to
efficient intervention strategies that
support the recommendation
respond to the needs of the individual
student within the classroom context.
Research suggests that identifying the
problem behavior’s specific antecedents
Level of evidence: Moderate
and consequences and then tailoring an
intervention to address the distinct needs
The panel judged the level of evidence of the individual student in the classroom
supporting this recommendation to be context are more likely to yield positive
moderate. A number of single-subject outcomes than an intervention applied
research studies demonstrate the effec-
without attention to the factors prompting
tiveness of behavioral interventions that
are designed to address and modify what
prompts and reinforces the problem be-
to those exhibited by students without school-
identified disabilities in the general education
haviors of special and general educa-
population. Studies include Broussard and Nor-
tion elementary school students.1 Three thup (1995); Ervin et al. (2000); Lane et al. (2007);
Moore, Anderson, and Kumar (2005); Sasso et al.
1. Much of the evidence for this recommendation
(1992); Stahr et al. (2006); Umbreit (1995). For re-
is from studies involving students with school-
search reviews, see Ervin et al. (2001); Heckaman
identified emotional and behavioral disabilities—
et al. (2000); Kern et al. (2002).
some receiving a majority of their education in
2. Ingram, Lewis-Palmer, and Sugai (2005); New-
self-contained classrooms. The panel believes
comer and Lewis (2004); Payne, Scott, and Con-
the evidence is relevant for general education
roy (2007).
teachers because many students with disabili-
ties spend part or all of their day in a general
3. Kamps, Wendland, and Culpepper (2006);
education environment. In addition, behaviors
Lane, Weisenbach et al. (2007); Mueller, Edwards,
exhibited by students with disabilities are similar
and Trahant (2003).
( 14 )
1. IDEnTIfy ThE SPECIfICS Of ThE PROBlEM BEhAvIOR AnD ThE COnDITIOnS ThAT PROMPT AnD REInfORCE IT
and reinforcing it.4 In fact, strategies not tralizing events that may trigger problem
linked to the specific context of a problem behaviors, maintaining consequences for
behavior are associated with increases in appropriate behaviors, and eliminating the
the occurrence of the problem behavior, rewarding consequences of inappropriate
perhaps because such strategies can inad-
behavior (recommendations 2 and 3).
vertently reinforce the misbehavior.5
Three single-subject studies have demon-
The practice of analytically identifying strated the success of an approach that
the purpose of a behavior before select-
specifically identifies and modifies what is
ing and applying an intervention forms prompting and reinforcing problem behav-
the foundation of functional behavioral as-
iors in general education settings, with gen-
sessments6 conducted to support students eral education teachers taking substantive
with emotional disabilities or severe be-
roles in data gathering and in the design
havior problems. It is important to clarify and implementation of behavioral strate-
that although the panel has drawn on the gies. In these studies investigators success-
research evidence from studies in which fully trained general education elementary
teachers contributed to functional behav-
school teachers to respond effectively to in-
ioral assessment processes, we are not appropriate behaviors by following a rein-
suggesting that general education teach-
forcement protocol developed for each stu-
ers conduct formal functional behavioral dent who exhibited problem behaviors—all
assessments and analyses on their own. while teachers fulfilled regular classroom
However, we do believe that teachers can responsibilities and routines.7
benefit from observing and collecting data
on where, when, and why a specific prob-
These studies do not provide enough evi-
lem behavior occurs so they can establish dence to conclude that these practices will
effective and efficient behavioral supports be effective for all students or in all settings.
for all students in their classrooms. This The studies differ in data collection methods
information can assist teachers in fulfilling (using a variety of both direct and indirect
their important classroom duties by neu-
assessment measures such as observations
and interviews), in the extent of assistance
4. Ingram, et al. (2005); Newcomer and Lewis
from behavioral consultants (for example,
(2004); Payne, Scott, and Conroy (2007).
in-school specialists such as school psy-
chologists or outside resources such as
5. Ibid.
community-based behavioral experts), and
6. A functional behavioral assessment identifies
in the methods used to select interventions
and measures a specific problem behavior by de-
and strategies on the basis of accumulated
scribing and analyzing the student’s interactions
knowledge about the problem behavior. As
in his environment to understand variables that
a result, some researchers have called for
contribute to the occurrence of the misbehavior.
There is no standard set of resources and proce-
additional studies to be conducted with a
dures to conduct a functional behavioral assess-
variety of target behaviors across different
ment, but often it includes a variety of indirect
settings because of concerns regarding in-
assessments (for example, teacher interviews,
consistencies when the approach involves
parent interviews, or school records review),
different types of students, school-based
direct assessments (such as classroom observa-
personnel, and assessment methods.8
tions or standardized behavior checklists), and
data analysis conducted by the school psycholo-
gist or other behavioral experts to determine
7. Kamps et al. (2006); Lane, Weisenbach, et al.
whether there are patterns associated with the
(2007); Mueller et al. (2003).
behavior. For a review of sample methods and
procedures to conduct a functional behavioral
8. Gresham (2004); Gresham et al. (2004); Sasso
assessment, see O’Neill et al. (1997).
et al. (2001); Scott et al. (2005).
( 15 )
1. IDEnTIfy ThE SPECIfICS Of ThE PROBlEM BEhAvIOR AnD ThE COnDITIOnS ThAT PROMPT AnD REInfORCE IT
Nevertheless, the evidence suggests that • Silvia frequently leaves her seat with-
the practice of understanding a problem
out permission during small-group
behavior’s context can yield an effective
instruction.
intervention to change the behavior. We
offer guidelines and examples on how It is equally important to assess the be-
general education teachers can adopt havior’s impact on student learning. Mis-
these practices. Still, teachers who be-
behavior that is brief and does not seri-
lieve they are not equipped to handle a ously interfere with learning (such as short
student’s behavior problem alone should instances of daydreaming, talking during
seek ways to collaborate with other school transitions, or momentary inattention)
staff, including general education teach-
should be addressed without interrupt-
ers, special education teachers, school ing instruction through eye contact or
counselors, school psychologists, and physical proximity, for example.9 Behav-
administrators (as described in recom-
ior warrants immediate and additional at-
mendation 4). As teachers gain experience tention if it:
and confidence in their ability to observe
and collect data on target behaviors, we • Persists, escalates, or spreads to other
believe their capacity for selecting and
students.
designing effective strategies to engage
students with behavioral difficulties will • Lessens the student’s or other stu-
grow.
dents’ ability to successfully engage
in learning.
How to carry out the
recommendation
• Detracts from a positive classroom
climate.
1. Concretely describe the behavior problem
and its effect on learning.
• Deviates significantly from the devel-
opmentally appropriate behavior of
When a student repeatedly displays off-
other students.
task behavior, it is important to define the
specific behavior and pinpoint the setting • Causes other students or adults to
(or settings) in which it occurs. We recom-
avoid interacting with the student.
mend that teachers describe the behavior
problem in concrete terms that are easy to • Threatens the safety of students or
communicate to the student and simple to
the teacher.10
measure. If descriptions of behaviors are
vague (for example, “Jacob is always dis-
Teachers also should weigh other impor-
ruptive”), it is difficult to assess the extent tant factors as they try to understand a
of the problem, when and where it most student’s behavior:
often occurs, and how to intervene appro-
priately. Examples of concrete descriptions • Could the behavior reflect a cultural
of problem behaviors are:
difference? Some behaviors, such as a
student’s persistent lack of eye contact
• Abraham blurts out answers without
or unwillingness to compete against
raising his hand during whole-class
instruction.
9. Evertson, Emmer, and Worsham (2006).
10. Wolery, Bailey, and Sugai (1988) review char-
• Thanh is physically aggressive toward acteristics of problem behaviors that warrant at-
his peers (hits, kicks, punches) during tention due to the behavior’s impact on class-
recess.
room climate and instructional time.
( 16 )
1. IDEnTIfy ThE SPECIfICS Of ThE PROBlEM BEhAvIOR AnD ThE COnDITIOnS ThAT PROMPT AnD REInfORCE IT
peers, may be indicative of a student’s to note about each instance of the behav-
cultural background.11 Teachers should ior includes:
account for differences in cultural back-
ground when assessing the severity of • Time of day.
students’ behavior problems.
• Classroom location (for example, com-
• Does the student have the academic
puter center, reading area).
or behavioral skills necessary to meet
expectations? Students with skill defi-
• Subject matter being taught.
cits may exhibit behavior problems to
help them avoid or escape tasks that • Type of learning activity.
are difficult for them. Teachers should
frequently assess students’ abilities • Difficulty of the task.
and help them build requisite skills
for appropriate behavior (see recom-
• Presence of particular peers or adults.
mendation 3).
Teachers might also consult with parents
• Could the behavior reflect episodic about whether they see similar behavior
stress or trauma? A student’s behavior at home and, if so, the specific context of
may be a temporary reaction to a diffi-
its occurrence (for example, with adults
cult event, such as the death or illness or peers). Once these data are collected,
of a family member. Regular commu-
teachers may decide to discuss the findings
nication with students’ families helps with colleagues or local school or district
teachers be understanding and sup-
behavior experts (see recommendation 4).
portive when events in students’ lives Patterns revealed by this information will
affect them in school.
provide important clues as to what prompts
the problem behavior, when it is most likely
2. Observe and record the frequency and to happen, and what reinforces it.
context of the problem behavior.
3. Identify what prompts and reinforces the
Teachers should carefully observe and problem behavior.
record key information about a student’s
persistent problem behavior in different Because students learn to behave in ways
settings and during different activities that satisfy a need or result in a desired
(for example, during solitary time, group outcome, we recommend that teachers ex-
assignments, unstructured peer interac-
amine the frequency and context data they
tions) to understand better the contexts have collected to figure out the prompts
in which it does and does not occur. De-
and payoffs for a particular student’s
pending on the frequency of the behav-
misbehavior.
ior problem, teachers should make note
of its occurrence over the course of a Teachers should carefully examine triggers
few days to a week until clear patterns that may prompt a student’s misbehavior by
emerge between the behavior and envi-
asking themselves when, where, and with
ronmental conditions.12 Key information whom problem behaviors are most likely
to occur. Common environmental triggers
11. See, for example, Gay (2000); Harry and Ka-
usually cluster in three general categories:
lyanpur (1994); Shade et al. (1997).
12. O’Neill et al. (1997). See roadblock 1.1 for fur-
• Curricular variables (tasks that are too
ther recommendations on how (and how often)
hard, easy, boring, or unstructured for
to document behavior problems.
the student).
( 17 )
1. IDEnTIfy ThE SPECIfICS Of ThE PROBlEM BEhAvIOR AnD ThE COnDITIOnS ThAT PROMPT AnD REInfORCE IT
• Social variables (small or large group it (its antecedents) and after the mis-
settings or the presence of particular behavior to reinforce or decrease it (its
individuals).
consequences).
• Setting variables (for example, time What happened before (antecedent): A dif-
of the day or week; distractions at ficult concept in math was modeled to the
home or in class; or the student’s phys-
class and students were called on to work
ical states, such as fatigued, ill, or problems at the board.
hungry).13
Behavior: Michael distracted and teased
We recommend that teachers also care-
students who were participating in whole
fully reflect on what usually happens after class exercises in math. The disruptive
the behavior occurs, including how they behavior recurred two days later during
react, how other students react, and the a math lesson.
consequences that may be reinforcing the
behavior. Reinforcers of a student’s persis-
What happened after (consequence): Verbal
tent problem behavior usually derive from reminders, physical proximity, and finally
two common outcomes—the student’s at-
removal from class (allowing student to
tempt either to get something, such as at-
avoid doing the math lesson).
tention or access to a preferred activity,
or to escape something, such as demands, The teacher observed that the disruptive
reprimands, or difficult tasks.14
behaviors only occurred during math, in-
dicating that Michael may have wanted to
Consider this example:
avoid engaging in the lesson. The teacher
asked herself if the concept was too dif-
Michael’s disruptive behavior during math ficult or too easy to sustain his attention
instruction is distracting others from par-
and gauged the developmental appro-
ticipating and learning. When the teacher priateness of Michael’s behavior against
asks three students to solve a problem the instructional and disciplinary strat-
at the board, Michael teases the students egies in play. She realized that removal
when they walk past his desk. The snide of Michael from the classroom may have
remarks continue while they are solving inadvertently reinforced his disruptive
the problems, and at one point, Michael behavior because it allowed him to avoid
takes the pencils off one of the student’s doing the task. Because the context for
desk and hides them in his desk. When the the disruptive behavior was identified, the
teacher’s reprimand is not effective, she teacher planned to adjust the antecedent
moves closer to his desk to monitor his and consequences by using the develop-
behavior. This only causes Michael’s mis-
mentally appropriate strategies described
behavior to escalate and further disrupt below, and to continue to observe his be-
the lesson, so she sends him out of class havior to evaluate the success of her new
to the principal’s office.
approach.
To anticipate Michael’s disruptive behav-
Adjusted antecedents: Forewarn Michael
ior and adjust environmental triggers and when new concepts will be introduced in
reinforcers, his teacher noted what hap-
math and tell him he will be one of the
pened before the misbehavior to prompt students called on to offer an answer to
a problem. Gauge Michael and his class-
mates’ understanding of the new concept
13. O’Neill et al. (1997).
by asking several questions and offering a
14. Ibid.
variety of problems for students to solve.
( 18 )
1. IDEnTIfy ThE SPECIfICS Of ThE PROBlEM BEhAvIOR AnD ThE COnDITIOnS ThAT PROMPT AnD REInfORCE IT
Adjust the difficulty of the problems on schedule and make a simple tally under
the basis of the students’ success.
the time of day and lesson activity when
the target behavior occurs (see table 3).16
Consequences: If misbehavior occurs, take Over time patterns should become appar-
Michael aside and remind him of behavior ent, showing when the behavior is more
expectations during whole-group lessons. likely and less likely to occur. For a behav-
Describe how the observed behavior af-
ior of low frequency teachers can make a
fects students’ learning. If behavior per-
very brief entry in a notebook or journal
sists, give Michael a choice of participating during transition periods (for example, at
in the lesson or relocating to a designated recess or between lessons) or at the end
area to work on problems independently of the day about the immediate anteced-
until he is ready to return to the whole ents and consequences of the target be-
group.
havior (see table 4).17 After recording and
reviewing a number of these observations,
As demonstrated in the example, teach-
teachers should be able to denote pat-
ers’ attention to the antecedents and con-
terns in the frequency and triggers of the
sequences of reoccurring behavior prob-
misbehavior.
lems can inform the development of more
effective and efficient behavioral support Roadblock 1.2. “This class has so many
strategies to prevent or reduce behaviors behavior problems, I don’t know where to
that interfere with successful classroom start.” Students’ problem behaviors can be
learning.
a source of great frustration and confusion
to teachers, especially when they are per-
Potential roadblocks and solutions
sistent and appear to be inexplicable.
Roadblock 1.1. “I don’t know how to col-
Suggested Approach. Multiple problem
lect all this information about behavior behaviors, such as disruption, inattention,
problems when I’m trying to teach a room and noncompliance, often originate from
full of students.” General education teach-
similar student needs, so by concentrating
ers in public schools must attend to, on on one behavior in one setting, teachers
average, more than 20 students in their may have a positive impact on others. We
classroom,15 so to add data collection re-
suggest that the teacher identify one prior-
sponsibilities to their tasks can seem im-
ity behavior problem—not necessarily the
practical or impossible.
most troublesome or disruptive—on which
to focus initial efforts. By assessing the an-
Suggested Approach. We recommend tecedents and consequences that prompt
keeping methods of information gathering and reinforce the problem behavior and
very simple. For example, if the problem developing strategies that specifically link
behavior occurs several times a day, we to the underlying function of the student’s
recommend that teachers record occur-
rences over just a few days. If the prob-
lem behavior occurs infrequently (such as 16. The example data collection tool was adapted
from O’Neill et al. (1997), p. 29. In table 3, each
a few times a week), we recommend that tally mark represents an occurrence of the high-
teachers gather data over one or two weeks frequency target behavior.
to be sure to include enough instances of
the behavior to inform a plan for inter-
17. The example data collection tool was adapted
from O’Neill et al. (1997), p. 33. Using table 4,
vention. For daily observations teachers teachers can enter information about low-fre-
can use a chart of their daily classroom quency problem behaviors by describing the
behavior in concrete terms and its antecedent(s)
15. U.S. Department of Education (2004).
and consequence(s).
( 19 )
1. IDEnTIfy ThE SPECIfICS Of ThE PROBlEM BEhAvIOR AnD ThE COnDITIOnS ThAT PROMPT AnD REInfORCE IT
Table 3. Example tally-mark data collection tool for a high-frequency behavior problem
Name:
Directions: Mark a tally under the time and day when behavior problems occur with the student.
Time/Lesson
Mon
Tues
Weds
Thur
Fri
Mon
Tues
Weds
Thurs
Fri
Opening
7:50–8:05
Language Arts
8:05–9:05
I
I
Recess
9:05–9:25
Social Science/Science
9:25–10:25
Math
10:25–11:45
I I I
I
I I
I I I I
I
I I
I I
I I I
I I
I I I
Lunch
11:45–12:15
Reading
12:15–1:15
I
I I
I
PE/Technology
1:15–2:15
Closing/Dismiss
2:15–2:30
I I
Source: Authors’ adaptation from O’Neill et al. (1997), p. 29.
Table 4. Example entry sheet for a low-frequency problem behavior
Name:
Date:
Class Period:
Antecedents:
What happens before
Behavior:
Consequences:
the problem behavior?
What does it look like?
What happens after the
(curricular, social, and set-
(frequency, duration,
problem behavior?
ting variables)
intensity)
(reactions and reinforcers)
When, where, and with whom How often does the problem How do you react?
is the problem behavior most behavior occur?
likely to occur? Least likely to
How does the student react?
occur? (for example, during How long does it last?
solitary time, group assign-
How do other students react?
ments, or unstructured peer How serious is it?
interactions)
Source: Authors’ adaptation from O’Neill et al. (1997), p. 33.
( 20 )
1. IDEnTIfy ThE SPECIfICS Of ThE PROBlEM BEhAvIOR AnD ThE COnDITIOnS ThAT PROMPT AnD REInfORCE IT
behavior, there may be immediate relief from the playground.” Some teachers rec-
of problems across multiple settings and ognize that disruptions outside the class-
even across other problem behaviors and room can carry over and disrupt learning
students. When such improvements are within it, but they are unsure how to deal
noted, however small, celebrate those suc-
with it or do not feel it is their responsibil-
cesses with the students involved to en-
ity to correct such problems.
courage behavior improvements in other
contexts.
Suggested Approach. To maintain posi-
tive behaviors in the classroom, we rec-
Roadblock 1.3. “I identified the trigger for ommend that teachers agree together
the problem behavior and applied an inter-
to invest time and attention in monitor-
vention, but the student is still misbehav-
ing behaviors that ensue throughout the
ing.” Sometimes problem behaviors persist school (see recommendation 5). By step-
following careful selection and implemen-
ping out of the classroom and observing
tation of an intervention.
lunchtime or recess activities, teachers
can identify where behavior problems
Suggested Approach. First, it is impor-
tend to erupt, the antecedents and conse-
tant to be sure that the intervention has quences of those problem behaviors, and
been given enough time to work. As a gen-
where increased adult supervision or be-
eral rule, teachers should stick with an havioral interventions may be warranted
intervention for about a month or more to improve the situation. Brief but regu-
to adequately assess its effect on problem lar conversations between general educa-
behavior. It is not uncommon for teachers tion teachers and other staff (for example,
to observe a rebound effect, the worsening lunchroom and recess aides, P.E. teach-
of behavior problems following an initial ers, and music teachers) can bridge sup-
decrease, so patience and persistence are port systems responsible for supervising
important. It also is important to remem-
students’ behavior inside and outside the
ber that a single problem behavior may classroom. Teachers also can inform stu-
stem from multiple triggers, so sometimes dents that their behavior will continue to
a succession of changes in classroom con-
be monitored outside the classroom and
ditions is required to remedy one problem that in-class rewards and consequences
behavior. Thus, we suggest that teachers will be administered accordingly.
continue to collect data and observe any
recurrences of a problem behavior after In addition, to calm and focus students
an initial intervention has been imple-
after they reenter the classroom from an
mented, identify antecedents and conse-
outside activity or class, teachers can im-
quences, and assess if there might be an-
plement a brief cool down period before
other explanation for the behavior. With beginning a lesson. The structure and du-
this additional information, teachers can ration of the cool down can be adjusted
try another approach that responds to the to the students’ developmental levels.
function of the misbehavior and continue For example, younger elementary stu-
to collect data to assess the effectiveness dents could be expected to refocus their
of the intervention.
attention after the conclusion of a song;
older elementary students may need just
Roadblock 1.4. “The problem isn’t in my a 10-second countdown before proceeding
classroom—it travels into my classroom with instruction.
( 21 )
Recommendation 2.
implementation and reinforcement of
Modify the classroom
well defined classroom rules is associated
learning environment
with positive student behavior in both
the classroom and other school settings,
to decrease problem
such as the playground and hallways.20
behavior
More recently, three randomized con-
trolled trials,21 one quasi-experimental
design,22 and six single-subject research
studies23 demonstrate empirical support
Many effective classroom-focused
for (1) preventative classroom manage-
interventions to decrease students’
ment, with particular emphasis on teach-
problematic behavior alter or remove
ers’ attention to specific environmental
factors that trigger them. These
variables that evoke problem behaviors;24
triggers can result from a mismatch
and for (2) direct and differentiated in-
between the classroom setting or
structional strategies to increase stu-
academic demands and students’
dent engagement and decrease problem
strengths, preferences, or skills.18
behaviors.25
Teachers can reduce the occurrence
of inappropriate behavior by revisiting
Brief summary of evidence to
and reinforcing classroom behavior
support the recommendation
expectations; rearranging the
classroom environment, schedule, or
Research demonstrates that teachers who
learning activities to meet students’
proactively decrease problem behaviors
needs; and/or individually adapting
implement classroom management ap-
instruction to promote high rates
proaches that:
of student engagement and on-task
behavior.
• Establish an orderly and positive class-
room environment by teaching and re-
Level of evidence: Strong
inforcing rules and routines.
The panel rated the level of evidence
for this recommendation as strong. This 20. For example, see reviews by Kern and Cle-
recommendation reflects best prac-
mens (2007); Sugai and Horner (2002); Sugai,
tices in elementary classroom manage-
Horner, and Gresham (2001).
ment and pedagogy, as defined and ar-
21. Evertson (1989); Ialongo et al. (2001); Ialongo
ticulated by experts in the field since et al. (1999).
the early 1970s.19 Research across de-
22. Heller and Fantuzzo (1993).
cades has demonstrated that consistent 23. Dunlap et al. (1994); DuPaul et al. (1998);
Kern, Bambara, and Fogt (2002); Kern et al. (1994);
Kern, Mantegna, et al. (2001); Nelson, Johnson,
18. Kern and Clemens (2007) provide a rationale
and Marchand-Martella (1996).
for the use of antecedent strategies that focus on
structuring the classroom environment to pre-
24. Dunlap et al. (1994); Evertson (1989); Ialongo
vent behavior problems and enhance student
et al. (2001); Ialongo et al. (1999); Kern, Bam-
motivation.
bara, and Fogt (2002); Kern et al. (1994); Kern,
Mantegna, et al. (2001). For relevant research
19. For example, Axelrod and Mathews (2003);
reviews, see Davis et al. (2004); Kern and Clem-
Bear (1998); Brophy (1983); Doyle (1992); Evertson
ens (2007).
et al. (2006); Evertson and Harris (1995); Good
and Brophy (2003); Hall and Hall (1998–2004);
25. DuPaul et al. (1998); Heller and Fantuzzo
Kellam (1999); Kounin (1970); Walker (1995);
(1993); Nelson, Johnson, and Marchand-Martella
Walker, Colvin, and Ramsey (1995).
(1996).
( 22 )
2. MODIfy ThE ClASSROOM lEARnIng EnvIROnMEnT TO DECREASE PROBlEM BEhAvIOR
• Reinforce the appropriate behavior of In addition, two randomized controlled
individuals and groups of students.
trials evaluated the effectiveness of train-
ing teachers to use comprehensive class-
• Practice instructional principles that room management approaches with the
incorporate presentation of new mate-
goals of reducing students’ time off task
rials with modeling and practice.
(the Classroom Organization and Manage-
ment Program) and disruptive behaviors in
• Offer a variety of activities and mate-
the classroom (the Incredible Years Train-
rials at a pace and level of difficulty ing for Teachers Series).30 Participants in
appropriate to the range of student both programs were trained to create and
abilities in the class.
maintain well-organized classrooms and
to use the instructional and skill-building
• Encourage collaborative peer support strategies as prescribed. Only the investi-
(peer tutoring) as an instructional gators examining the Classroom Organiza-
strategy.
tion and Management Program were able
to demonstrate that students significantly
Three randomized controlled trials26 and increased their task engagement and re-
one single-subject study27 have demon-
duced their inappropriate behavior as a
strated that group contingency programs—
result of their teachers’ participation in
where teachers clearly specify behavioral the training.31
goals and their students work in teams
to maintain appropriate behavior—are Studies examining direct instruction prac-
effective in both preventing and then in-
tices in a single-subject alternating treat-
tervening with behavior problems when ment design suggest that lessons delivered
implemented in well managed classrooms. in small steps, at the appropriate level of
Significant benefits of group contingency difficulty, and with ample opportunities
programs28 modeled after the Good Behav-
for practice result in higher levels of on-
ior Game29 have been shown across grade task behavior and student engagement.32
levels and settings, for different target Single-subject research data also support
behaviors (for example, shyness and ag-
the practice of increasing the number of
gression), and both immediately and five opportunities that students have to re-
years after the intervention with hundreds spond to academic or social prompts,
of students.
thereby increasing academic engaged time
26. Dolan et al. (1993); Ialongo et al. (2001);
30. Evertson (1989); Webster-Stratton, Reid, and
Ialongo et al. (1999).
Hammond (2004).
27. Lohrmann and Talerico (2004).
31. Evertson (1989). In the study of the Incred-
28. Teachers use contingency programs when
ible Years Training for Teachers Series (Webster-
they apply techniques to reinforce appropriate
Stratton, Reid, and Hammond 2004), the authors
behavior to the class as a whole in order to benefit
reported statistically significant reductions in
from students’ peer support in enhancing the be-
conduct problems after 6 months. However, when
havior of an individual or group of students. For
WWC reviewers applied a multiple comparison
example, teachers can divide the class into teams,
adjustment to the analyses, the findings showed
reward teams with checkmarks when they display
no statistically significant differences between
appropriate behavior during an activity, and allow
the outcomes of the intervention and compari-
the winning team with the most checkmarks a
son students.
special reward, such as extra computer time.
32. Nelson et al. (1996). See relevant research re-
29. Barrish, Saunders, and Wolf (1969). The Good
views by Adams and Engelmann (1996); Rivera,
Behavior Game manual is available at: http://www.
Al-Otaiba, and Koorland (2006); Rosenshine and
jhsph.edu/prevention/Publications/gbg.pdf.
Stevens (1986).
( 23 )
2. MODIfy ThE ClASSROOM lEARnIng EnvIROnMEnT TO DECREASE PROBlEM BEhAvIOR
and fluency with the material and reduc-
and corresponding classroom routines to
ing inappropriate behavior.33
students at the beginning of the year and
revisit them regularly, showing students
A series of four single-subject research clearly what to do and what not to do.38
studies also have demonstrated the effec-
A key assumption underlying the panel’s
tiveness of increasing opportunities for recommendation is that consistently imple-
student choice as an intervention that de-
menting and reinforcing well defined class-
creases inappropriate behaviors. Choice room rules and expectations will result in
can be embedded in academic tasks in var-
positive student behavior in both the class-
ious ways, including by offering students room and in other key school settings, such
a choice of the specific task to complete,34 as the playground and hallways.39 Expecta-
materials to use,35 and the sequence of ac-
tions should be conveyed daily through ex-
tivities to tackle.36
plicit teaching strategies, modeling positive
behavior, and building positive relation-
Finally, one randomized controlled trial ships among students and adults. Students
and one single-subject study have dem-
need concrete, positively-stated guidelines
onstrated the effectiveness of structured on how to conduct themselves in a variety
classwide peer tutoring programs, such of situations, including:
as the Peer Assisted Learning Strategies,
for improving the classroom behavior of • Arriving at and leaving the classroom.
students with behavior problems.37 Peer
tutoring, where students work in pairs as • Distributing materials and turning in
a tutor and tutee, has been shown to im-
assignments.
prove students’ academic engagement and
learning, help students develop coopera-
• Requesting help from the teacher.
tive work habits, increase positive social
interactions among students, and reduce • Transitioning to new activities or
off-task behaviors.
settings.
How to carry out the
• Experiencing interruptions in rou-
recommendation
tines, such as fire drills or substitute
teachers.
1. Revisit, re-practice, and reinforce class-
room behavioral expectations.
• Working independently and in groups.
Teachers should actively teach expecta-
• Returning from recess or another class
tions for appropriate student behavior
(art, music, or P.E.).
33. Sutherland, Alder, and Gunter (2003).
We recommend that teachers provide stu-
dents with ample time to learn each step in
34. Dunlap et al. (1994); Kern, Bambara, and
Fogt (2002).
35. Kern et al. (1994).
38. Sugai and Horner (2002) provide helpful
guidelines in establishing a small set of pos-
36. Kern, Mantegna, et al. (2001).
itively-stated classwide rules. One important
37. Heller and Fantuzzo (1993); DuPaul et al.
principle to keep in mind is that classroom rules
(1998). For reviews of relevant research, see Ri-
should align with and support schoolwide rules,
vera et al. (2006); Ryan, Reid, and Epstein (2004).
as described more fully in recommendation 5.
For information about Peer Assisted Learning
39. For example, see reviews by Kern and Cle-
Strategies (PALS), see Fuchs et al. (2008); http://
mens (2007); Sugai and Horner (2002); Sugai et
kc.vanderbilt.edu/pals/.
al. (2001).
( 24 )
2. MODIfy ThE ClASSROOM lEARnIng EnvIROnMEnT TO DECREASE PROBlEM BEhAvIOR
the desired routine and to practice them, individual assignments and providing ad-
with more time and practice provided to ditional practice and praise for expected
younger elementary students who are new behaviors while withholding reinforcers
to learning how to behave in a school en-
for inappropriate behaviors. Mr. Boyle
vironment and among peers. In fact, for also can consider implementing individ-
students in the primary grades teachers ual contingencies (for example a token
should consider practicing behavioral ex-
system where individual students who
pectations daily for the first few weeks of follow a specific expectation earn points
school, and then reserving at least brief or tokens that can be exchanged for a re-
(about 10 minutes) instructional and prac-
ward of choice, such as a preferred activ-
tice periods in their weekly class schedule ity) or group contingencies (where rewards
or as needed, such as when new expecta-
are contingent on individual student be-
tions arise or students lapse into inap-
havior or the behavior displayed by the
propriate behaviors. Younger elementary whole class) to increase student motiva-
students also can benefit from constant tion and compliance with classroom rules
visual reminders, such as pictures that and routines.
are enlarged and posted in the classroom
of students exhibiting expected behaviors Research has demonstrated the effective-
(for example, sitting at their desk, cleaning ness of group contingency programs for
a learning center, or lining up for recess). both preventing and intervening with be-
Older elementary school students might havior problems.40 When students know
also need reminders about behavioral ex-
and master classroom behavioral expec-
pectations, particularly after vacations. tations, we recommend that teachers
Taking time at the beginning of the school gradually reduce prompts for appropriate
year and revisiting expectations regularly behavior and allow routines to be initi-
will develop students’ ownership of a posi-
ated by normal events (the bell ringing).41
tive classroom environment.
Similarly, artificial rewards, such as to-
kens, gradually can be replaced by other
Teachers who start the school year with forms of reinforcement and natural con-
well-ordered classrooms might still find sequences, such as allowing students who
occasions when students need behavioral clean up quickly to use their extra time to
expectations to be reestablished.
do a preferred activity.
Consider this example:
2. Modify the classroom environment to en-
courage instructional momentum.
Mr. Boyle has been frustrated with his 4th
grade students’ behavior since returning For persistent behavior problems we rec-
from winter break. More and more stu-
ommend that teachers identify and mod-
dents have become loud and distracting ify specific environmental variables that
during whole-class lessons. When work-
precede problem behavior, such as the
ing with small groups, he is interrupted classroom layout, agenda, procedures and
by students wanting help on their indi-
routines, and teaching strategies, so that
vidual assignments. Other students wan-
the classroom environment no longer con-
der around the room, talk with their seat tributes to problem behaviors.
mates, and make little progress on their
own work.
40. For example, Barrish et al. (1969); Dolan et al.
(1993); Ialongo et al. (2001); Ialongo et al. (1999);
The class may benefit from Mr. Boyle re-
Lannie and McCurdy (2007); Lohrmann and Ta-
stating and posting instructions and ex-
lerico (2004).
pectations for behavior during group and 41. Harvey et al. (2003); Lewis et al. (2004).
( 25 )
2. MODIfy ThE ClASSROOM lEARnIng EnvIROnMEnT TO DECREASE PROBlEM BEhAvIOR
We recommend that teachers revisit their
to do, but teachers can incorporate
daily lesson plans and schedule and ask
some choice when options are nego-
themselves, for example:
tiable, such as the order or number of
activities, the choice of materials to
• Do I schedule the most academically
use, alternative ways to demonstrate
demanding activities during the times
mastery (for example, writing a poem
of day when most students’ engage-
or story), or the structure of the task
ment is high? Teachers also should
(such as working with a partner or
consider scheduling preferred activi-
independently).
ties after rigorous lessons to increase
students’ incentive to participate (for • Do I manage transitions quickly and ef-
example, conducting math lessons be-
ficiently? In many classrooms a signifi-
fore recess).
cant proportion of class time (about 25
percent, on average) is spent on tran-
• Is my teaching strategy appropriate for
sitional activities such as gathering
the lesson? Teachers should consider
and putting away materials, listening
using multiple strategies (for example,
to nonacademic directions, and wait-
whole-class, small-group, and indi-
ing for help or for the next activity to
vidual-work formats) in various loca-
begin, resulting in a large loss to aca-
tions in the classroom (for example, at
demic engaged time.43 To minimize
desks, on the floor, in group settings,
this loss of instructional momentum,
and in learning centers) to keep stu-
we recommend that teachers prepare
dents engaged in learning tasks.
carefully for transitions by warning
students about the close of one activity
• Is the length and pacing of my lesson
and the opening of another, providing
suited to my students’ developmental
brief but clear directions, having ma-
abilities? Many experienced teachers
terials immediately available, actively
have observed that younger elemen-
monitoring and reinforcing appropri-
tary students have a limited attention
ate student behavior, and beginning
span—perhaps no more than 10 or
the new activity quickly and with a
15 minutes, depending on their de-
high degree of enthusiasm.
velopmental level—and so they fre-
quently switch activities and incor-
We recommend that teachers also recon-
porate movement into their lessons sider the arrangement of the classroom
to keep younger students engaged in to promote a smooth rhythm and traffic
learning tasks.
flow that avoids areas getting congested
or going unsupervised. For primary ele-
• Do I offer my students choices in how mentary classrooms teachers might need
they participate in learning activities? to define the appointed activity spaces in
Because students’ engagement often the classroom, such as by putting carpet
increases and disruption decreases squares or signs in places where the chil-
when they are offered choices in their dren are expected to sit during group ac-
lessons,42 we recommend that teachers tivities. In all grades teachers may need to
occasionally provide students with op-
designate certain shelf areas for putting
tions in how they participate in learn-
away specific materials or for turning in
ing tasks. This does not mean students work. Seating plans can be designed to
get to choose everything they want support different student interactions
(such as small groups and whole-class) and
42. Dunlap et al. (1994); Kern et al. (1994); Kern,
Mantegna, et al. (2001).
43. Doyle (1986); Rosenshine (1980).
( 26 )
2. MODIfy ThE ClASSROOM lEARnIng EnvIROnMEnT TO DECREASE PROBlEM BEhAvIOR
access to instructional materials, while the number of responses doubles, with
providing the teacher with enough room a target of 90 percent accuracy, during
to move freely about the classroom and practice drills.46 Students’ on-task behav-
monitor student engagement. The desks iors increase when they experience more
of students with frequent problem behav-
opportunities for academic success, for
iors can be positioned where there is less example answering questions correctly.
traffic and distraction and greater access In contrast, their disruptive behaviors in-
to the teacher and work materials.
crease when they are faced with queries
that are too difficult.47
3. Adapt or vary instructional strategies to
increase opportunities for academic success Researchers also have found that instruc-
and engagement.
tion delivered at a brisk pace contributes
to higher levels of on-task behavior and
Research shows that when there is a mis-
student engagement, as does instruction
match between a student’s ability level and that incorporates presentation of new ma-
the difficulty or length of an academic task, terials with modeling, guided practice, and
inappropriate behavior is more frequent.44 student independent practice.48 Teachers
If teachers observe that a recurring prob-
might also use differentiated instructional
lem behavior is exhibited primarily dur-
strategies to reach all students at their
ing academic activities, we recommend particular academic and behavioral levels
that teachers identify the specific aspects of performance by varying their materi-
of the task that challenge or frustrate the als, processes, and assessment strategies.
student and accommodate their instruc-
For example, materials selected for a lan-
tion to the student’s abilities and rate of guage arts lesson could include nonfiction
learning.
and fiction at a variety of reading levels,
video clips, and newspaper or magazine
Most teachers understand that to tailor articles. Teachers might work with the
instruction to students’ needs, they must whole class, small groups, individual stu-
provide students with academic tasks that dents, or a combination of formats. Finally,
are neither too difficult nor too easy. To teachers could allow students to choose
gauge students’ level of learning and in-
between various options, such as a writ-
crease their academic engagement, teach-
ten essay, an oral presentation, or an art
ers can pose frequent questions at a level project, to demonstrate their mastery of
most students can succeed in answering the content.49
and intersperse more complex tasks.45
Guidelines for teaching students with Peer tutoring also has been demonstrated
behavioral difficulties recommend that to be effective in promoting appropri-
teachers elicit four to six responses per ate behavior as well as academic gains.50
minute from students during the presen-
Students work in pairs as a tutor and tutee
tation of new material, with a target of 80 or in groups where each student takes a
percent accuracy in the students’ answers;
46. Council for Exceptional Children (1987).
44. For example, Davis et al. (2004); Kern et al.
47. Lee et al. (1999).
(2001); Lee, Sugai, and Horner (1999); Umbreit,
48. Adams and Engelmann (1996); Nelson et al.
Lane, and Dejud (2004).
(1996).
45. Adams and Engelman (1996); Cotton (1989);
49. For an overview on the classroom practice of
Council for Exceptional Children (1987); Davis et
differentiated instruction, see Hall (2002).
al. (2004); Engelmann and Carnine (1983); Slavin
(1994); Sutherland et al. (2003); Sutherland and
50. DuPaul et al. (1998); Fuchs et al. (2002); Heller
Wehby (2001).
and Fantuzzo (1993); Spencer (2006).
( 27 )
2. MODIfy ThE ClASSROOM lEARnIng EnvIROnMEnT TO DECREASE PROBlEM BEhAvIOR
turn being the tutor. The goals of this ap-
reward improvements (perhaps through
proach are to improve academic learning, a group contingency program) and assess
develop cooperative work habits, and in-
gains made in instructional time. Teach-
crease positive social interactions among ers also may find that students can easily
students. Often, students need to be taught apply their new routines to other transi-
the social and communication skills that tion periods, reducing instructional time
will make the peer-assisted learning expe-
lost in other subjects and at other times
rience more productive and positive (see of the day.
recommendation 3).
Roadblock 2.2. “Making changes now to
Potential roadblocks and solutions
my schedule or classroom routines will just
make things worse.” Some teachers are re-
Roadblock 2.1. “I just don’t have the time luctant to make adjustments to their es-
to rethink my classroom practices.” Most tablished and predictable routines, fearing
teachers have tried-and-true methods of that the changes will result in increased
classroom management and instruction, disruption.
and their busy schedules are a disincen-
tive for learning and practicing new strate-
Suggested Approach. It is true that a
gies that might benefit a few students with change in routine may result in an increase
problem behaviors.
in disruption for a short time, but the time
used to practice and re-practice effective
Suggested Approach. We recommend routines will likely increase the quantity
that teachers first concentrate on making and quality of the classroom instructional
just one strategic change in one setting time. Teachers also can prepare students
and assessing the benefit and success of before implementing any change in rou-
the strategy before moving on to other tines to minimize the disruption. For ex-
potentially beneficial changes. For ex-
ample, teachers can discuss with their stu-
ample, a teacher could make a concerted dents any challenges posed by ineffective
effort to reduce transition time by pick-
routines, engage them in decision-making
ing the point in the daily schedule when about adjustments, and actively teach,
a significant amount of instructional time practice, and reinforce the new behavioral
is lost. After teaching, practicing, and expectations. To reinforce the new rou-
reinforcing students’ efficient transition tines further, students who demonstrate
to the next activity and keeping track of mastery could model the new routines for
the time it takes the class to get ready their classmates as a reward for their ap-
each day, the teacher can systematically propriate behavior.
( 28 )
Recommendation 3.
studies that span almost half a century
Teach and reinforce
demonstrate that positive reinforcement is
new skills to increase
associated with initial and long-term aca-
demic benefits and with increases in the
appropriate behavior
frequency of appropriate behaviors among
and preserve a positive general education students.53
classroom climate
Brief summary of evidence to
support the recommendation
We recommend that teachers
Studies of classroom-based interventions
actively teach students socially- and
for students with behavior problems have
behaviorally-appropriate skills to
focused on enhancing skills, such as ap-
replace problem behaviors using
propriate attention-seeking, social skills,
strategies focused on both individual
problem-solving, and self-management
students and the whole classroom. In
strategies. One randomized controlled
doing so, teachers help students with
trial54 and two single-subject research
behavior problems learn how, when,
studies55 have demonstrated that reduc-
and where to use these new skills;
tions in inappropriate behaviors, such as
increase the opportunities that the
disruption and aggression, and increases
students have to exhibit appropriate
in academic engagement are associated
behaviors; preserve a positive
with skill-building instruction and rein-
classroom climate; and manage
forcement of positive behavior.
consequences to reinforce students’
display of positive “replacement”
In addition, four randomized controlled
behaviors and adaptive skills.
trials56 and one single-subject study57
have demonstrated the effectiveness of
Level of evidence: Strong
specific classroom-based early interven-
tions across dozens of schools and with
The panel rated the level of evidence for hundreds of students (using the First Step
this recommendation as strong. This rec-
to Success, Promoting Alternative THinking
ommendation is based on five random-
Strategies, and Second Step intervention
ized controlled trials51 and three single-
programs). These programs are designed
subject research studies52 examining the to reduce antisocial behaviors among el-
effectiveness of teaching and reinforcing ementary school students by modeling
new appropriate behaviors and skills to and teaching appropriate replacement
students with problem behaviors. These skills and behaviors and rewarding stu-
studies have shown success in teaching dents when those behaviors are exhibited.
students replacement behaviors (such Results of the interventions demonstrated
as appropriate attention-seeking, social
skills, problem-solving, and self-manage-
53. For example, Akin-Little et al. (2004); Cam-
ment strategies) and, as a result, in re-
eron, Banko, and Pierce (2001); Hall, Lund, and
ducing inappropriate behaviors such as Jackson (1968); Hall et al. (1968).
disruption and aggression. Furthermore, 54. Daunic et al. (2006).
55. Peterson et al. (2006); Todd et al. (1999).
51. Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group
(1999); Daunic et al. (2006); Frey et al. (2005);
56. Conduct Problems Prevention Research
Grossman et al. (1997); Walker et al. (1998).
Group (1999); Frey et al. (2005); Grossman et al.
(1997); Walker et al. (1998).
52. Beard and Sugai (2004); Peterson et al. (2006);
Todd, Horner, and Sugai (1999).
57. Beard and Sugai (2004).
( 29 )
3. TEACh AnD REInfORCE SkIllS TO InCREASE APPROPRIATE BEhAvIOR AnD PRESERvE A POSITIvE ClIMATE
increases in students’ adaptive and on-
to determine overarching findings. The re-
task behaviors and decreases in maladap-
sults from two meta- analyses concluded
tive behaviors, such as disruption and that little or no detrimental effect was
aggression.
found with the use of external reinforcers
in educational settings; in fact, rewards
One limitation to this body of research following and linked to appropriate be-
is that many studies have examined the havior were related to both initial and
collective effects of multiple components long-term academic engagement and so-
of comprehensive intervention packages, cial benefits.61
making it methodologically difficult to de-
termine the effects of their specific com-
How to carry out the
ponents, such as parent involvement mod-
recommendation
ules, teacher-delivered curriculum, and
student skill-building modules.
1. Identify where the student needs explicit
instruction for appropriate behavior.
Yet one consistent approach in these class-
room-based studies is the use of positive Behavior problems may indicate that stu-
reinforcement to encourage students’ ap-
dents do not know what behavior is ex-
propriate behaviors and academic engage-
pected (see recommendation 2 for a dis-
ment. As early as the 1960s, researchers cussion about setting explicit behavioral
demonstrated that positive reinforcement expectations) or that they lack the skills
was associated with increased task en-
needed to exhibit the desired behavior.
gagement and reduced disruptive (or “daw-
Teachers often assume that students can
dling”) behavior of students in general perform a particular behavior, but re-
education classrooms.58 Since then, how-
search shows that many children with
ever, the use of rewards in education has behavior problems have poor social skills,
been veiled in some controversy, primarily especially the ability to read social situ-
due to a perceived negative effect on stu-
ations and conform to group norms for
dent’s intrinsic motivation.59 The concerns appropriate behavior.62 This inability to
are based on studies conducted since the respond appropriately in social situations
1970s, leading some researchers and ed-
can lead to further disruptive and aggres-
ucators to warn against the use of praise sive behaviors.
and extrinsic rewards in schools (for ex-
ample, a concern that “token economies Before assuming that a student is know-
will produce token learners”).60
ingly misbehaving, a teacher should dis-
cern whether the student has the skills
To address these concerns, a number of re-
and the knowledge to behave appropri-
searchers have examined the full body of ately. To assess whether a student has the
empirical studies on positive reinforcement requisite skills for proper behavior, we
recommend that teachers observe care-
58. For example, Hall, Lund, and Jackson (1968);
fully whether there are any circumstances
Hall et al. (1968).
where the student can perform the be-
59. Intrinsic motivation refers to motivation that
havioral skill at a level of success com-
comes from inside an individual student (the
mensurate with his peers, and whether
enjoyment a student gets from the task itself or
from the sense of satisfaction in completing or
even working on a task), rather than from any ex-
61. Akin-Little et al. (2004); Cameron et al.
ternal or outside rewards (tokens or grades).
(2001).
60. For example, Deci (1971); Deci, Koestner, and
62. Kerr and Nelson (1989); Merrell et al. (1992);
Ryan (1999); Kohn (1993).
Newman et al. (2003).
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3. TEACh AnD REInfORCE SkIllS TO InCREASE APPROPRIATE BEhAvIOR AnD PRESERvE A POSITIvE ClIMATE
the student knows when and where the • Self-manage their social behavior and
behavior is appropriate.
completion of academic tasks.
Another efficient way to assess a student’s • Develop emotional awareness, respon-
ability to perform academic or social skills
sibility, and self regulation (for ex-
adequately is to employ a self-monitoring
ample, how to cool down in an anger-
strategy. Self-monitoring is a process in
provoking situation, or how to tolerate
which students assess and record their
delays in getting help).
own behavior to help them become more
aware of and able to maintain appropri-
Instructional strategies that can help stu-
ate behavior.63 Teachers can use a check-
dents apply and maintain their new behav-
list of questions to guide students in the ioral skills in different environments and
assessment of their social and academic settings are similar to effective academic
behaviors (Did I get started on time? Am instructional strategies, and include:
I following directions? Am I working qui-
etly on my assignment? Did I ask for help • Explaining the appropriate behavior
the right way? Did I turn in my completed
so that students develop a thorough
work?). With this information teachers can
understanding of school norms.
discuss with students when and where
the appropriate behaviors are expected, • Breaking each behavioral skill down
whether they know how to perform the
into concrete, teachable steps.
behaviors, and to what extent they are
successfully meeting those expectations • Modeling the skill and providing a va-
on a regular basis.
riety of examples of its appropriate use
(for example, observing other students
2. Teach skills by providing examples, prac-
demonstrating the behavior or reading
tice, and feedback.
books with messages about the target
behavior).
If students lack the skills to behave appro-
priately, teachers can help them acquire • Offering opportunities for guided
the skills by providing instruction and re-
and independent practice and role
inforcement of new, appropriate replace-
playing.
ment behaviors. The replacement behav-
iors should be just as likely to produce the • Prompting and cuing the student about
same consequences sought by the student,
the use of the behavioral skill.
such as teacher or peer attention, but less
effortful and more socially acceptable than • Giving specific feedback about the stu-
the problem behavior.64 For example, teach-
dent’s skill performance, being sure to
ers can help students acquire new skills by
praise successful approximations of
teaching them how and when to:
the skill and to encourage complete
mastery.
• Gain attention from the teacher or their
peers appropriately and respectfully.
• Diminishing gradually the external
prompts and rewards for displaying
• Share, communicate, cooperate, and
the skill.
problem solve in group settings.
• Reinforcing the use of the behavioral
skills over time.65
63. Mace, Belfiore, and Hutchinson (2001).
64. Lewis et al. (1997).
65. McGinnis and Goldstein (1997).
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3. TEACh AnD REInfORCE SkIllS TO InCREASE APPROPRIATE BEhAvIOR AnD PRESERvE A POSITIvE ClIMATE
Consider this example:
removal of rewarding consequences.66 Op-
timally, we recommend that teachers apply
A number of students erupted into misbe-
this principle by redirecting inappropriate
havior (arguing and pushing each other) behaviors toward more appropriate behav-
when they vied for positions at the com-
iors. Unfortunately, it is easy to inadver-
puter learning center, causing a classwide tently reward inappropriate behavior by
disruption. The teacher reminded the attending to it—even a reprimand can be
students of positive behavioral expecta-
rewarding for students who act out to gain
tions in the classroom, including the im-
the teacher’s attention.67
portance of turn taking, but as often hap-
pened in class, the students continued to Provide positive reinforcers for appro-
be frustrated with waiting for their turns. priate behavior. Many of the practices
After lunch the teacher decided to use the underlying the panel’s recommendation
incident that occurred earlier that day to are based on the principle that positive in-
teach her students the appropriate skills teractions between teachers and students
needed to wait before doing something increase students’ social skills, emotional
they desired. First, the teacher explained regulation, motivation, engagement, and
why turn-taking was important in the abidance to classroom rules and expec-
classroom, providing examples of when tations. Negative interactions between
taking turns benefited students. Then, the teachers and students, however, increase
teacher asked the group to think of other students’ risk for school failure.68 Teachers
situations when they were asked to wait can foster positive relationships by engag-
for their turn (for example, on the play-
ing in socially positive and academically
ground), what they did during the wait-
productive interactions with all students,
ing period, and what they observed other especially those who exhibit problematic
students doing while they waited. She behavior.
discussed with the students appropriate
ways to ask for a turn, other options for One way to foster positive interactions is to
using their time in the classroom, and how increase the frequency with which students
to respond to students taking their turn are recognized and reinforced for appro-
at the computer in a friendly and patient priate behavior. The amount of praise that
way. The students took turns role-playing, students receive for appropriate behavior
showing the different ways they could should substantially exceed the amount
politely ask for a turn and use the time that they are reprimanded. In fact, a review
in productive ways. For the next month of research shows that a ratio of about four
the teacher prompted the students when positive statements for every one corrective
appropriate turn taking skills needed to statement can improve students’ academic
be used, and recognized and responded and behavioral outcomes.69 Therefore,
positively when students displayed the we recommend that teachers monitor the
appropriate behaviors inside and outside amount and consistency of their praise and
the classroom.
acknowledgement of appropriate behavior
3. Manage consequences so that reinforcers 66. Skinner (1953).
are provided for appropriate behavior and
withheld for inappropriate behavior.
67. Horner and Spaulding (in press); Maag
(1999).
Research has long demonstrated that a 68. Greenberg et al. (2003); Hamre and Pianta
behavior will increase if it is followed by (2005); Pianta et al. (2002); Solomon et al. (1992);
positive reinforcers, and it will decrease if Zins et al. (2004).
it is followed by negative consequences or 69. Cameron and Pierce (1994).
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3. TEACh AnD REInfORCE SkIllS TO InCREASE APPROPRIATE BEhAvIOR AnD PRESERvE A POSITIvE ClIMATE
in the classroom. If teachers’ reprimands school students—to reinforce appropri-
outweigh their praise, they should con-
ate behaviors with some type of extrin-
sider altering their classroom management sic reward, such as stickers, stamps on
practices, such as providing students with a chart, tokens in a jar, or extra time for
more opportunities to learn, practice, and preferred activities. Teachers also can pro-
internalize classroom rules and routines vide rewards and privileges that support
(see recommendation 2).70
students’ learning of academic, social, and
self-monitoring skills, such as having ad-
Research shows that rewards (such as ap-
ditional free-reading or computer-center
proval, praise, recognition, special privi-
time, playing a game or video, or taking on
leges, points, or other reinforcers built classroom helper roles. Gradually, extrin-
into the classroom management plan) are sic rewards should be faded72 or replaced
most effective in encouraging students’ with more intrinsic, naturally-occurring
appropriate behavior when teachers fol-
reinforcements that come from positive
low simple guidelines:
academic and behavioral experiences,
such as feeling satisfaction and pride in
• Use small rewards frequently, rather the work produced, enjoying working in a
than large rewards infrequently.
team and gaining friendships, and having
fun while learning.
• Deliver rewards quickly after the de-
sired behavior is exhibited.
Withhold reinforcers for inappropriate
behavior. Instead of drawing attention to
• Reward behavior, not the individual, misbehavior, we recommend that teach-
and communicate to students the spe-
ers try to make problem behaviors inef-
cific behavior that led to the reward fective for the student by systematically
(for example, “Because you’ve been withholding or preventing access to rein-
doing so well working independently forcing consequences. For example, if the
for 15 minutes, you get to take a short student’s problem behavior is reinforced
break and take these books back to the by avoiding a task, the teacher should not
library for me.”).
dismiss the student from the activity but
rather make adjustments to the setting or
• Use several different kinds of rewards curricular variables to help the student
selected carefully to ensure that they achieve success. Similarly, if a student’s
are reinforcing students (for example, disruptive behavior is reinforced by at-
allow students to go on errands or to tention, then attention from peers and the
the water fountain down the hall; pro-
teacher—even negative attention, such as
vide 10 minutes for students to read a reprimands—should be withheld when the
book for pleasure, work on the com-
behavior occurs again.
puter, or draw a picture for display).
This is not to say that negative conse-
• Gradually begin to reduce and then quences for serious misbehavior are never
eliminate rewards.71
warranted. Teachers should respond
swiftly to serious problem behaviors,
It may be necessary—at least initially, and
especially with the youngest elementary 72. Fading of rewards can entail moving from
a continuous schedule of reinforcement to a
more variable or differential schedule of rein-
70. Evertson et al. (2006).
forcement—meaning that the reinforcement
71. Akin-Little et al. (2004); Brophy (1981); Cam-
is provided less often or only during certain
eron and Pierce (1994).
situations.
( 33 )
3. TEACh AnD REInfORCE SkIllS TO InCREASE APPROPRIATE BEhAvIOR AnD PRESERvE A POSITIvE ClIMATE
such as defiance, with appropriate con-
clarify behavioral expectations, and
sequences that are clearly understood by
correct her mistake. Example: Empha-
the students involved. We recommend
size, “It is OK to be angry, but it is not
that teachers adopt an overall positive
OK to call people names. Let’s talk about
and problem-solving approach, however,
what we do when we are frustrated and
because harsh or punitive discipline is not
need help with an assignment.”
effective in increasing the likelihood of ap-
propriate behavior and tends to elicit stu-
• Match the severity of the consequences
dent resentment and resistance.73 Teachers
with the severity of the behavior viola-
who can successfully prevent disengage-
tion. Example: For minor infractions,
ment and de-escalate confrontations:
verbal redirects or warnings should be
sufficient. For the most serious offenses,
• Provide brief and specific instruction
teachers should align disciplinary ac-
in a calm voice that redirects student
tions with the school’s or district’s dis-
focus without excessive use of other
cipline plan.74
verbalizations. Example: Rather than
saying, “Carl, stop talking to Stella un-
The following example illustrates a teach-
less you are discussing today’s assign-
er’s strategies to focus on the explicit
ment. Besides, you are only supposed instruction of new skills, the careful
to be talking if you’ve finished all your management of consequences, and the
work,” say, “Carl, complete your work, building of positive relationships with one
and then you are free to talk quietly of his students who exhibited behavioral
with your neighbor.”
challenges.
• Present the noncompliant student with Hector received discipline referrals for
positive options and give the student a disruptive and defiant behavior in the
reasonable amount of time to respond classroom and for his use of inappropriate
(at least 10 seconds). Example: Suggest, language on the playground. The teacher
“You can either get back to work with observed Hector for several days and came
the group, or you can work indepen-
to the conclusion that Hector’s misbehav-
dently at your desk. I’ll give you some iors resulted from difficulty with social
time to think about your choices.”
skills and self-control, and were main-
tained by adult and peer attention. He de-
• Approach disengaged students cided to help Hector build his social skills
promptly, fairly, and privately to pre-
for gaining attention appropriately and to
vent a power struggle and any nega-
reinforce Hector for appropriate behavior
tive impacts on student learning and in the classroom and on the playground.
the classroom environment. Example: The teacher worked on building a closer
Offer, “If you need some time to your-
teacher-student relationship with Hector,
self, you can sit quietly without disturb-
talking to him about things in which he
ing other students. Let me know if you showed an interest. At the same time, Hec-
need some help completing the assign-
tor’s classmates were instructed to ignore
ment or have questions.”
• Use the display of a problem behav-
74. These examples are adapted from a number
ior as a teachable moment, showing of resources that describe prevention and de-es-
calation strategies in the classroom: for example,
the student how to label the emotion, Colvin (2004); Colvin, Ainge, and Nelson (1997);
Colvin and Sugai (1989); Nelson (1996b); Walker
73. Learning First Alliance (2001); Sugai et al.
(1995); Walker et al. (1995); Walker, Ramsey, and
(2001).
Gresham (2004).
( 34 )
3. TEACh AnD REInfORCE SkIllS TO InCREASE APPROPRIATE BEhAvIOR AnD PRESERvE A POSITIvE ClIMATE
his inappropriate language and to rein-
share materials, provide feedback, and
force his polite and respectful behavior.
be courteous. Before breaking into small
groups, the teacher can communicate the
After a week or two Hector advanced to skills to students in concrete terms, model
monitoring his own behavior by asking the skills, provide practice time and feed-
himself questions from a checklist he back, and pair these skills with directions
developed with the teacher. Each week for the science activity. Seen as part of the
the teacher met with Hector to review his curriculum, social skills can support stu-
progress and recognize his accomplish-
dent learning without adding to teachers’
ments with verbal praise and rewards, responsibilities.
and he sent a positive note home about
Hector’s improvements inside and out-
Roadblock 3.2. “Too much praise and at-
side class.
tention is harmful to students.” Some teach-
ers fear that providing their students with
Potential roadblocks and solutions
extrinsic rewards will undermine students’
motivation to learn and succeed without
Roadblock 3.1. “Teaching appropriate be-
rewards.
havior is beyond my responsibilities as a
teacher.” Some teachers see their primary Suggested Approach. Some researchers
responsibility as teaching academics, and have cautioned that rewards that are ex-
they are reluctant to dedicate time and ef-
pected, tangible, and not related to per-
fort to teaching students appropriate be-
formance can erode students’ engagement
havior such as social skills.
in learning by encouraging them to work
solely to earn the reward.76 Not all rewards
Suggested Approach. Appropriate be-
have this effect, however. Research has
havior in the classroom is learned and demonstrated that positive reinforcement
adapted by students’ experiences, just as that is tied to student competence can in-
appropriate behavior at home—and across crease the likelihood of appropriate class-
all settings for that matter—is learned and room behavior and academic achievement
influenced by cognitive, behavioral, and without undermining students’ intrinsic
environmental factors.75 Teachers play motivation.77 When teachers use positive
a critical role in helping students learn reinforcers such as praise, rewards, and
school-based social skills and behaviors. privileges, and communicate a positive at-
But rather than dedicating additional time titude to their students, they lay the foun-
solely to the teaching of social and behav-
dation for students to try hard and reach
ioral skills, we recommend that teachers new goals. Therefore, we recommend that
integrate behavioral and social skill-build-
teachers reward students with behavior-
ing into their curriculum. Teachers can re-
specific praise; use positive reinforcers
view their lesson plans and instructional to encourage student achievement, effort,
formats to identify when social skills are and motivation; convey honest feedback
prerequisites for students to engage suc-
to students about the quality of their work
cessfully in the curriculum. If a teacher and effort; and gradually fade extrinsic
is planning a science project in which rewards when students display mastery.78
students must work in small groups and As teachers use these strategies and as
share materials, for instance, the teacher
may determine that students need a num-
76. Akin-Little et al. (2004); Deci et al. (1999).
ber of group social skills, such as how to
listen, follow directions, ask questions, 77. Akin-Little et al. (2004); Cameron et al. (2001);
Morgan (1984); Reiss (2005); Schunk (1983)
75. Bandura (1977).
78. Brophy (1981).
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3. TEACh AnD REInfORCE SkIllS TO InCREASE APPROPRIATE BEhAvIOR AnD PRESERvE A POSITIvE ClIMATE
students develop maturity, fewer extrin-
students become more internally moti-
sic motivators will be needed. Many ex-
vated, their behavior issues diminish and
perienced teachers have found that as their academic competence strengthens.
( 36 )
Recommendation 4.
relationships, with one study demonstrat-
Draw on relationships
ing decreases in problem behaviors. Al-
with professional
though two randomized controlled trials
with positive outcomes support compo-
colleagues and
nents of recommendation 4, these studies
students’ families for
focused on (1) teachers consulting with
experts on particular problem behaviors
continued guidance
of students identified with attention defi-
and support
cit/hyperactivity disorder, and (2) a spe-
cific teacher-parent education and activity
program. The recommendation is further
supported by one quasi-experimental and
Social relationships and collaborative
one single subject study that have moder-
opportunities can play a critical role
ate levels of evidence. Consequently, the
in supporting teachers in managing
panel believes that a moderate designation
disruptive behavior in their classrooms. is appropriate for the overall level of evi-
We recommend that teachers draw
dence for this recommendation.
on these relationships in finding ways
to address the behavior problems
Brief summary of evidence to
of individual students and consider
support the recommendation
parents, school personnel, and
behavioral experts as allies who can
Chronic or serious behavior problems in
provide new insights, strategies, and
the classroom can quickly exhaust the
support.
toolkit of instructional and behavior man-
agement strategies and interventions of
Level of evidence: Moderate
many teachers, particularly ones who are
new to the profession. In such cases the
The panel rated the level of evidence sup-
guidance and advice of other teachers who
porting this recommendation as moder-
have successfully overcome similar behav-
ate. One quasi-experimental study79 and ior issues can be a welcomed and effective
one single-subject study80 examined the form of support. In fact, research suggests
effects of peer teacher relationships in that schools with strong, trusting peer re-
improving social relationships among stu-
lationships among its staff are more likely
dents or increasing student engagement to have teachers who are willing to learn
in the classroom. Additionally, one ran-
and engage in new practices,83 which can
domized controlled trial81 confirmed the produce gains in student outcomes.
effectiveness of teachers’ consulting with
behavioral experts in reducing behavior Establishing these trusting relationships
problems among students who exhibit can occur through one-on-one interac-
inattentive and disruptive behaviors. Fi-
tions as well as participation in collabora-
nally, two randomized controlled trials82 tive learning teams with other grade-level
evaluated interventions specifically aimed teachers and school staff. Mentors and
at establishing positive teacher-parent peer coaches often encourage and support
their colleagues’ consideration of new edu-
79. Stevens and Slavin (1995).
cational practices and can help their col-
leagues by conducting informative class-
80. Kohler et al. (1997).
room observations, suggesting innovative
81. Dunson, Hughes, and Jackson (1994).
classroom strategies and techniques, and
82. Ialongo et al. (1999); Webster-Stratton et al.
(2004).
83. Bryk and Schneider (2002).
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providing an environment that enables severe behavior problems. A randomized
teachers to feel comfortable and confident controlled trial90 found that meetings be-
in trying new approaches in their class-
tween behavioral experts and teachers to
rooms.84 Although much of the current discuss strategies to control the behav-
research on mentoring and peer teacher iors of hyperactive students resulted in
relationships revolves around their effects significant improvements in the teacher’s
on teacher-centered outcomes, such as perception of their student’s disruptive
attrition, teachers’ attitudes and percep-
behavior.
tions, and procedural changes, one single-
subject study explored the impact of peer Families also can be powerful allies for
coaching on student outcomes and found teachers in dealing with disruptive be-
it contributed to increased student engage-
haviors in their classrooms. Researchers
ment.85 Another quasi-experimental study have found that family involvement in a
found that a restructured school program student’s education can yield numerous
that included peer coaching significantly positive outcomes, including improved
increased the number of students’ social student achievement and behavior.91 Con-
relationships.86
sequently, efforts to enhance the support-
ive role of family members in addressing
Team-based collaborations with grade-
a child’s emotional and behavioral chal-
level teachers and other professional col-
lenges often are a key component of in-
leagues who are experienced in behavior tervention programs and school reform
management, such as school psycholo-
models.92 One randomized controlled trial
gists and counselors, also can provide ef-
specifically examined a family-school part-
fective support to teachers with students nership intervention aimed at improving
who exhibit behavior problems. Adult parent-teacher communication and pa-
learning theories suggest that collabora-
rental strategies for child management.93
tive learning teams have the potential to The findings of this study indicated that
effectively engage teachers in learning this partnership succeeded in eventually
and implementing new techniques.87 Such reducing problem behaviors relative to
theories also complement empirical evi-
comparison students.
dence that suggests that learning teams,
whether studied independently88 or folded How to carry out the
into broader school reforms,89 contribute recommendation
to positive student social and behavioral
outcomes.
1. Collaborate with other teachers for con-
tinued guidance and support.
Research indicates that consultation with
experts in behavior management, such The current structure and organization
as school psychologists, can help reduce of most elementary schools often are
not conducive to collaborative teacher
84. Annenberg Institute for School Reform (n.d.);
Evertson and Smithey (2000); Joyce and Showers
90. Dunson et al. (1994).
(1982); Knight (2004).
91. Adams and Christenson (2000); Bempechat
85. Kohler et al. (1997).
(1998); Clark (1983); Epstein (1995); Henderson
and Berla (1994); Jeynes (2005); Stright et al.
86. Stevens and Slavin (1995).
(2001).
87. Imel (1991).
92. Battistich et al. (2000); Stevens and Slavin
88. Joyce et al. (1989).
(1995); Webster-Stratton et al. (2004).
89. Stevens and Slavin (1995).
93. Ialongo et al. (1999).
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interactions, with separate classrooms that
1) and ideas on several actionable
physically isolate teachers from their peers
steps the teacher can take to address
and with demanding daily responsibilities
the problem or minimize its impact on
that allow for little discretionary time.94
the rest of the classroom.
As a result teachers can feel isolated, as if
they are “going it alone professionally,”95 • Current lesson plans to determine if
and there might be few, if any, opportuni-
there are any activities or techniques
ties for experienced teachers to help their
that can reduce behavior problems by
peers grow professionally.96
elevating student engagement.
To enhance teachers’ effectiveness in ad-
• Strategies to approach parents who are
dressing behavioral challenges, school
difficult to engage or who react nega-
administrators should provide time and
tively to suggestions that their child
structures for collaborative learning teams
has behavior problems.
to meet. Effective teams are relatively
small, interdisciplinary groups comprised • School policy issues such as bullying
of grade-level general education teach-
or removing students from the class-
ers and—when needed—administrators,
room. These discussions might require
special educators, or other specialists
feedback from the school principal
that meet weekly or bi-weekly. An action-
or another administrator who can be
oriented agenda and facilitation by team
asked to join in on a particular team
leaders who skillfully guide the discus-
meeting or address such issues school-
sions without assuming an authoritative
wide during a teacher inservice.
role promote productive meetings.97
During collaborative team meetings and
The goal of these team meetings should professional development sessions, some
be for teachers to generate concrete strat-
teachers with interpersonal skills that
egies that can be incorporated into their enable them to foster collaboration and
instruction and classroom management. problem-solving with their grade-level and
Team meetings provide teachers with an cross-grade level colleagues will begin to
opportunity to reflect openly on the chal-
emerge as effective peer leaders. These
lenges they experience in their classrooms peer leaders can play a particularly useful
and to receive problem-solving input from role as liaisons between teachers and ad-
peers. In addition, these meetings enable ministrators, facilitators of learning collab-
specialists and administrators to provide orations, classroom observers, mentors,
teachers with guidance on some of the and peer coaches. 98 School administrators
organizational and policy issues that in-
should provide these peer leaders with the
fluence a teacher’s approach to handling time and resources needed to develop and
behavioral challenges in the classroom. apply their mentoring and peer coaching
For example, teachers can use meeting skills to enhance other teachers’ classroom
times to discuss:
management and student engagement.99
Effective peer coaches and mentors may
• Observations of a specific student’s be-
need training to understand how to sup-
havior problem (see recommendation port adult learners while providing teach-
ers with strategies, tools, and communi-
94. Novick (1999).
cation skills to use in handling behavior
95. Darling-Hammond (1994).
96. Hoerr (1996).
98. Annenberg Institute for School Reform (n.d.).
97. Imel (1991).
99. Neufeld and Roper (2003).
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challenges. By providing peer coaches and In turn, teachers should expect behavioral
mentors with the skills to support other consultants to show respect for their part-
teachers successfully, school administra-
nership by scheduling meetings at times
tors can promote a culture of continuous and locations that are convenient for the
learning and collaborative problem-solv-
teacher and other members of the stu-
ing that can increase students’ time spent dent’s behavior team, providing regular
learning.
updates on the intervention’s progress,
and making sure that all communication
2. Build collaborative partnerships with is clearly articulated and avoids the use
school, district, and community behavior of jargon or unfamiliar terminology. Addi-
experts who can consult with teachers when tionally, there may be times when behav-
problems are serious enough to warrant help ioral consultants will benefit from observ-
from outside the classroom.
ing the child’s behavior in the classroom.
In such cases teachers should provide
Behavioral consultants, who may be school them access to the classroom, along with
personnel such as school psychologists, guidelines for minimizing any classroom
counselors, and resource teachers, or other disruption. Such guidelines may include
behavioral specialists, can offer expertise expectations that consultants will estab-
in behavioral practices along with tech-
lish a predetermined day and time when
nical support in implementing evidence-
observations will occur, enter the class-
based, packaged intervention programs.100 room during breaks in the class schedule
However, teachers have the most knowl-
so as not to interrupt an ongoing lesson,
edge of a student’s daily behavior and can and maintain a low profile in the class-
give a consultant the context necessary room by sitting in an unobtrusive area and
to identify a student’s particular needs. allowing the teacher to instruct without
Teachers can provide valuable input re-
interruptions.
garding the feasibility of implementing a
behavioral intervention in the classroom, 3. Encourage parents and other family mem-
such as how well a particular intervention bers to participate as active partners in teach-
would fit, and what might be some poten-
ing and reinforcing appropriate behavior.
tial problems with the intervention. Once
the intervention is initiated, teachers can Building a strong, trusting relationship
help promote its success by consistently with the parent of a student who is dis-
implementing classroom practices or tasks rupting the learning process can be chal-
entailed in the intervention, reporting lenging, particularly when there are racial
any progress or setbacks in the student’s and cultural differences. Some parents
behavior throughout the school day, and distrust school personnel as a result of
responding promptly to the consultant’s their own negative memories and ex-
queries to help the consultant determine periences with schools. Other parents
the intervention’s effectiveness and revise have limited English language and edu-
accordingly. The panel recommends that cational experiences. Still other parents
teachers, with the support of the consul-
must spend all of their efforts in meet-
tant, use the interventions for 4–6 weeks ing basic economic needs. Teachers who
before determining whether or not the in-
are proactive in reaching out to parents
tervention is working.
to make connections and asking for par-
ents’ input and help in mitigating behav-
100. For a comprehensive review of the litera-
ior problems will demonstrate a belief in
ture on behavioral consultation, see Martens
the importance of involving parents in re-
and DiGennaro (2007) and Hughes, Lloyd, and
shaping the student’s behavior and school
Buss (2007).
experiences.
( 40 )
4. DRAW On RElATIOnShIPS WITh PROfESSIOnAl COllEAguES AnD STuDEnTS’ fAMIlIES
By communicating encouraging messages conference in the family’s home language
to students about the value of education and should determine whether translation
and ways to succeed in school, parents services are needed for the meeting. We
and teachers together can support stu-
recommend that teachers inform parents
dents’ motivation, engagement, positive about their child’s behavior problems in a
behavior, and persistence.101 Ideally, teach-
respectful and collaborative way by:
ers should make a concerted effort to build
positive relationships with their students’ • Pointing out one to three strengths
families before any identification of be-
that the child exhibits, both behavior-
havior problems. Some suggestions for
ally and academically.
engaging parents in working together to
help promote school success and positive • Clearly identifying one or two problem
behavior include sending positive emails
behaviors by giving examples and hav-
or notes home, providing a parent signa-
ing documentation on the nature and
ture log with the child’s homework as-
frequency of the behaviors (see recom-
signments, communicating regularly by
mendation 1).
phone, and inviting parents to participate
in school functions, celebrations, and par-
• Describing strategies that have been
ent conferences.102
implemented in the classroom, and
their results.
When a student’s behavior problem has
emerged, teachers can approach parents as • Asking the family for help in solving
partners by encouraging them to apply the
the problem at school by learning what
classroom’s behavioral rules and expecta-
works at home.
tions at home and by asking for their ideas
on ways to correct their child’s behavior. After the meeting teachers can encourage
For behavior issues that are generally mild ongoing contact with the family by accom-
and confined (such as refusing to follow di-
modating the parent’s best mode of com-
rections, talking out of turn, or book slam-
munication (telephone, personal confer-
ming), parents should be contacted if the ences, or email).
behavior problem persists (for example, if
it occurs during math lesson for several Teachers also can help parents acquire
days in a row). If the behavior is more se-
the tools they need to support learning
vere or dramatic (such as stealing, throw-
and positive behavior at home. Research
ing objects, or hitting other students), shows that reinforcement at home, includ-
parents should be contacted immediately ing rewards and negative consequences
to discuss the behavior problem with the based on teacher reports, can improve
teacher and, in severe cases, with an ad-
student behavior in the classroom.103 If
ministrator over the phone or in person.
needed or requested, teachers can direct
parents to school or community resources
Before any parent conference teachers that provide information about how to set
should prepare by reviewing school re-
limits and rules effectively, apply appro-
cords to learn if there have been recent priate consequences, and reinforce ex-
or multiple moves or other family changes pected behaviors with positive parenting
that may be impacting the student and fam-
approaches.
ily. Also, teachers might need to conduct a
In addition, many behavioral interventions
are founded on the principle that family
101. Bempechat (1998).
102. Hoover-Dempsey et al. (2005).
103. Christenson and Sheridan (2001).
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4. DRAW On RElATIOnShIPS WITh PROfESSIOnAl COllEAguES AnD STuDEnTS’ fAMIlIES
involvement can be critical to an interven-
encourage student engagement and are
tion’s success.104 In some cases, a student’s readily accessible to all teachers.
behavioral goals can best be achieved
through evidence-based programs that Although one aspect of collaborative learn-
involve family members directly in ad-
ing is to give teachers a place to share the
dition to student-centered interventions. behavioral challenges they experience
Such family-focused interventions seek in the classroom, the goal of collabora-
to enhance the parenting skills and sup-
tive learning teams should be joint prob-
portive role of family members to address lem-solving and consideration of options
a child’s emotional and behavioral chal-
that result in concrete, measurable behav-
lenges successfully.105
ior goals and intervention strategies. To
maximize the value of meetings, teachers
Potential roadblocks and solutions
should come prepared with a clear defini-
tion of the behavior problem, data on the
Roadblock 4.1. “Meeting with other teach-
frequency and duration of its occurrence,
ers will just be a waste of time, like all our and a list of strategies that have or have
faculty meetings.” Many teachers have not worked to help focus the reflective
trouble finding the time to meet with col-
problem-solving process. Ground rules
leagues or are concerned that time spent and an agenda should be established by
in team meetings will take away from the team, roles such as time-keeper and re-
instruction.
corder should be assigned for team mem-
bers, and a peer leader should facilitate
Suggested Approach. School adminis-
the meeting to ensure that members stay
trators can dedicate time for collabora-
on task. Finally, at the end of each meeting
tive team meetings as they develop the team members should evaluate its helpful-
master schedule, thereby emphasizing the ness and provide feedback on how to im-
school’s commitment to promoting a cul-
prove the collaborative process.
ture of professional learning. Teachers and
school administrators can find ways to be Roadblock 4.2. “Behavior consultants ex-
creative and resourceful with their time. pect too much from me; I don’t have time to
For example, incorporate learning collab-
meet with them regularly or to implement
orative meetings into naturally-occurring everything they suggest.” Some teachers
group settings, such as grade-level meet-
feel overwhelmed when consultations take
ings and in-service trainings. In addition, considerable time or result in numerous
schools can use technology creatively strategies that are too difficult or time-
to create virtual meeting opportunities consuming to implement effectively.
through email, discussion boards, online
forums facilitated by behavior experts, Suggested Approach. The initial consul-
and video conferencing with peer coaches tation is an opportune time for the teacher
and mentors. Technology also can be used and consultant to work collaboratively as
effectively to build a resource bank that they design an intervention that is both
includes classroom and behavior manage-
effective and feasible in its implementa-
ment strategies, lesson plans, and modi-
tion. For example, a student’s behavior
fications or adaptations of curricula that problem might exist throughout the day,
but the teacher might decide that it is too
104. Christenson and Christenson (1998); Sheri-
difficult to implement an intervention
dan, Eagle, Cowan, and Mickelson (2001).
each time a disruptive behavior occurs.
105. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Ser-
Instead, the teacher and consultant can
vices Administration, Center for Mental Health
devise a strategy to intervene intensively
Services (2007).
for a particular type of disruptive behavior
( 42 )
4. DRAW On RElATIOnShIPS WITh PROfESSIOnAl COllEAguES AnD STuDEnTS’ fAMIlIES
(for example, distracting peers during in-
involvement. Teachers can then follow up
dependent work time), or ones that occurs with regular and ongoing communication
at a specific time of the day (bullying be-
by sending notes or emails or making
havior that occurs during lunchtime).
phone calls to the child’s home, praising
positive achievements, and expressing con-
Roadblock 4.3. “Parents won’t participate.” cerns for problem behaviors tactfully and
In schools that do not have high levels of without blame. In reaching out to parents,
involvement and support from families, teachers and other team members should
staff might feel that efforts to engage fam-
limit the use of professional terminology
ily members in addressing their students’ or other language that could be confusing
challenging behaviors are fruitless.
or intimidating to family members. School
staff can help family members access a
Suggested Approach. Efforts to engage family advocate, interpreter, or other forms
parents in planning and decision-making of support to help them in interacting with
about behavior issues are likely to be more the school, for example, by clarifying is-
effective when teachers have laid a founda-
sues or unfamiliar terminology that come
tion of regular communication with family up during meetings. School staff also can
members. Teachers can begin the school have a list of support groups and resources
year by sharing their academic and be-
readily available for parents should they
havioral expectations of the students, as express an interest in seeking support for
well as their expectations regarding family themselves or for their child.
( 43 )
Recommendation 5.
single-subject108 study examined the im-
Assess whether
pact of specific schoolwide intervention
schoolwide behavior
programs, each study finding statistically
significant positive effects for several of
problems warrant
its behavioral outcomes. Although there
adopting schoolwide
are several randomized controlled tri-
als to support one component of recom-
strategies or programs mendation 5 (specific schoolwide inter-
and, if so, implement
vention programs), other components of
the recommendation (such as changes to
ones shown to reduce
the overall structure and organization of
negative and foster
the school, and peer mediation programs
implemented outside the classroom) are
positive interactions
supported only by quasi-experimental or
single subject studies. Consequently, the
panel believes the overall level of evidence
Classroom teachers, in coordination
for this recommendation is moderate.
with other school personnel (such as
administrators, grade-level teams, and
Brief summary of evidence to
special educators), can benefit from
support the recommendation
adopting a schoolwide approach to
preventing problem behaviors and
Currently, more than 7,400 schools na-
increasing positive social interactions
tionwide are implementing schoolwide
among students and with school staff.
behavior supports.109 Although these prac-
This type of systemic approach requires tices vary with the nature of the problems
a shared responsibility on the part
schools experience and the specific needs
of all school personnel, particularly
of their students, the core of many of
the administrators who establish and
schoolwide programs consists of a commit-
support consistent schoolwide practices ment and ongoing collaboration between
and the teachers who implement
administrators, teachers, other school per-
these practices both in their individual
sonnel, and families and a systems-level
classrooms and beyond.
approach focused on teaching positive
social behaviors rather than using puni-
Level of evidence: Moderate
tive tactics for disciplinary infractions.
These two components were apparent in
The panel judged the level of evidence sup-
the six studies that explored schoolwide
porting this recommendation to be moder-
approaches to reducing negative behaviors
ate. One quasi-experimental study inves-
and improving social outcomes.110
tigated the impact of schoolwide changes
in structure, organization, and practices 108. Cunningham et al. (1998).
and determined that these changes in-
creased the number of social relation-
109. Bradley et al. (2007).
ships among students.106 In addition, four 110. There is a growing body of literature that
randomized controlled trials 107 and one supports schoolwide approaches to address
student behavior. The panel recommends that
readers consult the Office of Special Education
Program’s Positive Behavioral and Interven-
106. Stevens and Slavin (1995).
tion Support website (http://www.pbis.org/
107. Conduct Problems Prevention Group (1999);
researchLiterature.htm) for a list of current
Frey et al. (2005); Grossman et al. (1997); Ialongo
studies pertaining to schoolwide positive be-
et al. (1999).
havior support.
( 44 )
5. Assess whether schoolwide behAvior problems wArrAnt schoolwide strAtegies or progrAms
One quasi-experimental study examined Building-level steering or advisory com-
the effects of schoolwide reform measures mittees can provide valuable input on the
that restructured and reorganized the use design and implementation of schoolwide
of school time and space in an effort to in-
behavior practices.114 Accordingly, we rec-
crease students’ in-school and school-family ommend that school principals charge a
interactions, as a way to promote positive newly-formed or existing school improve-
academic and behavioral outcomes.111 The ment team with considering prevention
numerous changes in organizational and and intervention strategies to address
educational practices included establishing schoolwide behavior issues. A typical team
a building-level steering committee to sup-
should be comprised of an administrator, a
port the implementation of the schoolwide teacher from each grade level, and a repre-
approach, mainstreaming students with sentative of the school support staff. It also
learning disabilities into regular education could benefit from a behavioral expert,
classrooms, increasing peer coaching and such as a school psychologist or counselor,
collaborative opportunities for teachers, and representation from a parent group.
and providing new academic curricula that
promoted positive social values. Results of The school improvement team has sev-
the impact of these changes on behavioral eral responsibilities. Initially, its role is to
outcomes revealed an increase in the num-
assess the existing schoolwide discipline
ber of student social relationships, which program or, if one does not exist, conduct
authors interpreted as suggesting that the a needs assessment that addresses specific
schoolwide approach had a positive impact behavior problems experienced through-
on students’ social competence.
out the school. Next, the team should
develop an action plan involving school-
Several of the studies exploring schoolwide wide discipline policies and procedures
approaches evaluated curriculum-based that are positively stated and based on
programs, designed to be implemented by high behavioral expectations and present
teachers in all classrooms throughout the their plan in an effort to garner the sup-
school112 (see recommendation 3 for ad-
port and commitment of the entire school
ditional information on classroom-based staff. When the practices have been imple-
intervention programs). Additionally, one mented throughout the school, the team
school level program addressed behavior will play an important role in monitoring
problems that occurred outside the class-
the progress of the schoolwide approach
room. 113 The findings from this single-sub-
by meeting regularly to review and update
ject study revealed that a peer mediation the action plan as needed, in an effort to
program effectively reduced aggressive ensure the sustainability of these practices
behavior on school playgrounds.
in the school.
How to carry out the
Although school principals must allocate
recommendation
time and support for this team, teachers
also play a key role in the success of a
1. Address schoolwide behavior issues by schoolwide approach. They have knowl-
involving a school improvement team.
edge of and influence on their students’
behaviors, which enables them to provide
information necessary to develop and im-
111. Stevens and Slavin (1995).
plement schoolwide behavior practices,
112. Conduct Problems Prevention Group (1999);
making their active participation on the
Frey et al. (2005); Grossman et al. (1997); Ialongo
team essential.
et al. (1999).
113. Cunningham et al. (1998).
114. Nelson (1996a); Stevens and Slavin (2005).
( 45 )
5. ASSESS WhEThER SChOOlWIDE BEhAvIOR PROBlEMS WARRAnT SChOOlWIDE STRATEgIES OR PROgRAMS
2. Collect information on the hot spots and develop and implement strategies
throughout the school—namely, the fre-
to overcome behavior problems in these
quency of particular schoolwide behavior areas (for example, revisit classroom be-
problems and when and where they occur.
havioral expectations or use positive and
negative consequences to reinforce posi-
To determine the most effective approach tive behavior). Disruptions outside the
to address schoolwide behavior concerns, classroom often can carry over and dis-
the school improvement team needs to rupt learning within it. Additionally, suc-
assess systematically where and when cessful classroom management can rap-
behavioral hot spots are apparent in the idly deteriorate when students exit the
school. Hot spots often are areas where classroom and encounter these hot spots,
large groups of students gather with little making it difficult to reestablish positive
supervision and no structured activities, behavior when they return to the class-
such as hallways, bathrooms, the cafete-
room. Thus, teachers can increase their
ria, and the playground. Similarly, behav-
ability to maintain positive behaviors in
ior problems are most likely to arise before the classroom by recognizing and react-
or after school, during lunch, or at recess, ing effectively to behavior problems that
when students congregate without struc-
ensue throughout the school.
tured activities or much adult supervi-
sion. These hot spots can be identified in 3. Monitor implementation and outcomes
a number of ways:
using an efficient method of data collec-
tion and allow ample time for the program
• Completing teacher surveys that pro-
to work.
vide general impressions of hot spots
around teachers’ classrooms and in Changes made schoolwide might initially
other areas of the school (for exam-
result in seemingly imperceptible changes
ple, the bathrooms closest to their to student behavior, seen only through
classrooms).
patterns that emerge from data. Thus,
we believe that ongoing documentation
• Allotting time during staff meetings to of student behavior is fundamental to
discuss schoolwide behavior problems this recommendation. School improve-
and identify specific times and loca-
ment teams need behavior-related data to
tions when those behavior problems establish baseline behavior characteris-
most often occur.
tics that help them appropriately identify
and address the major behavior concerns
• Organizing teachers and other school within the school. Regular monitoring is
personnel in charge of common areas, then necessary to determine whether the
such as cafeteria and school yard staff, programs and strategies implemented are
to observe and document behavior successfully reducing the targeted behav-
problems throughout the school.
ior problems and maintaining positive
behaviors. If not, the data can determine
• Collecting and analyzing office refer-
what elements of the program need to be
ral data.
revisited or revised.115
Understanding when and where these hot There are numerous sources of infor-
spots arise is essential when developing mation that can inform school person-
and implementing a schoolwide approach. nel about patterns of schoolwide student
However, even if schoolwide systems are behavior. For instance, office discipline
not in place, teachers can identify and
monitor hot spots outside their classrooms 115. Scott and Barrett (2004).
( 46 )
5. ASSESS WhEThER SChOOlWIDE BEhAvIOR PROBlEMS WARRAnT SChOOlWIDE STRATEgIES OR PROgRAMS
referrals can be a useful source of data,
and to the student’s family on the day
as studies have shown that they are both
the behavior problem occurs.
sensitive to the general behavioral cli-
mate of the school and an accurate index • Meaningful. A “less is more” approach
of the effectiveness of behavioral inter-
to data collection often is more effec-
ventions.116 117 To ensure that an effort to
tive than attempting to collect a large
collect office discipline referral and other
amount of information that may be-
data is sustainable over time, data collec-
come frustrating to digest and diffi-
tion methods should follow several core
cult to interpret. Data collection sys-
principles. Namely, data collection sys-
tems should focus on the few elements
tems should be:
that are most valuable to the school
(such as the frequency of occurrence
• Efficient. For data collection techniques
of a behavior that is the focus of a
to be implemented widely and contin-
schoolwide intervention program), and
uously, they should be easily learned
consistently monitor those elements
and quickly administered. Efficient
throughout the school year.
data collection techniques can range
from simple procedures, such as tally To augment information generated through
marks for observed behavior prob-
a schoolwide data collection system, teach-
lems on notepads carried by teachers, ers have an ideal vantage point to witness
to more complex procedures, such as specific behavior incidents as they arise
computerized data collection systems and provide informal, yet essential, data
that automatically record office disci-
on students’ behavior. By situating them-
pline referrals.
selves in areas where problem behaviors
are readily observed, teachers can docu-
• Timely. A response to a reported be-
ment information about the specific be-
havior problem is most effective when havior problems witnessed and report
it is administered soon after the behav-
on the immediate results of any actions
ior has occurred. Thus, data collection administered.118
systems should incorporate strategies
to promptly relay relevant information No matter how effective a schoolwide in-
to all appropriate people (teachers, sup-
tervention strategy ultimately is, it might
port staff, or parents) in order to pro-
take several months or more before a
vide a swift response to the child’s ac-
schoolwide behavioral intervention gener-
tions. For example, if a student exhibits ates significant changes in problem behav-
aggressive behavior during recess, a iors schoolwide. For example, the violence
system should be in place to report this prevention curriculum used in the study
behavior to the student’s teacher be-
by Grossman and others (1997) was taught
fore the students reenter the classroom in 30 lessons, given once or twice a week.
The positive behavioral effects found in
this and other experimental studies of
116. Irvin, Tobin, Sprague, Sugai, and Vincent
schoolwide programs cannot be expected
(2004).
to become evident until after completion
117. The panel acknowledges that office disci-
of the entire curriculum or intervention or
pline referrals are influenced by teacher judg-
toward the end of the school year. Broader
ment. Consequently, office discipline referral
reform efforts can take even longer to
may be considered a measure of teacher behav-
ior as well as student outcomes. Outcome moni-
reach fruition.
toring that identifies the changes in student re-
sponses to interventions would provide a more
118. See roadblock 5.2 for additional suggestions
accurate measure of program effectiveness.
about teacher roles in data collection.
( 47 )
5. ASSESS WhEThER SChOOlWIDE BEhAvIOR PROBlEMS WARRAnT SChOOlWIDE STRATEgIES OR PROgRAMS
4. If warranted, adopt a packaged interven-
or do we prefer to train existing school
tion program that fits well with identified be-
personnel?
havior problem(s) and the school context.
• What are the unique features of our
As the school improvement team develops
school (such as, size, geographic loca-
its action plan for a schoolwide behavior
tion, culture, and composition of staff
program, it might find that the best ap-
and students), and how will the inter-
proach to address the school’s behavior is-
vention fit these features? For exam-
sues is through one or more packaged inter-
ple, if a school has a large percentage
vention programs implemented schoolwide.
of bilingual students, can an English-
Many such programs contain the fundamen-
language intervention be modified to
tal components needed to respond to a vari-
accommodate all students?
ety of behavior problems. For example, evi-
dence-based interventions, such as Second • What do our observations tell us? For
Step119 and Promoting Alternative THinking
instance, are there certain student
Strategies,120 provide classroom-based cur-
populations, such as older students,
ricula consisting of specific lessons aimed at
that are particularly prone to behavior
increasing prosocial behaviors in students.
problems and that could benefit from
However, to ensure that these programs
specific interventions?
will be implemented with fidelity and work
effectively, the school improvement team • How will an intervention fit into our
should consider the appropriateness of a
current school schedule and curricu-
program, given the unique characteristics
lum? For example, are we willing to
and capacities of the school.
take time away from academic instruc-
tion to invest in a rigorous, year-long
Some questions that may assist the team
behavior curriculum or would a less in-
when selecting an intervention program
tensive intervention that can be easily
are:
incorporated into our existing sched-
ule better fit our school’s needs?
• What are the types of behaviors we
want to promote in our school and what To respond to these queries, the principal
are some specific behaviors we want to should be either a member of the school im-
reduce or eliminate? For example, do provement team or readily available to meet
we want our students to develop social and discuss these issues as the team devel-
skills with peers and adults? Is bullying ops its action plan. In addition, the school
a problem that needs to be addressed?
improvement team would benefit from
broader input of other teachers and other
• Is our school willing and able to spend school personnel, either through surveys
money and other resources, such as or discussions during staff meetings. By ad-
time for training all teachers on the in-
dressing these types of questions, the team
tervention procedures, to implement a can tailor packaged intervention programs
packaged intervention program to ad-
to fit within the school context, thereby in-
dress particular problem behaviors?
creasing the chances that they will be read-
ily implemented and sustained.
• Are we looking for an intervention that
is administered by outside consultants Potential roadblocks and solutions
Roadblock 5.1. “There’s no schoolwide sys-
119. Frey et al. (2005); Grossman et al. (1997).
tem at my school, and it doesn’t seem pos-
120. Conduct Problems Prevention Group (1999).
sible for me to change behavior problems
( 48 )
5. ASSESS WhEThER SChOOlWIDE BEhAvIOR PROBlEMS WARRAnT SChOOlWIDE STRATEgIES OR PROgRAMS
outside my classroom.” Many teachers work a schoolwide approach when addressing
in schools that do not have schoolwide student behavior issues, whether that ap-
systems in place or administrators willing proach includes the implementation of a
to consider implementing such a program. packaged intervention program depends
Consequently, these teachers feel stymied on the particular needs of the individual
when it comes to applying disciplinary schools. Finances and time are some con-
practices outside their classroom.
cerns that the school improvement team
should address when formulating their ac-
Suggested Approach. The panel believes tion plan. If the team decides that a pack-
that a schoolwide approach to behavior aged program is warranted, they should
issues is both feasible and advisable for consider the questions posed in step 4
many schools. Consequently, this recom-
with input from administrators and other
mendation encourages a sense of shared school personnel to determine the best fit
responsibility between teachers and ad-
for their school.
ministrators when supporting a schoolwide
approach to behavior management and For teams that do not believe they have
support. However, for teachers in schools the finances or time to implement a formal
that do not plan to develop a schoolwide data collection system, it is still possible
system to address students’ behavior, some to produce and analyze valuable informa-
of the implementation guidelines provide tion for decision-making and evaluation
specific tasks that teachers can accomplish purposes as long as the general principles
on their own. For example, teachers might of data collection (efficient, timely, and
notice that a few students often return from meaningful) are applied. Teachers can
lunchtime with increased behavior prob-
play a vital role as both data collectors and
lems. By stepping out of the classroom and analysts by observing student behavior in
informally observing lunchtime activities, everyday situations (for example, monitor-
they can identify the cafeteria as a hot spot ing the hallways during transition periods)
where behavior problems tend to erupt and and consistently documenting these ob-
where increased adult supervision could servations. In doing so, teachers can make
improve the situation. They then could in-
an important contribution to understand-
form these students that they will continue ing patterns of problem behavior, and in
to monitor their behavior in the cafeteria turn, provide valuable input into formulat-
and that consequences will be administered ing an intervention to manage these spe-
in the classroom for those who misbehave cific behavior issues.
and rewards will be provided to those who
exhibit positive behaviors.
Roadblock 5.3. “Nothing will work in our
school. Our demographics and setting are
Roadblock 5.2. “It’s too costly and bur-
too unique and challenging.” Administra-
densome to purchase and implement an tors and teachers may feel it is too dif-
intervention program or to maintain a ficult to introduce a schoolwide system,
data collection system.” Considerable time, train people, and implement this system
energy, and cost can be involved in pur-
with fidelity.
chasing and implementing a packaged in-
tervention program, an investment that Suggested Approach. When considering
can yield little benefit if school personnel an approach to improving the behavioral
do not know how to use the information climate of an entire school, the critical first
appropriately.
step is to generate acceptance and active
participation from all school personnel.
Suggested Approach. Although the It has been suggested that a commitment
panel encourages all schools to consider secured from at least 80 percent of the
( 49 )
5. ASSESS WhEThER SChOOlWIDE BEhAvIOR PROBlEMS WARRAnT SChOOlWIDE STRATEgIES OR PROgRAMS
school staff is necessary to proceed with Some specific concerns might be teachers’
this approach.121 To obtain this level of belief that their only responsibility is to
acceptance, school administrators must teach academic content, that implementing
show enthusiasm for and commitment to this approach will take time that should
establishing the structures and processes be invested in achieving academic goals,
needed to change the behavioral climate of or that discipline policy and practices that
the school. In addition, administrators can emphasize positive reinforcement rather
proactively solicit input on concerns teach-
than punitive measures are ineffective.122
ers and other personnel might have with Administrators can respond by emphasiz-
a schoolwide approach and engage staff
ing the fact that the schoolwide approach
in developing strategies to address them. is comprised of evidence-based practices
and providing the evidence that addresses
the concerns. This strategy has been ap-
121. See the OSEP Technical Assistance Center
plied successfully in a wide variety of
on Positive Behavioral Interventions and Sup-
ports for a description of the components of
school settings with a wide range of school
an effective comprehensive schoolwide system,
populations.
available at http://www.pbis.org/schoolwide.
htm#SystemsApproach.
122. McKevitt and Braaksma (2004).
( 50 )
Appendix A.
particular types of studies for drawing
Postscript from
causal conclusions about what works.
the Institute of
Thus, one typically finds that a strong
level of evidence is drawn from a body of
Education Sciences
randomized controlled trials, the moder-
ate level from well-designed studies that
do not involve randomization, and the
What is a practice guide?
low level from the opinions of respected
authorities, buttressed by theory or re-
The health care professions have em-
search that does not meet criteria for high
braced a mechanism for assembling and or moderate ratings (see table 1). Levels of
communicating evidence-based advice to evidence also can be constructed around
practitioners about care for specific clini-
the value of particular types of studies for
cal conditions. Variously called practice other goals, such as the reliability and va-
guidelines, treatment protocols, critical lidity of assessments.
pathways, best practice guides, or simply
practice guides, these documents are sys-
Practice guides also can be distinguished
tematically developed recommendations from systematic reviews or meta-analyses,
about the course of care for frequently en-
such as the What Works Clearinghouse
countered problems, ranging from physi-
(WWC) intervention reviews or statisti-
cal conditions, such as foot ulcers, to psy-
cal meta-analyses, which employ statisti-
chosocial conditions, such as adolescent cal methods to summarize the results of
development.1
studies obtained from a rule-based litera-
ture search. Authors of practice guides
Practice guides are similar to the prod-
seldom conduct the types of systematic
ucts of typical expert consensus panels literature searches that are the backbone
in reflecting the views of those serving of a meta-analysis, although they take ad-
on the panel and the social decisions that vantage of such work when it is already
come into play as the positions of individ-
published. Instead, authors use their ex-
ual panel members are forged into state-
pertise to identify the most important
ments that all panel members are willing research with respect to their recommen-
to endorse. Practice guides, however, are dations, augmented by a search of recent
generated under three constraints that do publications to ensure that the research
not typically apply to consensus panels. citations are up-to-date. Furthermore, the
The first is that a practice guide consists characterization of the quality and direc-
of a list of discrete recommendations that tion of the evidence underlying a recom-
are actionable. The second is that those mendation in a practice guide relies less
recommendations taken together are in-
on a tight set of rules and statistical algo-
tended to be a coherent approach to a rithms and more on the judgment of the
multifaceted problem. The third, which is authors than would be the case in a high-
most important, is that each recommen-
quality meta-analysis. Another distinction
dation is explicitly connected to the level is that a practice guide, because it aims for
of evidence supporting it, with the level a comprehensive and coherent approach,
represented by a grade (strong, moder-
operates with more numerous and more
ate, low).
contextualized statements of what works
than does a typical meta-analysis.
The levels of evidence, or grades, are
usually constructed around the value of Thus, practice guides sit somewhere be-
tween consensus reports and meta-anal-
1. Field and Lohr (1990).
yses in the degree to which systematic
( 51 )
APPEnDIx A. POSTSCRIPT fROM ThE InSTITuTE fOR EDuCATIOn SCIEnCES
processes are used for locating relevant panelists to co-author the practice guide.
research and characterizing its meaning. These are people the chair believes can
Practice guides are more like consensus work well together and have the requisite
panel reports than meta-analyses in the expertise to be a convincing source of
breadth and complexity of the topic that recommendations. IES recommends that
is addressed. Practice guides are different at one least one of the panelists be a prac-
from both consensus reports and meta-
titioner with experience relevant to the
analyses in providing advice at the level topic being addressed. The chair and the
of specific action steps along a pathway panelists are provided a general template
that represents a more-or-less coherent for a practice guide along the lines of the
and comprehensive approach to a multi-
information provided in this preamble.
faceted problem.
They also are provided with examples
of practice guides. The practice guide
Practice guides in education at the
panel works under a short deadline of 6–9
Institute of Education Sciences
months to produce a draft document. The
expert panel interacts with and receives
The Institute of Education Sciences (IES) feedback from staff at IES during the de-
publishes practice guides in education to velopment of the practice guide, but they
bring the best available evidence and ex-
understand that they are the authors and,
pertise to bear on the types of systemic thus, responsible for the final product.
challenges that cannot currently be ad-
dressed by single interventions or pro-
One unique feature of IES-sponsored prac-
grams. Although IES has taken advantage tice guides is that they are subjected to
of the history of practice guides in health-
rigorous external peer review through the
care to provide models of how to proceed same office that is responsible for inde-
in education, education is different from pendent review of other IES publications.
healthcare in ways that may require that A critical task of the peer reviewers of a
practice guides in education have some-
practice guide is to determine whether
what different designs. Even within health the evidence cited in support of particular
care, where practice guides now number recommendations is up-to-date and that
in the thousands, there is no single tem-
studies of similar or better quality that
plate in use. Rather, one finds descriptions point in a different direction have not been
of general design features that permit ignored. Peer reviewers also are asked to
substantial variation in practice guides evaluate whether the evidence grade as-
across subspecialties and panels of ex-
signed to particular recommendations by
perts.2 Accordingly, the templates for IES the practice guide authors is appropriate.
practice guides may vary across practice A practice guide is revised as necessary to
guides and change over time and with meet the concerns of external peer reviews
experience.
and gain the approval of the standards and
review staff at IES. The process of external
The steps involved in producing an IES-
peer review is carried out independent of
sponsored practice guide are first to select the office and staff within IES that insti-
a topic, which is informed by formal sur-
gated the practice guide.
veys of practitioners and requests. Next, a
panel chair is recruited who has a national Because practice guides depend on the
reputation and up-to-date expertise in the expertise of their authors and their group
topic. Third, the chair, working in collabo-
decisionmaking, the content of a practice
ration with IES, selects a small number of guide is not and should not be viewed as
a set of recommendations that in every
2. American Psychological Association (2002).
case depends on and flows inevitably from
( 52 )
APPEnDIx A. POSTSCRIPT fROM ThE InSTITuTE fOR EDuCATIOn SCIEnCES
scientific research. It is not only possible on average, provide substantially better
but likely that two teams of recognized advice than an individual school district
experts working independently to pro-
might obtain on its own because the au-
duce a practice guide on the same topic thors are national authorities who have
would generate products that differ in to reach agreement among themselves,
important respects. Thus, consumers of justify their recommendations in terms
practice guides need to understand that of supporting evidence, and undergo rig-
they are, in effect, getting the advice of orous independent peer review of their
consultants. These consultants should, product.
Institute of Education Sciences
( 53 )
Appendix B.
Students with Emotional and Behavioral
About the Authors
Disorders, a textbook, and has served as
President of the Council for Children with
Behavioral Disorders.
Panel
Krista Kutash is Professor and Dep-
Michael Epstein (Chair) is the Director uty Director of the University of South
of the Center for At-Risk Children’s Ser-
Florida’s Research and Training Center
vices and William E. Barkley Professor for Children’s Mental Health. She holds
of Special Education at the University of a Ph.D. in measurement and statistics
Nebraska-Lincoln. He earned his Ed.D. from the University of South Florida. Dr.
in special education from the University Kutash has conducted field research on
of Virginia. Dr. Epstein has published issues related to children with disabili-
more than 200 professional papers and ties and their families in 27 states and
is the founding editor of the Journal of in more than 200 school districts and 60
Emotional and Behavioral Disorders. He mental health facilities. She coauthored
is the author of the Behavioral and Emo-
Outcomes for Children and Youth with
tional Rating Scale-2 (PRO-ED, 2004) and Emotional and Behavioral Disorders and
the Scale for Assessing Emotional Distur-
Their Families (PRO-ED, 2005) and coedits
bance (PRO-ED, 1998), and a co-author the Journal of Emotional and Behavioral
of Outcomes for Children and Youth with Disorders.
Emotional and Behavioral Disorders and
Their Families (PRO-ED, 2005).
Robin Weaver has been Principal of Har-
mony Hills Elementary School in Silver
Marc Atkins is Professor of Psychology Spring, MD for 21 years. Harmony Hills
in Psychiatry and Director of Psychol-
serves 500 students who represent more
ogy Training at the University of Illinois-
than 25 countries and speak 18 languages.
Chicago’s Department of Psychiatry. He Students at Harmony Hills meet or exceed
has a Ph.D. in clinical psychology from local, state, and federal academic stan-
Florida State University. Dr. Atkins has a dards. Ms. Weaver received her B.A. in hu-
long-standing interest in the development manities and M.S. in library science from
of effective school-based mental health Case Western Reserve University, and was
services for children and families in low-
a Fulbright Scholar in India and a Peace
income urban communities. He is a con-
Corps Volunteer in the Fiji Islands.
sultant to the Chicago Public Schools, the
New York City Public Schools, and the Illi-
Staff
nois Department of Mental Health.
Michelle Woodbridge, a Senior Research
Douglas Cullinan is Professor of Special Analyst at SRI International, received her
Education at North Carolina State Univer-
Ph.D. in education from the University of
sity. Dr. Cullinan has an Ed.D. in special California—Santa Barbara. Dr. Woodbridge
education from the University of Virginia. has more than 13 years of experience in re-
Since 1973 he has served on the editorial search and evaluation of children’s behav-
boards of Behavioral Disorders, Exceptional ioral and mental health services, and has
Children, Journal of Emotional and Behav-
authored or coauthored numerous publi-
ioral Disorders, Journal of Special Educa-
cations regarding evaluations of interven-
tion, and other professional journals, and tions and programs serving children with
authored or coauthored more than 125 emotional and behavioral disabilities and
publications. Dr. Cullinan is the author of their families.
( 54 )
APPEnDIx B. ABOuT ThE AuThORS
Jennifer Yu, a Research Social Scientist and comorbid substance use among ado-
at SRI International, received her Sc.D. in lescents with learning disabilities.
maternal and child health from Harvard
School of Public Health, and completed Mary Wagner, Co-Director of SRI Interna-
a postdoctoral fellowship in health pol-
tional’s Center for Education and Human
icy from the University of California—
Services, has concentrated her work in the
San Francisco. Dr. Yu has considerable last 28 years in two major areas: longitudi-
research experience in the design and nal studies of the characteristics, experi-
quantitative analysis of longitudinal stud-
ences, and achievements of children and
ies, particularly those focused on child youth with disabilities, and evaluations of
and adolescent mental and behavioral interventions and programs serving chil-
health. She has authored and coauthored dren and families. Dr. Wagner received her
numerous papers regarding mental health Ph.D. in political science from the Univer-
and behavioral disabilities in adolescents sity of North Carolina—Chapel Hill.
( 55 )
Appendix C.
Dr. Atkins has no financial stake in any
Disclosure of potential program or practice that is mentioned in
conflicts of interest
the practice guide. He is a consultant for
the New York City Board of Education on
alternative models for school counseling,
Practice guide panels are composed of in-
which could involve training counselors
dividuals who are nationally recognized on classroom behavior management pro-
experts on the topics about which they grams such as those mentioned in this prac-
are rendering recommendations. The In-
tice guide. He also has had a long-standing
stitute of Education Sciences (IES) expects consultative relationship with the Chicago
that such experts will be involved profes-
Public Schools Office of Specialized Ser-
sionally in a variety of matters that relate vices related to his ongoing research in Chi-
to their work as a panel. Panel members cago Public Schools. He is currently funded
are asked to disclose their professional by the National Institute of Mental Health
involvements and to institute deliberative to study a model of school-based mental
processes that encourage critical exami-
health consultation. This model involves,
nation of the views of panel members as in part, training community mental health
they relate to the content of the practice providers and teachers on classroom behav-
guide. The potential influence of panel ior management programs, such as those
members’ professional engagements is described in this practice guide. He is a co-
further muted by the requirement that investigator on a proposal to the Institute
they ground their recommendations in of Education Sciences to develop a model
evidence that is documented in the prac-
to support early career teachers working in
tice guide. In addition, the practice guide urban low-income schools, which also could
undergoes independent external peer re-
involve training in programs such as those
view prior to publication, with particular described in this practice guide.
focus on whether the evidence related to
the recommendations in the practice guide Dr. Cullinan is a coauthor of the Scale
has been appropriately presented.
for Assessing Emotional Disturbance, for
which he receives royalties from PRO-ED,
The professional engagements reported Inc. This assessment instrument is not
by each panel member that appear most referenced in this practice guide. Also,
closely associated with the panel recom-
Dr. Cullinan is the author of Students with
mendations are noted below.
Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, for
which he receives royalties from Pearson
Dr. Epstein is the author of the Behav-
Education, Inc. This book is not referenced
ioral and Emotional Rating Scale-2 and the in this practice guide.
Scale for Assessing Emotional Disturbance.
He receives royalties from PRO-ED, Inc. He Dr. Kutash is a coauthor of the book Out-
has also developed interventions aimed comes for Children with Emotional and
at improving students’ academic and be-
Behavioral Disorders and Their Families:
havioral outcomes and reported the find-
Program and Evaluation Best Practices (2nd
ings in journal articles and book chapters. ed.) and a coeditor of the Journal of Emo-
These instruments and interventions are tional and Behavioral Disorders, for which
not referenced in this practice guide.
she receives royalties from PRO-ED, Inc.
( 56 )
Appendix D.
implemented by the teacher without pro-
Technical information
fessional consultation.3
on the studies
Examples of classroom studies that
Recommendation 1.
demonstrate the effectiveness of
Identify the specifics of the
interventions based on the context of
problem behavior and the
problem behavior
conditions that prompt and
reinforce it
Research suggests that identifying a prob-
lem behavior’s specific antecedents and
Level of evidence: Moderate
consequences and then tailoring an ap-
proach to address the distinct needs of the
The panel judged the level of evidence individual student in the classroom con-
supporting this recommendation to be text are more likely to yield positive out-
moderate. A number of single-subject re-
comes than an intervention applied with-
search studies demonstrate the effective-
out attention to the factors prompting and
ness of behavioral interventions that are reinforcing it.4 In fact, strategies not linked
designed to address and modify what to the specific context of the misbehavior
prompts and reinforces the problem be-
demonstrate increases in the occurrence
haviors of special and general education of the problem behavior, perhaps because
elementary school students.1 Three re-
strategies used to address it inadvertently
cent single-subject studies examined the reinforce the misbehavior.5
effectiveness of interventions chosen for
individual students after teachers gath-
For example, in one single-subject study,
ered data on the antecedents and conse-
researchers compared the outcomes of
quences of students’ problem behaviors, two interventions designed for three gen-
as opposed to interventions selected with-
eral education elementary students with
out attention to these factors.2 Findings aggressive and off-task behaviors.6 One ap-
demonstrated greater success in reduc-
proach was based on assessment informa-
ing inappropriate behaviors through the tion gathered about each student’s specific
use of approaches based on the gathered behavioral context and reinforcement (an-
data. An emerging literature provides fur-
tecedents and consequences), contrasted
ther evidence that general educators can with an approach based on general class-
play a key role in this information-gath-
room management principles to address
ering process by identifying the context the topography of the problem behavior
of a problem behavior and selecting ap-
(that is, what the behavior problem looks
propriate strategies that meet students’ like versus the underlying cause). Using an
needs. But more research is needed to alternating-treatment, multiple-baseline
determine whether consistent results design across participants, the research-
can be obtained when the strategies are ers found that assessment-based interven-
tions were more effective in decreasing
1. For example, Broussard and Northup (1995);
problem behavior. In fact, data showed
Ervin et al. (2000); Lane et al. (2007); Moore et
al. (2005); Sasso et al. (1992); Stahr et al. (2006);
3. Kamps et al. (2006); Lane, Weisenbach, et al.
Umbreit (1995). For research reviews, see Ervin
(2007); Mueller et al. (2003).
et al. (2001); Heckaman et al. (2000); Kern et al.
4. Payne et al. (2007).
(2002).
5. Ibid.
2. Ingram et al. (2005); Newcomer and Lewis
(2004); Payne et al. (2007).
6. Newcomer and Lewis (2004).
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APPEnDIx D. TEChnICAl InfORMATIOn On ThE STuDIES
higher levels of problem behavior with the Examples of classroom studies that
non-assessment-based approach than with demonstrate the feasibility and
the baseline condition. One potential limi-
effectiveness of general education
tation of the study, however, was that in teachers applying assessment-based
all three cases the non-assessment-based approaches
interventions preceded the assessment-
based interventions, so the study did not Three single-subject research studies have
control for treatment effect order.
demonstrated the success of an approach
that specifically identifies and modifies
In a follow-up study, researchers measured what is prompting and reinforcing the
the effectiveness of assessment-based in-
problem behaviors in general education
terventions with two middle school stu-
settings, with general education teachers
dents in general education classrooms.7 taking substantive roles in the data gath-
The investigators controlled for treatment ering, design, and implementation of be-
order effects by counterbalancing the two havioral strategies. One research group
intervention approaches between the two successfully trained general education el-
students. Similar to the earlier findings, ementary school teachers to manipulate
the single-subject withdrawal design dem-
teacher and peer attention to problematic
onstrated that the assessment-based inter-
off-task and disruptive behaviors while ful-
ventions were more effective in lowering filling regular classroom responsibilities
the number of problem behaviors.
and routines.9 In another study, investiga-
tors trained teachers to respond effectively
Recently, investigators extended the re-
to inappropriate behaviors by following a
search of these previous studies by exam-
reinforcement protocol developed for each
ining the efficacy of assessment-based ver-
student exhibiting problem behaviors.10
sus non-assessment-based interventions.8 Recently, researchers used a collaborative
Results of their multi-treatment single-
process (including graduate school stu-
subject design involving four elementary dents who acted as project liaisons and
school students demonstrated clear and consultants) with general education teach-
immediate decreases in problem behavior ers as the primary interventionists and
with the introduction of assessment-based assessors, finding that the teachers con-
interventions and strong increases in prob-
sistently implemented assessment-based
lem behavior with each introduction of interventions that resulted in decreases in
non-assessment-based intervention.
problematic behaviors.11 However, these
studies do not provide enough evidence to
conclude that these practices will be effec-
7. Ingram et al. (2005). The panel believes this
tive for all students or in all settings. The
study, although conducted within a middle school
studies differ in data collection methods
general education environment, is generalizable
(using a variety of both direct and indirect
to an elementary school population. The students
assessment measures, such as observa-
examined in this study exhibited common prob-
tions and interviews), in the extent of as-
lem behaviors found across elementary school
sistance from behavioral consultants, and
grades, such as staring into space and not en-
gaging in or completing math or science assign-
in the methods used to select interventions
ments. The intervention strategies (the teacher
and strategies on the basis of accumulated
checking in with the student about his physical
knowledge about the problem behavior.
state and the student self-assessing his on-task
and help-seeking behaviors) and rewards (extra
9. Kamps et al. (2006).
break and computer time) were also relevant to
the elementary school level.
10. Mueller et al. (2003).
8. Payne et al. (2007).
11. Lane, Weisenbach, et al. (2007).
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APPEnDIx D. TEChnICAl InfORMATIOn On ThE STuDIES
As a result, some researchers have called should try to acquire the skills, experi-
for additional studies to be conducted ence, and confidence needed to carry out
with a variety of target behaviors across this information-gathering process and
different settings because of concerns seek out their colleagues and the student’s
regarding inconsistencies when the ap-
family for additional help and guidance
proach involves different types of stu-
in addressing behavior problems in their
dents, school-based personnel, and as-
classrooms when necessary.
sessment methods.12 For example, in one
study investigators selected staff members Recommendation 2.
from four elementary schools who had Modify the classroom environment
been trained in how to use the outcomes to decrease problem behavior
of a comprehensive assessment process
to develop assessment-based intervention Level of evidence: Strong
plans.13 They then formed school-based
intervention teams and served as facili-
The panel rated the level of evidence for
tators for a total of 31 cases. The same this recommendation as strong. This rec-
cases also were distributed to three na-
ommendation reflects best practices in
tional experts who selected interventions elementary classroom management and
based on the identified contextual data for pedagogy, as defined and articulated by
each case. Comparisons between team and experts in the field since the early 1970s.14
expert intervention strategy selection re-
Research across decades has demonstrated
vealed that school-based personnel were that consistent implementation and rein-
more likely to select punitive and exclu-
forcement of well defined classroom rules
sionary strategies, regardless of the con-
is associated with positive student be-
textual information. Thus, in real-world havior in both the classroom and other
school settings the link between a problem school settings, such as the playground
behavior’s antecedents and consequences and hallways.15 More recently, three ran-
and the selection of an appropriate inter-
domized controlled trials,16 one quasi-ex-
vention is more complex than has been perimental design,17 and six single-subject
recognized in the literature.
research studies18 demonstrate empirical
support for (1) preventative classroom
One additional limitation of the literature management, with particular emphasis
is that no studies to date have experimen-
tally examined the effects of general edu-
cation teachers alone identifying the an-
14. For example, Axelrod and Mathews (2003);
tecedents and consequences of problem Bear (1998); Brophy (1983); Doyle (1992); Evertson
behaviors and selecting suitable strate-
et al. (2006); Evertson and Harris (1995); Good
gies to intervene with the problem be-
and Brophy (2003); Hall and Hall (1998-2004); Kel-
lam (1999); Kounin (1970); Walker (1995); Walker,
havior on the basis of that information. Colvin, and Ramsey (1995).
All studies employed some amount of
behavioral consultation in the process. 15. For example, see reviews by Kern and Cle-
However, the panel believes that because mens (2007); Sugai and Horner (2002); Sugai et
al. (2001).
research shows a strong link between un-
derstanding a problem behavior’s context 16. Evertson (1989); Ialongo et al. (2001); Ialongo
and applying an effective remedy, teachers et al. (1999).
17. Heller and Fantuzzo (1993).
18. Dunlap et al. (1994); DuPaul et al. (1998); Kern
12. Gresham (2004); Gresham et al. (2004); Sasso
et al. (2002); Kern et al. (1994); Kern, Mantegna,
et al. (2001); Scott et al. (2005).
et al. (2001); Nelson, Johnson, and Marchand-
13. Scott et al. (2005).
Martella (1996).
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APPEnDIx D. TEChnICAl InfORMATIOn On ThE STuDIES
on teachers’ attention to specific envi-
Since then, classroom-based contingency
ronmental variables that evoke problem programs modeled on the Good Behavior
behaviors;19 and for (2) direct and differen-
Game have been applied to other behav-
tiated instructional strategies to increase iors (for example, aggression or shyness),
student engagement and decrease prob-
grade levels, and settings, and its impacts
lem behaviors.20
have been demonstrated both immediately
following the intervention (at the end of
1st grade) and longitudinally (five years
Examples of studies that demonstrate
after the intervention) with hundreds of
the effectiveness of modifying the
children.22 Data demonstrated fewer ag-
classroom environment
gressive and shy behaviors at the end
of 1st grade and positive outcomes at
Research dating back almost four decades 6th grade, especially for males display-
has demonstrated the effectiveness of ing early aggressive behavior. Two ran-
group contingency programs (where stu-
domized controlled trials were conducted
dents work in teams in which each indi-
with a sample of 678 students entering
vidual is responsible to the rest of the 1st grade in nine Baltimore City public el-
group) in both preventing and intervening ementary schools.23 Using a randomized
with behavior problems. Upon introducing block design, three 1st grade classrooms
these programs to students, teachers iden-
in each of nine schools were randomly as-
tify specific inappropriate behaviors (for signed to either a classroom-centered in-
example, verbal and physical disruptions tervention using the Good Behavior Game
or noncompliance) that, if displayed, will or a family-school partnership interven-
result in a team’s receiving a checkmark. By tion, or to a control condition. Findings re-
the end of the lesson, teams that have not vealed that in 6th grade, students who had
exceeded the maximum number of marks been in the Good Behavior Game condition
are rewarded, for example with a preferred in 1st grade were significantly less likely
activity or privilege, whereas teams that than students in the control condition to
exceed the behavioral standard receive be diagnosed with conduct disorders or to
no rewards. Eventually, the teacher begins have been suspended from school. Partici-
the game with no warning and at different pants in both the Good Behavior Game and
periods during the day so students are family-school partnership interventions
encouraged to monitor their behavior con-
received significantly better ratings from
tinuously and strive to meet expectations. their teachers for conduct problems than
Researchers first documented the effects of students in the control group.
such a program in an investigation of the
Good Behavior Game, which demonstrated Two randomized controlled trials evalu-
a reduction in the disruptive out-of-seat ated the effectiveness of training teachers
and talking behaviors of 24 4th-grade stu-
to use comprehensive classroom manage-
dents in a general education classroom.21
ment approaches with the goals of reduc-
ing students’ time off task and disruptive
19. Dunlap et al. (1994); Evertson (1989); Ialongo
behaviors in the classroom.24 Participants
et al. (2001); Ialongo et al. (1999); Kern, Bam-
in the programs were trained to create and
bara, and Fogt (2002); Kern et al. (1994); Kern,
Mantegna, et al. (2001). For relevant research
reviews, see Davis et al. (2004) and Kern and
22. Dolan et al. (1993); Ialongo et al. (2001);
Clemens (2007).
Ialongo et al. (1999), Lohrmann and Talerico
(2004).
20. DuPaul et al. (1998); Heller and Fantuzzo
(1993); Nelson et al. (1996).
23. Ialongo et al. (2001); Ialongo et al. (1999).
21. Barrish et al. (1969).
24. Evertson (1989); Webster-Stratton et al. (2004).
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APPEnDIx D. TEChnICAl InfORMATIOn On ThE STuDIES
maintain well-organized classrooms and positive relationships with students; and
to use the instructional and skill-building how to teach empathy, social skills, and
strategies as prescribed, but findings were problem-solving. Observational data indi-
mixed regarding the impact of these ap-
cated increases in teachers’ use of praise
proaches on students’ task engagement and encouragement and reduced use of
and academic success.
criticism and harsh discipline. But effects
on concomitant student outcomes (for ex-
One randomized controlled trial conducted ample increases in positive interactions
with teachers from two school districts with teachers and peers, improved task
investigated the effectiveness of a class-
engagement, and reduction in aggression),
room management program called COMP although reported as statistically signifi-
(Classroom Organization and Manage-
cant by the study’s authors, could not be
ment Program).25 COMP guides teachers independently confirmed.27
in creating a well-organized classroom,
establishing positive management poli-
In a series of four single-subject studies,
cies, and maintaining these procedures student choice as an intervention also has
throughout the year. The experimen-
been empirically demonstrated to be effec-
tal study included 14 elementary school tive in decreasing inappropriate behaviors
teachers assigned to the COMP interven-
of students with emotional and behavioral
tion and 15 assigned to the control group. disorders. Student choice includes many
The COMP teachers received two 1-day variations, such as choosing the specific
workshops in the fall, with control group task to complete,28 materials to be used,29
teachers receiving the same training at and sequence of activities.30 For example,
the end of the year. Observational data researchers investigated the effects of
indicated that COMP teachers exceeded choice on the academic engagement of el-
the control group in the use of key man-
ementary school students with emotional
agement principles, and their students and behavioral challenges using a multi-
showed statistically significantly greater phased, single-subject design.31 In the
task engagement and academic success first analysis, two participants were given
and fewer inappropriate behaviors in the choices from menus of academic tasks
classroom.
that were pertinent to their educational
objectives in English and spelling. Reversal
However, another experimental study
examining the effectiveness of a teacher
training series that emphasized similar 27. The authors reported that preplanned com-
classroom management skills, reinforce-
parisons using composite scores adjusted by
ment contingencies, and instructional pretest scores of treatment and control groups
and skill-building strategies showed less showed statistically significant reductions in the
intervention students’ conduct problems after 6
definitive results. Researchers examined months. However, when What Works Clearing-
the Incredible Years Training for Teachers house reviewers applied a multiple comparison
Series in a randomized controlled group adjustment to the analyses, the findings showed
evaluation.26 The teacher training series no statistically significant differences between
focused on the effective use of teacher the outcomes of the intervention and compari-
attention, praise, and encouragement; son students.
how to manage inappropriate classroom 28. Dunlap et al. (1994); Kern, Bambara, and
behaviors; the importance of building Fogt (2002).
29. Kern et al. (1994).
25. Evertson (1989).
30. Kern, Mantegna, et al. (2001).
26. Webster-Stratton et al. (2004).
31. Dunlap et al. (1994).
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APPEnDIx D. TEChnICAl InfORMATIOn On ThE STuDIES
designs showed that the choice condition steps, at the appropriate level of difficulty,
increased task engagement and reduced and with ample opportunities for practice
disruptive behavior for both students. An result in higher levels of on-task behavior
additional analysis was performed with a and student engagement.36 Single-subject
third student in an effort to further dis-
research data also support the practice of
tinguish the effects of choice from prefer-
increasing the number of opportunities
ence. In this study, one of the no-choice that students have to respond to academic
phases was yoked to a previous choice or social prompts, thereby increasing aca-
condition. This analysis demonstrated demic engaged time and fluency with the
that the choice condition was superior to material and reducing inappropriate behav-
baseline and yoked-control phases, as de-
ior. In one study researchers increased the
termined by levels of task engagement and number of teacher-presented opportunities
disruptive behavior.
to respond from 1.7 per minute during a
baseline phase to 3.5 during an interven-
tion phase in a class of nine students (ages
Examples of studies that demonstrate
8 through 12) with emotional and behav-
the effectiveness of modifying classroom ioral disorders. The increase in opportuni-
and individual instructional strategies
ties to respond was associated with higher
correct responding, fewer disruptive behav-
Reviews of research and retrospective ob-
iors, and increased on-task behavior.37
servations of students who exhibit prob-
lem behaviors have concluded that these There also is evidence that using effective
students are also likely to have poor aca-
instructional principles positively impacts
demic performance,32 although the direc-
students’ academic and social behaviors.
tion of relationship between academics In one alternating-treatment design study
and behavior remains unclear.33 Three researchers compared the effects of in-
single-subject studies have shown that struction incorporating modeling, guided
curricular variables, such as assigning practice, and student independent practice
work that exceeds a student’s skill level34 (that is, direct instruction, following guide-
or attention span, using a single and con-
lines derived from the literature38) with
stant learning task (for example, written two other types of instruction: coopera-
assignments or workbook pages) rather tive learning, where students participated
than a variety of activities, and deliver-
in teams of one target student and two or
ing instruction at a slow pace or without three classmates, and independent learn-
sufficient interactive practice, can set the ing, where participants were given indi-
occasion for or exacerbate problem behav-
vidual folders detailing the lesson for the
iors in the classroom.35
day.39 Findings demonstrated higher rates
Another single-subject investigation exam-
ining the techniques of direct instruction 36. Nelson et al. (1996). See relevant research re-
suggested that lessons delivered in small views by Adams and Engelmann (1996); Rivera et
al. (2006); Rosenshine and Stevens (1986).
37. Sutherland et al. (2003).
32. Montague, Enders, and Castro (2005); Nelson
et al. (2004); Reid et al. (2004).
38. Rosenshine and Stevens (1986) provide a
synthesis of research on the practices of teach-
33. Epstein et al. (2005).
ers who effectively implement direct instruction,
34. Lee et al. (1999).
including teaching in small steps and providing
ample opportunities for students’ guided and
35. Kern, Delaney, et al. (2001); Nelson et al.
independent practice.
(1996). See a review of additional relevant re-
search by Kern and Clemens (2007).
39. Nelson et al. (1996).
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of on-task behavior and lower rates of dis-
research study investigated the effects of
ruptive behavior among four elementary classwide peer tutoring on the classroom
school students with emotional disorders behavior and academic performance of
in a self-contained classroom who were students with and without attention defi-
in the direct instruction group, relative to cits.42 The study included 18 students with
their performance in the other two condi-
attention problems (as reported by their
tions. The independent learning approach parents and teachers) and 10 typically
resulted in increased levels of disruptive developing classmates in 1st–5th grades
behavior and decreased levels of on-task across schools in two districts. During the
behavior relative to the direct instruction treatment condition, tutoring pairs worked
approach. The authors concluded that the with each other for about 20 minutes a day
instructional system underlying direct in-
for 3 to 4 days a week on specific academic
struction practices reduced the disruptive skills, switching roles (from tutor to tutee)
behavior of students, and that certain in-
every 10 minutes. The intervention was
structional methods can serve as aversive associated with significant increases in
stimuli in classrooms.
active engagement in academic tasks for
both students with and without attention
Finally, peer tutoring is an instructional deficits, reductions in off-task behaviors
strategy in which students work in pairs for most study participants, and improve-
(or groups) as a tutor and tutee(s). The ments in academic performance.
goals are to improve academic learning,
develop cooperative work habits, and in-
Recommendation 3.
crease positive social interactions among Teach and reinforce new skills
students. Using both experimental group to increase appropriate behavior
and single-subject research designs, re-
and preserve a positive classroom
searchers have demonstrated the effec-
climate
tiveness of peer tutoring as an instruc-
tional strategy for students with behavior Level of evidence: Strong
problems.40 One randomized controlled
trial examined the effects of peer tutor-
The panel rated the level of evidence for
ing and parent involvement interventions this recommendation as strong. This rec-
on mathematics achievement of 84 aca-
ommendation is based on five randomized
demically at-risk 4th and 5th graders. controlled trials43 and three single-subject
The findings demonstrated that students research studies44 examining the effec-
who participated in the peer tutoring in-
tiveness of teaching and reinforcing new
tervention groups (with or without parent appropriate behaviors to students with
involvement) displayed higher levels of problem behaviors. These studies have
accurate mathematics computations, and shown success in teaching students re-
both groups also showed significant be-
placement behaviors (such as appropriate
havioral improvements in the classroom attention-seeking, social skills, problem-
(decreases in acting out behaviors and solving, self-management skills, and self-
increases in task engagement, as rated control strategies) and, as a result, in
by their teachers) compared with control
students.41 Additionally, a single-subject 42. DuPaul et al. (1998).
40. DuPaul et al. (1998); Heller and Fantuzzo
43. Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group
(1993). For reviews of relevant research, see
(1999); Daunic et al. (2006); Frey et al. (2005);
Rivera et al. (2006); Ryan, Reid, and Epstein
Grossman et al. (1997); Walker et al. (1998).
(2004).
44. Beard and Sugai (2004); Peterson et al. (2006);
41. Heller and Fantuzzo (1993).
Todd et al. (1999).
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APPEnDIx D. TEChnICAl InfORMATIOn On ThE STuDIES
reducing inappropriate behaviors such as relative to comparison students and main-
disruption and aggression. Furthermore, tained over several months.
studies that span almost half a century
demonstrate that positive reinforcement is Two other groups of investigators, using
associated with initial and long-term aca-
single-subject research designs, have
demic benefits and with increases in the shown that self-monitoring interventions
frequency of appropriate behaviors among with older elementary school students
general education students.45
lead to increases in academic engagement
and decreases in off-task behaviors.49 Re-
searchers examined the relationship be-
Examples of studies that demonstrate
tween self-monitoring of on-task behavior,
the effectiveness of teaching new skills
overall teacher perceptions of student per-
to increase appropriate behaviors
formance, task completion, and frequency
of teacher praise. The single-subject multi-
Studies of classroom-based interventions ple-baseline design was employed across
for students with behavior problems have class periods for one 4th grade student
focused on enhancing skills, such as ap-
with learning disabilities and problem be-
propriate attention-seeking, social skills, havior in a general education classroom.
problem-solving, self-management skills, Eight male students were randomly se-
and self-control strategies. One random-
lected from a pool of 16 to serve as com-
ized controlled trial46 and two single-
parison students. Results indicate that
subject research studies47 have demon-
implementation of the self-management
strated that reductions in inappropriate technique resulted in a decrease in the
behaviors, such as disruption and aggres-
frequency of problem behaviors and an
sion, and increases in academic engage-
increase in on-task behavior and task com-
ment are associated with skill-building pletion. In addition, the intervention was
instruction and reinforcement of positive associated with increased positive teacher
behavior.
perceptions of student performance.
For example, one recent randomized con-
Recently, another group of investigators
trolled trial involving 165 students in 4th examined whether a self-monitoring strat-
and 5th grades demonstrated that teach-
egy, coupled with a student-teacher match-
ing students problem-solving skills useful ing strategy (assessing if students’ be-
in anger-provoking situations can improve havior ratings on a four-point scale were
teacher-reported behavior, including self-
matched within one point to teachers’ rat-
control and aggression.48 Teachers de-
ings), would improve the classroom social
livered the classwide intervention to all skills of five inner-city middle school stu-
students (both those identified with be-
dents who were at risk for school failure.50
havior problems and their typical peers) Using a multiple-probe design across stu-
twice a week for 10 weeks, rated the social dents and class periods, the researchers
skills curriculum positively, and reported found that self-monitoring and student-
that behavior was significantly improved teacher matching led to increases in ap-
propriate social skills and decreases in off-
45. For example, Akin-Little et al. (2004); Cam-
task behavior for all five students across
eron et al. (2001); Hall, Lund, and Jackson (1968);
all class periods. Data suggested that self-
Hall et al. (1968).
monitoring is an effective procedure to
46. Daunic et al. (2006).
47. Peterson et al. (2006); Todd et al. (1999).
49. Peterson et al. (2006); Todd et al. (1999).
48. Daunic et al. (2006).
50. Peterson et al. (2006).
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APPEnDIx D. TEChnICAl InfORMATIOn On ThE STuDIES
promote the use of appropriate social group students and maintained gains into
skills across multiple general education the primary grades. In addition, teachers
settings, but improvements were more using the program in their classrooms
dramatic and consistent when a matching expressed a high degree of satisfaction,
strategy also was used.
remarking that it was easy to learn and
implement and had favorable results with
Additional studies, including one ran-
their students.53
domized controlled trial and one single-
subject design, have demonstrated the ef-
The most recent study conducted by Beard
fects of a specific classroom-based early and Sugai (2004) examined the effects of
intervention program, First Step to Success, First Step on rates of problem behavior and
designed to reduce antisocial behaviors academic engagement for six kindergar-
by modeling and teaching appropriate ten students who were identified by their
replacement skills and behaviors and re-
teachers as having high rates of problem
warding students when those behaviors behaviors. Half of the students received
are used.51 First Step consists of three in-
the classroom-based, teacher-directed in-
terconnected modules: proactive, univer-
tervention and the other half received the
sal screening of students for emotional classroom- and home-based components.
and behavioral risks; a classroom-based Using a single-subject design across stu-
intervention involving the teacher, peers, dents and classrooms, results showed a
and the target child; and a home-based decrease in problem behaviors and an in-
module of parent or caregiver education crease in academic engagement for all six
to support the student’s school adjust-
children during the intervention phase,
ment. The classroom strategy capitalizes with effects persisting for four of the six
on a brief consultative relationship es-
students for 5 months after the end of the
tablished between the teacher and a be-
intervention.
havioral coach who works with teachers
for 10 days to model strategies to teach One limitation to the collective research
students appropriate replacement behav-
on First Step, however, is uncertainty re-
iors and reward students when those be-
garding the impact of the home-based
haviors are used. During the school day component of the dual intervention. Re-
the teacher gives the student visual cues search to date has not been able to deter-
(showing a green or red card) to indicate mine whether there is added benefit to the
whether the student is on task and using subscribed model of parent involvement
appropriate behaviors. Throughout the when implemented with fidelity (6 weeks
day the student accrues points toward of meetings between the coach and par-
his or her behavioral goal. A student who ents or guardians).
makes the daily goal may choose an enjoy-
able activity for the whole class.52 Using Researchers also have examined the long-
a cohort design with random assignment term effectiveness of the PATHS (Promot-
of 46 kindergartners to intervention or ing Alternative THinking Strategies) cur-
wait-list control conditions, students in riculum, which focuses on developing
the First Step program showed statisti-
students’ self-control, emotional aware-
cally significant increases in adaptive ness, peer relations, and problem-solving
and on-task behaviors and decreases in skills. PATHS is a component of the Fast
maladaptive behaviors relative to control Track project, a multi-site intervention
designed to prevent serious antisocial be-
havior and related problems in children
51. Walker et al. (1998); Beard and Sugai (2004).
52. Walker et al. (2005).
53. Walker et al. (1998).
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APPEnDIx D. TEChnICAl InfORMATIOn On ThE STuDIES
at high risk when entering 1st grade.54 Co-
after adjusting for students’ demographic
horts of participants were recruited to Fast differences.56
Track from 1991–93, yielding a total sam-
ple of nearly 900 children. One random-
The most recent evaluation of Second Step
ized controlled trial involved 198 interven-
involved 1,235 students from 15 elemen-
tion and 180 comparison classrooms, with tary schools in 3 cities in Washington
1st grade teachers delivering the PATHS State.57 The findings demonstrated that
curriculum. Findings from classroom ob-
students who participated in Second Step
servations and peer ratings indicated sig-
were more likely to prefer prosocial goals,
nificant reductions in students’ levels of require less adult intervention, behave less
aggression and disruptive behavior.
aggressively, and (among girls) behave
more cooperatively. Teacher ratings also
Similarly, researchers have investigated showed increases in their students’ social
the impact of Second Step, a violence-pre-
competence and decreases in antisocial
vention, social and emotional learning behaviors in the first year of the program.
program designed to reduce impulsive But these impacts did not persist into the
and aggressive behavior in elementary second year, when the students’ new teach-
school students by increasing their social ers failed to notice continued improve-
competence. The multi-lesson curriculum ment in students’ behavior.
is designed for classroom teachers to de-
liver once or twice a week, and it includes One limitation of this body of research on
discussion questions, modeling, coaching, classwide social skill-building interven-
and practice. At least a dozen evaluations tions, however, is that many studies ex-
have been conducted on Second Step, with amined the collective effects of multiple
two of the most rigorous studies described components of comprehensive interven-
in more detail here. In one randomized tion packages, making it difficult to deter-
trial, researchers used 6 pairs of matched mine the value-added effects of specific
schools, involving 790 2nd and 3rd grade components, such as parent involvement
students.55 Aggressive and prosocial be-
modules.
havior changes were measured two weeks
and six months after participation in the
curriculum by teacher reports and by Examples of classroom studies that
observation of a random subsample of demonstrate the effectiveness of
588 students in classroom, playground, positive reinforcement
and cafeteria settings. Although behav-
ior observations collected by trained re-
As early as the 1960s, research studies
searchers revealed an overall decrease in demonstrated that positive reinforcement
physical aggression two weeks after the increased the task engagement and re-
intervention and an increase in appropri-
duced disruptive (or “dawdling”) behavior
ate behaviors in the intervention group, of students in general education class-
with most effects persisting six months rooms.58 Since then, however, the use of
later, changes in teacher-reported behav-
ior did not differ significantly between
the intervention and comparison schools 56. The researchers adjusted the teacher ratings
on standardized behavior scales for the students’
sex, age, socioeconomic status, race, academic
54. Conduct Problems Prevention Research
performance, household size, and class size.
Group (1999). For more information on the Fast
Track project, see http://www.pubpol.duke.edu/
57. Frey et al. (2005).
centers/child/fasttrack/index.html.
58. For example, Hall, Lund, and Jackson (1968);
55. Grossman et al. (1997).
Hall et al. (1968).
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rewards in education has been veiled in studies conducted over the previous 30
some controversy, primarily due to a per-
years.62 Results suggested that rewards
ceived negative effect on student’s intrin-
given for low-interest tasks enhanced free-
sic motivation. The concerns are based on choice intrinsic motivation. On high-inter-
studies conducted since the 1970s, leading est tasks, verbal rewards produced posi-
some researchers and educators to issue tive effects on free-choice motivation and
warnings against the use of praise and self-reported task interest. Negative effects
extrinsic rewards in schools (for example, were found on high-interest tasks when the
a concern that “token economies will pro-
rewards were tangible, expected (offered
duce token learners”).59
beforehand), and loosely tied to level of
performance. When rewards were linked to
To address these concerns, a number of level of performance, measures of intrinsic
researchers have examined the large body motivation increased or did not differ from
of empirical studies on positive reinforce-
a non-rewarded control group.
ment to determine overarching findings.
The earliest meta-analysis reviewed 128
studies to examine the overall effects of ex-
More recently, the researchers examined
trinsic rewards on students’ intrinsic moti-
the extrinsic-intrinsic dichotomy debate
vation and interest in activities.60 Findings using a meta-analytic approach that drew
revealed that several types of rewards—
on evidence from cognitive and behav-
engagement-contingent rewards given for ioral literatures.63 From this review, it
engaging in a task regardless of comple-
was concluded that little detrimental ef-
tion, completion-contingent rewards given fect was found with the use of external
for completing one or more tasks, and reinforcement. Specific recommendations
performance-contingent rewards given for on the appropriate use of reinforcement
performing up to a specific standard—sig-
programs in educational settings were of-
nificantly undermined students’ return to fered to counteract inadvertent negative
and persistence in a target activity during effects when rewards were not delivered
a free choice period (“free-choice intrinsic with vigilance—namely linking rewards
motivation”), and their self-reported inter-
to specific behaviors, delivering rewards
est in the target activity. Positive feedback, frequently and immediately after the be-
however, enhanced both free-choice behav-
havior, and gradually fading away rewards
ior and self-reported interest.
for appropriate behavior.
The results from two other meta-analyses Recommendation 4.
ran counter to this earlier study and con-
Draw on relationships with
cluded that little detrimental effect was professional colleagues and
found with the use of external reinforce-
students’ families for continued
ment in educational settings; in fact, re-
guidance and support
wards following and linked to appropri-
ate behavior were related to both initial Level of evidence: Moderate
and long-term academic engagement and
social success.61 The first set of research-
The panel rated the level of evidence sup-
ers reviewed more than 100 experimental porting this recommendation as moder-
ate. One quasi-experimental64 study and
59. For example, Deci (1971); Deci et al. (1999);
Kohn (1993).
62. Cameron et al. (2001).
60. Deci et al. (1999).
63. Akin-Little et al. (2004).
61. Akin-Little et al. (2004); Cameron et al. (2001).
64. Stevens and Slavin (1995).
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one single-subject study65 examined the reform programs substantially increased
effects of peer teacher relationships in the number of peer social relationships
improving social relationships among stu-
relative to students in comparison schools,
dents or increasing student engagement though it is unclear if the teacher relation-
in the classroom. Additionally, one ran-
ship component alone was effective in es-
domized controlled trial66 confirmed the tablishing this outcome.
effectiveness of teachers’ consulting with
behavioral experts in reducing behavior A single-subject study reported on the ef-
problems among students who exhibit fects of peer coaching for four teachers
inattentive and disruptive behaviors. Fi-
representing various grade levels, content
nally, two randomized controlled trials67 areas, and levels of teaching experience.69
evaluated interventions specifically aimed A veteran elementary teacher with expe-
at establishing positive teacher-parent re-
rience in coaching served as their peer
lationships, with one study demonstrating coach and provided the teacher partici-
decreases in problem behaviors. Although pants with an all-day inservice where they
components of recommendation 4 are were trained on a new instructional tech-
supported by two randomized controlled nique and curriculum. The peer coach’s
trials, one study focused on teachers con-
involvement also included seven collab-
sulting with experts on particular prob-
orative sessions with each teacher and in-
lem behaviors of students identified with class support during these lessons. The re-
attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, sults from this study revealed high levels
and the other on a specific teacher-parent of student engagement and participation
education and activity program. The other for the lessons where teachers were taught
studies supporting the recommendation and supported by a peer coach.
include one quasi-experimental study and
one single subject study. Consequently,
the panel believes that the overall level Example of one study in which
of evidence for this recommendation is consultation with behavioral experts
moderate.
reduces behavior problems
One randomized controlled trial that ex-
Examples of studies in which
amined teacher partnerships with behav-
relationships with professional
ioral consultants revealed strong evidence
colleagues affect students’ social
that consultations with behavioral experts
relations and student engagement
can reduce behavior problems in the class-
room.70 The researchers explored the ef-
A quasi-experimental study considered a fects of having teachers whose students
comprehensive school reform model that were identified with significant inattentive
included a relationship-building compo-
or hyperactive disorder participate in sev-
nent for teachers consisting of peer coach-
eral behavioral consultation sessions that
ing, classroom observations, and teacher were structured to help the teacher identify
collaborations.68 Findings indicate that and analyze problem behaviors and design
students from the comprehensive school and implement a behavior plan. Findings
reveal that, compared with teachers with
65. Kohler et al. (1997).
no consultation, those who collaborated
with a behavioral consultant reported a
66. Dunson et al. (1994).
67. Ialongo et al. (1999); Webster-Stratton et al.
(2004).
69. Kohler et al. (1997).
68. Stevens and Slavin (1995).
70. Dunson et al. (1994).
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significant reduction in their students’ hy-
parents and strengthen parent-teacher
peractivity and in the incidence of behav-
collaborations.73 The study’s authors re-
ior severity below clinical levels.
ported that comparisons between the
treatment groups (including the treatment
groups where teachers received training)
Examples of studies in which
and control groups showed statistically
relationships with families reduce
significant reductions in conduct prob-
behavior problems
lems after six months of the intervention.
However, when the What Works Clearing-
Researchers conducted a randomized con-
house reviewers applied a multiple com-
trolled trial that assessed the effects of parison adjustment to the analyses, the
two universal 1st grade preventive inter-
findings showed no statistically significant
ventions on several student outcomes, differences in child conduct problems be-
including early risk behaviors for con-
tween the intervention and comparison
duct disorders such as disruptive and students.
aggressive behavior.71 One of the two in-
terventions explored family-school part-
Recommendation 5.
nerships, which consisted of a combina-
Assess whether schoolwide
tion of trainings for teachers on effective behavior problems warrant
parent-teacher partnership building and adopting schoolwide strategies or
communication, along with weekly home-
programs and, if so, implement
school activities and parent workshops ones shown to reduce negative and
aimed to increase parental involvement foster positive interactions
in their child’s classroom activities. The
study revealed that over the course of 1st Level of evidence: Moderate
and 2nd grades, both boys and girls in the
intervention had significantly fewer behav-
The panel judged the level of evidence sup-
ior problems by the spring of 2nd grade porting this recommendation to be moder-
relative to the comparison group.
ate. One quasi-experimental study investi-
gated the impact of schoolwide changes in
Another randomized controlled trial exam-
structure, organization, and practices and
ined the effects of The Incredible Years, a determined that these changes increased
parent-teacher-child training program, on the number of social relationships among
social competence and conduct problems students.74 In addition, four randomized
among 4- to 8-year-old children who met controlled trials75 and one single-subject76
criteria for oppositional defiant disorder.72 study examined the impact of specific
Parental involvement was the cornerstone
of the parent training condition in this 73. Participants were randomly assigned to
study, with parents attending weekly clinic one of six conditions—five treatment condi-
visits where they participated in programs tions or a comparison group. Treatment condi-
aimed to strengthen positive interactions tions included: (1) parent training alone (PT); (2)
with their children. More relevant to the child training alone (CT); (3) parent training plus
teacher training (PT+TT); (4) child training plus
recommendation on teacher relationship teacher training (CT+TT); or (5) parent, child and
building, however, was the teacher training teacher training (PT+CT+TT).
component where a constant theme was to
encourage positive communication with 74. Stevens and Slavin (1995).
75. Conduct Problems Prevention Group (1999);
Frey et al. (2005); Grossman et al. (1997); Ialongo
71. Ialongo et al. (1999).
et al. (1999).
72. Webster-Stratton et al. (2004).
76. Cunningham et al. (1998).
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schoolwide intervention programs, each the researchers also considered behav-
study finding statistically significant posi-
ioral outcomes by assessing the num-
tive effects for several of its behavioral ber of social relationships established
outcomes. Although there are several ran-
by students. The findings indicate that
domized controlled trials to support one the social relationships among students
component of recommendation 5 (specific had greatly increased after the program
schoolwide intervention programs), other was implemented relative to students in
components of the recommendation (such comparison schools. In addition, there
as changes to the overall structure and or-
appeared to be greater social acceptance
ganization of the school, and peer media-
of students with learning disabilities in in-
tion programs implemented outside the tervention schools after the program had
classroom) are supported by quasi-exper-
been implemented.
imental or single subject studies that have
moderate levels of evidence. Consequently,
the panel believes that a moderate designa-
Examples of schoolwide interventions
tion is appropriate for the overall level of that demonstrate a reduction in
evidence for this recommendation.
behavior problems
A number of studies evaluated the effects
Example of one study that
of classroom-based curricula aimed at
demonstrates the effectiveness of
promoting positive outcomes in school-
schoolwide strategies
wide behaviors and social competency
(see recommendation 3 for a detailed de-
A quasi-experimental study was conducted scription of several studies implemented
on a sample of more than 1,000 2nd–6th in classrooms). One example involves
grade students in five elementary schools a randomized controlled trial that ex-
to evaluate the effects of a cooperative el-
plored the impact of a preventive inter-
ementary school, in which the concept of vention program for 1st graders at high
cooperation was embedded in the reorga-
risk for long-term antisocial behavior.78
nization of the school’s environment and This program consisted of several com-
learning processes.77 Elements of this re-
ponents, such as social skills training and
structured schoolwide program included academic tutoring sessions that occurred
widespread use of cooperative learning during two hours of extracurricular en-
and inclusion of students with learning dis-
richment programs provided to students
abilities in regular education classrooms; and families. One of the components of
regular opportunities for teacher coaching the program was PATHS (Promoting Al-
and collaborative support; a building-level ternative THinking Strategies), a school-
steering committee comprised of admin-
wide curriculum that was implemented
istrators, teachers, special services, and by teachers in an average of two to three
other faculty to develop goals for the school lessons a week during the school year.
and act as an open forum for discussion of Lessons from the curriculum addressed
school management and policy issues; and four domains of skills: emotional under-
numerous opportunities to encourage ac-
standing and communication, friendship,
tive family involvement at the classroom self-control, and social problem-solv-
and schoolwide levels.
ing. The study found that by the end of
1st grade, significantly fewer aggressive
In addition to evaluating the academic and disruptive behavior problems were
outcomes of this schoolwide program, found among students in the intervention
77. Stevens and Slavin (1995).
78. Conduct Problems Prevention Group (1999).
( 70 )
APPEnDIx D. TEChnICAl InfORMATIOn On ThE STuDIES
schools compared with those who did not involved in peer mediation teams that
receive the intervention.
intervened within 10 seconds of the start
of a conflict. The study found that the
One single-subject study considered an peer mediators successfully resolved ap-
intervention that targeted behavior prob-
proximately 90 percent of the playground
lems occurring on school playgrounds.79 conflicts in which they intervened and
Fifth grade students were trained in a that physically aggressive playground
conflict resolution program and were incidents were reduced by 51–65 per-
cent when the mediation program was
79. Cunningham et al. (1998).
implemented.
( 71 )
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Document Outline
- Reducing Behavior Problems in the Elementary School Classroom
- Contents
- Introduction
- Table 1. Institute of Education Sciences levels of evidence for practice guides
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- Table 2. Recommendations and corresponding level of evidence to
support each
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- Checklist for carrying out the recommendations
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- Table 3. Example tally-mark data collection tool for a high-frequency behavior problem
- Table 4. Example entry sheet for a low-frequency problem behavior
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