Performance Monitoring And Evaluation
1996, Number 2
Performance Monitoring and Evaluation
TIPS
USAID Center for Development Information and Evaluation
CONDUCTING KEY INFORMANT INTERVIEWS
What Are Key Informant Interviews?
They are qualitative, in-depth interviews of 15 to 35 people selected
for their first-hand knowledge about a topic of interst. The inter-
USAID reengineering
views are loosely structured, relying on a list of issues to be dis-
cussed. Key informant interviews resemble a conversation among
emphasizes listening
acquaintances, allowing a free flow of ideas and information. Inter-
to and consulting
viewers frame questions spontaneously, probe for information and
takes notes, which are elaborated on later.
with customers, part-
ners and other stake-
When Are Key Informant Interviews Appropriate?
holders as we under-
This method is useful in all phases of development activities—
take development
identification, planning, implementation, and evaluation. For ex-
ample, it can provide information on the setting for a planned activ-
activities.
ity that might influence project design. Or, it could reveal why
intended beneficiaries aren’t using services offered by a project.
Rapid appraisal tech-
Specifically, it is useful in the following situations:
niques offer system-
1. When qualitative, descriptive information is sufficient for deci-
atic ways of getting
sion-making.
such information
2. When there is a need to understand motivation, behavior, and
quickly and at low
perspectives of our customers and partners. In-depth interviews
of program planners and managers, service providers, host
cost. This Tips ad-
government officials, and beneficiaries concerning their attitudes
vises how to conduct
and behaviors about a USAID activity can help explain its
successes and shortcomings.
one such method—
key informant inter-
3. When a main purpose is to generate recommendations. Key
informants can help formulate recommendations that can im-
views.
prove a program’s performance.
4. When quantitative data collected through other methods need to
be interpreted. Key informant interviews can provide the how
and why of what happened. If, for example, a sample survey
showed farmers were failing to make loan repayments, key
informant interviews could uncover the reasons.
PN-ABS-541
2
5. When preliminary information is needed to
Step 3. Select key informants.
design a comprehensive quantitative study.
Key informant interviews can help frame the
The number should not normally exceed 35. It is
issues before the survey is undertaken.
preferable to start with fewer (say, 25), since often
more people end up being interviewed than is
Advantages and Limitations
initially planned.
Advantages of key informant interviews include:
Key informants should be selected for their spe-
cialized knowledge and unique perspectives on a
• they provide information directly from
topic. Planners should take care to select infor-
knowledgeable people
mants with various points of view.
• they provide flexibility to explore new ideas
Selection consists of two tasks: First, identify the
and issues not anticipated during planning
groups and organizations from which key infor-
mants should be drawn—for example, host gov-
• they are inexpensive and simple to conduct
ernment agencies, project implementing agencies,
contractors, beneficiaries. It is best to include all
Some disadvantages:
major stakeholders so that divergent interests and
perceptions can be captured.
• they are not appropriate if quantitative data are
needed
Second, select a few people from each category
after consulting with people familiar with the
• they may be biased if informants are not
groups under consideration. In addition, each
carefully selected
informant may be asked to suggest other people
who may be interviewed.
• they are susceptible to interviewer biases
Step 4. Conduct interviews.
• it may be difficult to prove validity of
findings
Establish rapport. Begin with an explanation of
the purpose of the interview, the intended uses of
Once the decision has been made to conduct key
the information and assurances of confidentiality.
informant interviews, following the step-by-step
Often informants will want assurances that the
advice outlined below will help ensure high-
interview has been approved by relevant officials.
quality information.
Except when interviewing technical experts,
questioners should avoid jargon.
Steps in Conducting the Interviews
Sequence questions. Start with factual questions.
Step 1. Formulate study questions.
Questions requiring opinions and judgments
should follow. In general, begin with the present
These relate to specific concerns of the study.
and move to questions about the past or future.
Study questions generally should be limited to five
or fewer.
Phrase questions carefully to elicit detailed infor-
mation. Avoid questions that can be answered by a
Step 2. Prepare a short interview guide.
simple yes or no. For example, questions such as
“Please tell me about the vaccination campaign?”
Key informant interviews do not use rigid ques-
are better than “Do you know about the vaccina-
tionnaires, which inhibit free discussion. However,
tion campaign?”
interviewers must have an idea of what questions
to ask. The guide should list major topics and
Use probing techniques. Encourage informants to
issues to be covered under each study question.
detail the basis for their conclusions and recom-
mendations. For example, an informant’s com-
Because the purpose is to explore a few issues in
ment, such as “The water program has really
depth, guides are usually limited to 12 items.
changed things around here,” can be probed for
Different guides may be necessary for interview-
more details, such as “What changes have you
ing different groups of informants.
noticed?” “Who seems to have benefitted most?”
“Can you give me some specific examples?”
3
Maintain a neutral attitude. Interviewers should be
Categories and subcategories for coding (based on
sympathetic listeners and avoid giving the impres-
key study questions, hypotheses, or conceptual
sion of having strong views on the subject under
frameworks) can be developed before interviews
discussion. Neutrality is essential because some
begin, or after the interviews are completed.
informants, trying to be polite, will say what they
Precoding saves time, but the categories may not
think the interviewer wants to hear.
be appropriate. Postcoding helps ensure empiri-
cally relevant categories, but is time consuming. A
Minimize translation difficulties. Sometimes it is
compromise is to begin developing coding catego-
necessary to use a translator, which can change the
ries after 8 to 10 interviews, as it becomes appar-
dynamics and add difficulties. For example,
ent which categories are relevant.
differences in status between the translator and
informant may inhibit the conversation. Often
Storage and retrieval. The next step is to develop a
information is lost during translation. Difficulties
simple storage and retrieval system. Access to a
can be minimized by using translators who are not
computer program that sorts text is very helpful.
known to the informants, briefing translators on
Relevant parts of interview text can then be orga-
the purposes of the study to reduce misunderstand-
nized according to the codes. The same effect can
ings, and having translators repeat the informant’s
be accomplished without computers by preparing
comments verbatim.
folders for each category, cutting relevant com-
ments from the interview and pasting them onto
Step 5. Take adequate notes.
index cards according to the coding scheme, then
filing them in the appropriate folder. Each index
Interviewers should take notes and develop them
card should have an identification mark so the
in detail immediately after each interview to
comment can be attributed to its source.
ensure accuracy. Use a set of common subheadings
for interview texts, selected with an eye to the
Presentation of data. Visual displays such as
major issues being explored. Common subhead-
tables, boxes, and figures can condense informa-
ings ease data analysis.
tion, present it in a clear format, and highlight
underlying relationships and trends. This helps
Step 6. Analyze interview data.
communicate findings to decision-makers more
clearly, quickly, and easily. Three examples below
Interview summary sheets. At the end of each
and on page 4 illustrate how data from key infor-
interview, prepare a 1-2 page interview summary
mant interviews might be displayed.
sheet reducing information into manageable
themes, issues, and recommendations. Each
summary should provide information about the
key informant’s position, reason for inclusion in
the list of informants, main points made, implica-
Table 1. Problems Encountered in
tions of these observations, and any insights or
Obtaining Credit
ideas the interviewer had during the interview.
Male Farmers
Female Farmers
Descriptive codes. Coding involves a systematic
recording of data. While numeric codes are not
1. Collateral
1. Collateral
appropriate, descriptive codes can help organize
requirements
requirements
responses. These codes may cover key themes,
2. Burdensome
2. Burdensome
concepts, questions, or ideas, such as
paperwork
paperwork
sustainability, impact on income, and participation
of women. A usual practice is to note the codes or
3. Long delays in 3.
Long delays in
categories on the left-hand margins of the inter-
getting loans
getting loans
view text. Then a summary lists the page numbers
4. Land registered under
where each item (code) appears. For example,
male's name
women’s participation might be given the code
“wom–par,” and the summary sheet might indicate
5. Difficulty getting to
it is discussed on pages 7, 13, 21, 46, and 67 of the
bank location
interview text.
4
Assess reliability of key informants. Assess infor-
mants’ knowledgeability, credibility, impartiality,
Table 2. Impacts on Income of a
willingness to respond, and presence of outsiders
Microenterprise Activity
who may have inhibited their responses. Greater
weight can be given to information provided by
more reliable informants.
“In a survey I did of the participants last year, I
found that a majority felt their living condi-
Check interviewer or investigator bias. One’s own
tions have improved.”
biases as an investigator should be examined,
—university professor
including tendencies to concentrate on information
that confirms preconceived notions and hypoth-
“I have doubled my crop and profits this year
eses, seek consistency too early and overlook
as a result of the loan I got.”
evidence inconsistent with earlier findings, and be
—participant
partial to the opinions of elite key informants.
“I believe that women have not benefitted as
Check for negative evidence. Make a conscious
much as men because it is more difficult for us
effort to look for evidence that questions prelimi-
to get loans.”
nary findings. This brings out issues that may have
—female participant
been overlooked.
Get feedback from informants. Ask the key infor-
mants for feedback on major findings. A summary
report of the findings might be shared with them,
along with a request for written comments. Often a
Table 3. Recommendations for
more practical approach is to invite them to a
Improving Training
meeting where key findings are presented and ask
for their feedback.
Number of
Recommendation
Selected Further Reading
Informants
Develop need-based training
39
These tips are drawn from Conducting Key Infor-
courses
mant Interviews in Developing Countries, by
Krishna Kumar (AID Program Design and Evalua-
Develop more objective selection
20
tion Methodology Report No. 13. December 1986.
procedures
PN-AAX-226).
Plan job placement after training
11
Step 7. Check for reliability and validity.
Key informant interviews are susceptible to error,
bias, and misinterpretation, which can lead to
For further information on this topic, contact Annette
flawed findings and recommendations.
Binnendijk, CDIE Senior Evaluation Advisor, via
phone (703) 875-4235), fax (703) 875-4866), or e-mail.
Check representativeness of key informants. Take
Copies of TIPS can be ordered from the Development
a second look at the key informant list to ensure no
Information Services Clearinghouse by calling (703)
significant groups were overlooked.
351-4006 or by faxing (703) 351-4039. Please refer to
the PN number. To order via the Internet, address a
request to docorder@disc.mhs.compuserve.com
U.S. Agency for International Development
Washington, D.C. 20523
