Nij Journal 243 (drug Facilitated Rape: Looking For The Missing ...
Drug-Facilitated Rape:
Drug-Facilitated Rape:
Looking for
the Missing Pieces
by Nora Fitzgerald and K. Jack Riley
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about the authors
More than 430,000 sexual
Nora Fitzgerald is a Social Science Analyst at the National Institute of Justice.
assaults occur annually in
K. Jack Riley, Ph.D., is Director of the Criminal Justice Program at RAND. Fitzgerald
the United States, accord-
and Riley (who at the time was Director of NIJ’s Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring program)
ing to victimization surveys.1 Many
led the Department of Justice working group that conducted the research and wrote
of these assaults involve alcohol and
the report upon which this article is based.
drugs,2 which are often used volun-
tarily by both victim and offender.3,4
But in the mid- and late 1990’s,
ethnographers and rape crisis cen-
to recall recent events. Victims
ment of Justice in response to a
ters began hearing reports of drugs,
may not be aware that they have
request from the Attorney General
often referred to as “roofies” and
ingested drugs or that they have
for more information about this
“liquid ecstasy,” being administered
been raped while under the influ-
new phenomenon. (See “How This
clandestinely to immobilize victims,
ence of drugs.5 Reports of such
Article Came to Be.”)
impair their memory, and thus facil-
assaults and increases in the recre-
itate rape. Two drugs in particular
ational consumption of the drugs
were mentioned in these reports:
What Are Rape-
used in these assaults have brought
Rohypnol (the pharmaceutical trade
drug-facilitated rape into sharp
Facilitating Drugs?
name for flunitrazepam) and GHB
focus in recent years.
Sexual assault victims who believe
(gamma-hydroxybutyrate).
This article summarizes findings
drugs were surreptitiously given to
These drugs can produce loss of
about drug-facilitated rape learned
them typically report remembering
consciousness and the inability
by researchers at the U.S. Depart-
sensations of drunkenness that do
not correspond with the amounts
of alcohol consumed, unexplained
gaps in memory, altered levels of
consciousness, and unexplainable
How This Article Came to Be
signs of physical trauma. The most
commonly implicated drugs are
In December 1997, the U.S. Attorney
The investigation then turned to a number
Rohypnol and GHB.
General directed the Department of
of other data sources representing differ-
Justice to assess the problems posed
ent perspectives: ethnographers, the print
Rohypnol, or flunitrazepam,
by drugs being used to facilitate rape.
media, Internet-based data, law enforce-
belongs to a class of drugs called
A working group chaired by NIJ Director
ment, victim advocates, policymakers,
benzodiazepines and is approved
Jeremy Travis and representatives from
and the pharmaceutical industry. The
for use in 80 countries, but not in
several other Justice Department agencies
search uncovered a considerable amount
the United States or Canada. It is
began meeting regularly to structure the
of conflicting information amid differing
available only in pill form, is taste-
inquiry and review progress.
viewpoints.
less, odorless, and colorless, and dis-
solves to some degree in liquid.
The group’s overarching objective was to
The working group learned a great deal
assess the state of knowledge about drug-
from its investigation but could draw no
Benzodiazepines are used primarily
facilitated rape and report back to the
conclusions beyond a clear recognition
to produce sedation, sleep, or mus-
Attorney General within several months.
that the incidence of this offense is extra-
cle relaxation; to reduce seizures and
ordinarily difficult to measure, that exist-
anxiety; and to produce anterograde
The group’s first step was to determine
ing indicators are incapable of monitoring
amnesia, a desired effect for some
how often drug-facilitated rape occurs.
the problem, and that the true magnitude
surgical procedures. Anterograde
There are no national statistics for this
of the problem cannot be known with cer-
amnesia is a condition in which
offense (such as would be provided by
tainty from the scientific methods that
events that occurred during the time
the Uniform Crime Reports, the National
have been used to date.
the drug was in effect are forgotten,
Criminal Victimization Survey, or the
in contrast to retrograde amnesia, in
National Judicial Reporting Program),
To learn how to obtain a copy of the full
which events prior to the interven-
so the group conducted a thorough review
report, see “For More Information” on
ing agent are forgotten.
of other, nonnational-level research. This
page 15.
search revealed that no empirical data
Rohypnol mentally and physically
exist to answer the question.
incapacitates an individual, particu-
larly when used in combination
National Institute of Justice Journal s April 2000
9
and currently is being tested for
In 1998, Texas’ statewide student
Description of
treatment of narcolepsy as well as
survey, which uses the same meth-
alcohol addiction and withdrawal
odology and many of the same
Data Sources
(with mixed results) in Europe and
items as MTF, found that 1.3 to 2.1
the United States.6
percent of Texas students in grades
Monitoring the Future (MTF): This ongoing
8 to 12 reported use of Rohypnol
survey of 8th, 10th, and 12th graders uses a
during the school year.9 Later in
national probability sample. Sponsored by
How Common Is
1998, Pulse Check reported that
the National Institute on Drug Abuse. Visit
Drug-Facilitated
Rohypnol was in use in Florida,
http://www.monitoringthefuture.org.
Rape?
Hawaii, Minnesota, and Texas.
Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN):
No one really knows how common
Mention of widespread recreational
DAWN records instances of emergency
drug-facilitated rape is because
use of GHB only recently has been
room visits and deaths related to particular
today’s research tools do not offer
reported by CEWG in December
drugs. Sponsored by the Substance
a means of measuring the number
1997. In winter 1998, Pulse Check
Abuse and Mental Health Services Admin-
of incidents. However, recent find-
reported use of GHB in many urban
istration. Visit http://www.samhsa.gov and
ings from ethnographic research
areas.
http://www.health.org/pubs/dawn/index.htm.
and school-based surveys can pro-
The Drug Abuse Warning Network
Community Epidemiology Working
vide insight into the voluntary use
(DAWN) also has captured informa-
Group (CEWG): This ethnographic reporting
of these drugs.
tion about GHB because of over-
system, in place in 21 metropolitan areas,
Flunitrazepam first appeared in
doses. The Drug Enforcement
supplements findings from national
early warning ethonographic sys-
Administration has documented
drug data systems. Sponsored by the
tems in December 1993, when it
approximately 650 overdoses and
National Institute on Drug Abuse. Visit
was reported among Miami high
20 deaths related to GHB. MTF
http://www.nida.nih.gov.
school students.
added questions about GHB to its
Pulse Check: This ethnographic reporting
year 2000 survey.
By 1995, the Community Epidem-
system covers 20 metropolitan areas.
iology Working Group (CEWG)
Available law enforcement statistics
Sponsored by the White House’s Office
found that use of Rohypnol was
on seizures and trafficking (pri-
of National Drug Control Policy. Visit
spreading in Florida and Texas.
marily from the Drug Enforcement
http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov.
Pulse Check reported Rohypnol use
Administration) tend to corroborate
was rising, particularly among youth
the ethnographic and survey data.
and young adults. Ethnographers in
Ethnographic measures may not
Florida and Texas reported that
represent the true scale of the drugs’
with alcohol, and is capable of
local law enforcement agents were
use, however, and more rigorous
producing anterograde amnesia.
seizing more Rohypnol tablets,
scientific measures have not been
often still in the manufacturer’s
GHB, a drug first synthesized in
in place long enough to give
packaging.
the 1920’s, occurs naturally in the
researchers the ability to project
human body in minute amounts. It
In 1996, Monitoring the Future
accurate trends.
was under development as an anes-
(MTF) began tracking Rohypnol. In
Another factor complicating sci-
thetic agent in the late 1950’s and
1999, MTF found that 0.5 percent of
ence’s ability to measure the inci-
early 1960’s, but no commercial
8th graders and 1.0 percent of 10th
dence and prevalence of these drugs
products were developed from
and 12th graders had reported using
is the lack of law enforcement evi-
these efforts. Until the FDA banned
Rohypnol in 1998, a level slightly
dence. Investigations of suspected
the drug in 1990, it was available
below those found a year earlier.7
drug-facilitated assaults often turn
through health food stores and mar-
Such rates appear low in compari-
out to be inconclusive because many
keted as both a sleep aid and as a
son to marijuana or amphetamine
victims do not seek assistance until
body-building supplement. Several
use, but they are not trivial—10th
hours or days later, in part because
vendors distributed products con-
and 12th graders report similar
the drugs have impaired recall and
taining GHB under trade names
levels of heroin use.8
in part because victims may not rec-
such as “Gamma Hydrate” and
In 1997, Pulse Check noted that
ognize the signs of sexual assault. By
“Somatomax PM.”
although Rohypnol continued to
the time they do report a suspected
GHB is marketed in some European
be available in Florida and Texas,
assault, conclusive forensic evidence
countries as an adjunct to anesthesia
distribution had slowed.
may have been lost. Even when
Drug-Facilitated Rape: Looking for the Missing Pieces
10
victims do suspect a drug-facilitated
policies below and in the sidebar
increasingly so, because these drugs
rape and seek help immediately, law
“Learning From Victims.”)
are cheap, easy to share, and easy to
enforcement agencies may not know
hide. Use appears to be concentrated
To add more complexity to the puz-
how to collect evidence appropriate-
among populations that also are at
zle, school-based surveys seem to
ly or how to test urine using the
the highest risk of sexual assault,
suggest that Rohypnol and GHB
sensitive method required. (See
including middle school, high
are consumed voluntarily, perhaps
further discussion of investigation
school, and college-age students.
Learning From Victims
by Gail Abarbanel, LCSW
what was done to them, who partici-
professional literature or in news
pated, or how many people were
coverage about rape drugs or drug-
Gail Abarbanel is the director of the
present while they were unconscious.
facilitated sexual assaults. Victims
Rape Treatment Center (RTC) at
Some could remember brief, inter-
were a crucial source of information.
Santa Monica–UCLA Medical Center.
mittent periods of awakening, during
Their reports helped define this
Established in 1974, the RTC has
which they were aware of their sur-
emerging crime pattern by identifying
treated more than 20,000 sexual
roundings but were unable to move
the characteristics of these crimes
assault victims. The RTC’s informa-
or speak. They felt “paralyzed.” One
that distinguished them from other
tional materials on drug-facilitated
victim said, “I came to and saw this
sexual assaults.
rape are distributed throughout the
guy on top of me about to rape me,
United States.
In addition, the problems victims
but I couldn’t move my arms or legs.
encountered suggested an urgent
In late 1995, the Rape Treatment
Then I passed out again.”
need for a comprehensive, broad-
Center at Santa Monica–UCLA
It was apparent to the staff at the
based community response, includ-
Medical Center began to see a
Rape Treatment Center that some
ing new protocols for hospitals,
new pattern in sexual assault cases.
rapists were using a powerful new
police departments, and crime labs;
Victims were coming in who believed
weapon to overpower, disable, and
updated rape evidence kits; training
they had been drugged surreptitiously
control their victims.
for police officers, prosecutors,
to incapacitate them for the purpose
rape crisis centers, and other victim
of sexually assaulting them. Many of
When victims began to report these
service providers; public policy and
these cases followed a similar pat-
crimes to the authorities, their cases
legislative reforms; research; and
tern. Victims were in what seemed
often were dismissed. One victim was
public education and prevention
like a comfortable social environ-
told, “He has his memory, you don’t
programs.
ment, such as a restaurant, party, or
have yours. There’s no evidence.
club. Unbeknownst to them, someone
The case is closed.”
What Victims Have
slipped a drug into their drink. As
In many instances, crucial physical
Taught Us
they consumed the drink, they began
evidence was never gathered from
to feel disoriented or sick. The next
How Rape Drugs Facilitate Sexual
victims or crime scenes. For exam-
thing they remembered was waking
Assaults. Rape drugs make it
ple, even when sexual assault
up hours later, sometimes in a
relatively easy for rapists to gain
evidentiary examinations were
different location.
control of their victims. Perpetrators
conducted, urine specimens needed
do not have to overcome any form of
When they regained consciousness,
to detect traces of the drugs were
resistance. They do not have to use
some victims were unsure if they had
omitted because, in most jurisdic-
physical force. They do not have to
been sexually assaulted. Others found
tions, urine samples were not
threaten to harm the victim to get
signs that they had been: They were
routinely included in standardized
compliance. Nor do they have to be
undressed; they had semen stains on
rape kits. As a result of these
concerned about a victim’s screams
their bodies and/or clothing; they had
deficiencies, many victims felt
attracting attention. The drugs they
vaginal or anal trauma, such as sore-
revictimized by the agencies that
administer immobilize and silence
ness and/or lacerations. All of these
were supposed to help them.
the victim.
victims reported significant memory
When these cases initially appeared,
impairment. Most could not recall
there was little information in the
(continued on page 12)
National Institute of Justice Journal s April 2000
11
Learning From Victims (continued from page 11)
How Victims are Prevented From
transporting a vulnerable person to a
they suffered. One victim was told,
Detecting Threats to Their Safety.
safe place.
“You’re lucky you can’t remember,
Victims of these crimes do not sense
you won’t suffer as much as other
How Rape Drugs Affect Reporting
any threat to their safety when the
victims.” For all rape victims, the
Patterns. Victimization surveys
assailant is incapacitating them.
loss of control experienced during
consistently indicate very low report-
The “weapon” used to overpower
an assault is profoundly traumatic. In
ing rates among rape victims. Delayed
and disable them is invisible. It is
drug-facilitated rapes, the additional
reports also are common, particularly
hidden in a drink.
deprivation of cognition during the
in acquaintance rapes. The reasons
assault, combined with anterograde
How Victims are Inhibited From
are well documented in the literature.
amnesia afterwards, subjects the
Exercising Self-Defense. The ability
In drug-facilitated rapes, additional
victim to an extreme form of power-
to sense danger is critical to a per-
factors may account for low and
lessness.
son’s ability to implement self-defense
delayed reporting, including the
strategies. When faced with the threat
immediate and residual effects of the
How Drugging Is a Unique Form
of being raped, most people employ
drugs (the victim may be unconscious
of Trauma. Many of the difficulties
one or more protective measures,
for several hours after the assault and
victims face in the aftermath of these
such as verbally negotiating with the
may have hangover effects after
assaults are due to the effects of the
assailant, cognitively assessing their
regaining consciousness); feelings
drugs given by offenders. The surrepti-
options, screaming, stalling, attempt-
of guilt or self-blame because of prior
tious drugging of a victim is, in and of
ing to escape, and/or physically resist-
voluntary ingestion of alcohol and/or
itself, a cruel and criminal violation of
ing. If these efforts fail to prevent the
drugs; confusion and uncertainty about
the person. Some victims describe
rape, victims may “fight back” in other
what happened; and reluctance to
this aspect of the trauma as “mind
ways. They may use their sensory and
make an accusation without personal
rape.” The drugging should be recog-
cognitive abilities to memorize details
knowledge or memory of the assault
nized as a separate and distinct act of
about the assailant’s physical charac-
circumstances.
victimization in addition to any other
teristics, the location of the crime, and
acts of abuse and degradation to
How Victims’ Inability to Recall
other factors that can later be used to
which the victim was subjected.
What Happened Affects the
aid authorities in apprehending and
System’s Response. Many aspects
How Being Unable to Forget
prosecuting the offender.
of a rape investigation are facilitated
Compares With Being Unable to
The incapacitating effects of rape
by a victim’s ability to describe what
Remember. In the aftermath of rape,
drugs rob victims of their ability to
happened. The victim’s narrative helps
most victims suffer acute stress disor-
use these coping strategies. One
guide the medical/evidentiary exami-
der and post-traumatic stress disorder
victim said, “Rape is never a fair
nation and the police investigation.
symptoms. One of the most disturbing
fight, but I didn’t even have a
In addition, it may be an important
symptoms is their inability to forget
chance to defend myself.”
consideration in prosecutor filing deci-
what happened. The trauma is reexpe-
sions and judgments about credibility.
rienced repeatedly. Victims commonly
How Rapists Can Appear to Be
When victims of drug-facilitated rapes
have recurrent, intrusive recollections
Rescuers. When victims are drugged
cannot give a complete narrative, they
of the rape, including thoughts, flash-
in places where other people are pre-
often encounter suspicion, disbelief,
backs, and nightmares. For victims of
sent, such as restaurants, clubs, bars,
and/or frustration. Their inability to
drug-facilitated rapes, this aspect of
and parties, the rapist may appear to
supply information that could assist
the aftermath may be experienced
bystanders and witnesses to be a res-
the investigation and/or prosecution
differently. Because they cannot recall
cuer. The behavioral effects of rape
compounds their sense of helpless-
what happened during a significant
drugs look very much like the effects
ness.
time period, they have to cope with a
of voluntary alcohol consumption. To
gap in their memory. They experience
onlookers, the victim may seem drunk.
How People Misjudge and Minimize
the horror, powerlessness, and humili-
When the rapist carries or leads the
Victims’ Trauma. Because most vic-
ation of not knowing what was done to
victim to another location where the
tims of drug-facilitated rapes have no
them. They can only imagine what
sexual assault will be committed,
memory of the sexual assault, people
happened. One victim said, “I would
he may be viewed as “helping” or
may mistakenly minimize the trauma
rather have the nightmare.”
Drug-Facilitated Rape: Looking for the Missing Pieces
12
members included the Rape Treat-
ment Center at Santa Monica–
UCLA Medical Center, the Los
Drug-facilitated rape may be initiated
Angeles County District Attorney’s
Office, the Los Angeles Police
in social settings, like parties and clubs,
Department, and the County of
Los Angeles Sheriff ’s Department
not traditionally considered high-risk
crime labs.
environments. Prevention strategies must
What Are the
Implications for
consider reaching new audiences, such as
Decisionmakers?
Practices and strategies to reduce
bartenders, party hosts, cab drivers, and
sexual assault may help reduce
drug-facilitated sexual assault, but
others who might frequent places where
there are unique aspects to drug-
facilitated rape that demand tailored
strategies.
drug-facilitated rapes are initiated or
Environment Within Which the
who might see the victim immediately
Crime Occurs. Drug-facilitated
rape may be initiated in social set-
tings, like parties and clubs, not
prior to the assault.
traditionally considered high-risk
environments. Prevention strategies
must consider reaching new audi-
ences, such as bartenders, party
The good news is that public aware-
President signed similar legislation
hosts, cab drivers, and others who
ness about the drugs and their
related to GHB.
might frequent places where drug-
effects appears to be increasing.
The Office for Victims of Crime
facilitated rapes are initiated or who
(OVC) within the Department of
might see the victim immediately
What Is Being Done
Justice currently is providing train-
prior to the assault.
to Reduce Drug-
ing and technical assistance for a
Education of Targeted
Facilitated Rape?
model program designed to pro-
Audiences. Educational programs
mote promising practices in sexual
need to be targeted to high-risk
Although current measuring
assault medical evidentiary exams.
populations—high school and
methods do not reveal exactly how
The program, which promotes
college-age people and people who
widespread drug-facilitated rape is,
the use of specially trained sexual
frequent nightclubs and resorts—
research does make it clear that the
assault nurse examiners, has
rather than to more general
risk is real.
developed a guide that addresses
audiences.
the issues of drug-facilitated rape,
Since reports of drug-facilitated
with specific information and
Investigation Policies. The most
rape first started appearing, policy-
guidance regarding comprehensive
numerous implications relate to
makers at the Federal level have
drug testing and an exam protocol.
forensic and investigation practices.
moved to address the situation. One
step was to improve enforcement at
National and local victim service
s Interviewing Techniques.
the U.S.-Mexican border of the ban
organizations have responded to the
Drug-facilitated rape cases
on importation of flunitrazepam.
situation by developing campaigns
require interview techniques
Then in October 1996, President
to raise awareness. A Los Angeles
that can help identify a sexual
Clinton signed the Drug-Induced
County task force developed a rape
assault case when the victim
Rape Prevention and Punishment
kit and procedures designed to
has memory gaps around the
Act, which provides harsh penalties
improve the way evidence is gath-
incident or isn’t aware of being
for distribution or possession of flu-
ered in suspected cases of drug-
raped. When an interviewer sus-
nitrazepam. In February 2000, the
facilitated rape. The task force
pects the victim has ingested a
National Institute of Justice Journal s April 2000
13
rape drug, the victim should be
substances were produced or
Where Do We Go
asked to provide both urine and
stored, and any vehicle used to
From Here?
blood samples using established
transport the victim.
timeframes and guidelines for
Only four substantial studies of the
Investigators should be trained
collection and preservation of
prevalence and incidence of drug-
to look for specific types of
forensic evidence.
facilitated rape were under way in
evidence that have been present
late 1999 when this article was pre-
In addition, even though the
in other cases. Drug-related
pared, but none will provide an
victim’s memory of the assault
evidence may be found in the
accurate measure of the situation.
may be extremely limited, con-
glasses from which the victim
Three do not interview victims
sent should be obtained to con-
drank, containers used to mix
and therefore cannot factor in
duct a thorough and complete
drinks, and trash cans where
recreational use of Rohypnol or
medical/evidentiary examina-
these items were discarded. In
GHB. The fourth, a study by the
tion. Oral, anal, and vaginal
one case, traces of GHB were
University of Cincinnati and funded
samples should be taken even
found in the box of salt that was
by NIJ, asks victims specifically if
when there is no visible trauma.
used to make margaritas. GHB
someone has ever placed Rohypnol
is often carried in small bottles,
s Importance of a Urine Speci-
in a beverage but does not link the
such as eye drop bottles. It is
men. Rape drugs are more likely
responses to sexual assault victim-
often administered in sweet
to be detected in urine than in
izations or recreational use.
drinks, such as fruit nectars and
blood, and the urine specimen
liqueurs, to mask its salty taste.
To understand more about drug-
should be collected as soon as
facilitated rape, a research agenda
possible. This can be done prior
Recipes for making GHB may be
should include the following:
to commencement of the law
found on an offender’s comput-
enforcement interview and the
er. In several cases, rapists who
s
Expansion of existing Federal
forensic medical examination.
used drugs to incapacitate their
data systems to provide infor-
Appropriate measures should
victims also photographed or
mation on drug-facilitated rape.
be implemented to ensure that
videotaped them. These pictures
The National Crime Victimiza-
other potential evidence, such
led to the identification of addi-
tion Survey may be an appro-
as sperm or semen, is protected
tional victims of the same
priate means for collecting
when urine specimens are
offenders.
population-based information
collected.
on the incidence of this offense.
s Rape Evidence Kits. Standard-
Law enforcement personnel,
ized rape kits should be updated
s
Collection of new data in the
who are often the “first respon-
to include instructions and
fields of pharmacology and
ders,” should be aware of the
containers for the collection
offender profiling.
importance of urine specimens
of urine specimens as well as
s
in these cases. Victims should be
Ethnographic studies to develop
blood in all cases in which drug-
transported immediately for
a better understanding of the
facilitated rape is suspected. In
medical care. If the victim must
nature of this offense, including
jurisdictions that do not have a
urinate before arriving at a med-
the most likely victims and the
standardized rape kit, a multi-
ical care facility, the urine speci-
risk factors for victimization.
agency task force composed of
men should be saved in a clean
police officers, prosecutors, hos-
s
A major multiyear, multimethod
container and brought to the
pital personnel, crime lab tech-
research initiative structured as
medical facility. The chain of
nicians, and rape crisis coun-
four separate studies designed to
custody should be documented.
selors should develop one and
measure the incidence of drug-
s
Crime Scene Evidence. The
monitor compliance. A forensic
facilitated rape among suspected
crime scene also should be
laboratory with the capability
cases, within the general popula-
secured and examined immedi-
of conducting toxicology tests
tion, among high-risk popula-
ately or critical evidence may
should be identified because not
tions, and in the context of
be irretrievably lost. Drug-
all crime labs have the special-
acquaintance rape.
facilitated rape cases may involve
ized equipment needed to test
s
Funding for development of
multiple crime scenes, for exam-
for rape drugs. Procedures
new drug detection technolo-
ple, the location of the drugging,
should be implemented to
gies, such as hair analysis
the location of the sexual
preserve the chain of custody
methods.
assault, locations where illegal
of the evidence.
Drug-Facilitated Rape: Looking for the Missing Pieces
14
Some of the ethnographic and
newspaper reporting on Rohypnol
For More Information
and GHB, which the Department of
Justice working group tracked, has
s Fitzgerald, N., K.J. Riley, T. Alston, C. Mamalian, M. Mendez, A. Resnick, B. Taylor, and
been driven in part by sporadic
J. Wiseman, Report to the Attorney General From the Drug-Facilitated Rape Working
signs of increased recreational use
Group, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, 1998
and overdoses. But the more impor-
(NCJ 181396). To obtain a copy, contact the National Criminal Justice Reference Service
tant impetus for further study
at P.O. Box 6000, Rockville, MD 20849–6000, 1–800–851–3420.
appears to be reports from people
s Nora Fitzgerald, Social Science Analyst, National Institute of Justice, 810 Seventh Street
who turn to rape counseling centers
NW., Washington, D.C. 20531, 202–305–1547, fitzgera@ojp.usdoj.gov.
and clinics with complaints and
suspicions that they have been
s The National Institute on Drug Abuse’s party drugs Web site: http://www.clubdrugs.org.
victimized.
s Anglin, D., K.L. Spears, and H. Range Hutson, “Flunitrazepam and Its Involvement in
NCJ 181731
Date or Acquaintance Rape,” Journal of Academic Emergency Medicine 4(4) (1997).
Notes
s Calhoun, S.R., D.R. Wesson, G.P. Galloway, and D.E. Smith, “Abuse of Flunitrazepam
(Rohypnol) and Other Benzodiazepines in Austin and South Texas,” Journal of
1. Perkins, Craig, and Patsy Klaus,
Psychoactive Drugs 28(2) (April–June 1996).
Criminal Victimization 1994,
s Inciardi, J.A., and C.A. Saum, “Rohypnol Misuse in the United States,” Journal of
National Crime Victimization
Substance Use and Misuse 32(6):723 (1997).
Survey Report, Washington,
D.C.: U.S. Department of
s Woods, J.H., and Gail Winger, “Abuse Liability of Flunitrazepam,” Journal of Clinical
Justice, Bureau of Justice
Psychopharmacology 17,(3) (June 1997), Supp. 2.
Statistics, April 1996 (NCJ
158022). The number of rapes
reported on victimization sur-
74 percent of male student
Patients,” Journal of Substance
veys, however, differs widely
perpetrators self-reported using
Abuse Treatment, 14(2):149–154
from the number reported to
alcohol immediately before the
(March 1997).
the police. In 1996, 95,770
assault. See Koss, Mary, “Hidden
forcible rapes were reported to
7. Conversation with Lloyd John-
Rape: Sexual Aggression and
the police, representing approxi-
ston, Principal Investigator
Victimization in a National
mately 28 percent of the number
of Monitoring the Future,
Sample of Students in Higher
of rape victims reported in the
University of Michigan, Institute
Education,” in Ann W. Burgess
National Crime Victimization
for Social Research, January 1,
(ed.) Rape and Sexual Assault,
Survey.
2000.
vol. II, NY: Garland Publishing,
2. Levine, E.M., and E.J. Kanin,
1988.
8. Among 10th graders, 1.4 percent
“Sexual Violence Among Dates
reported heroin use in 1998;
5. Calhoun, S.R., D.R. Wesson,
and Acquaintances: Trends and
1.1 percent of 12th graders
G.P. Galloway, and D.E. Smith,
Their Implications for Marriage
reported heroin use in that
“Abuse of Flunitrazepam
and Family,” Journal of Family
same year.
(Rohypnol) and Other
Violence 2(1):55–65 (1987).
Benzodiazepines in Austin
9. Among Hispanic students, the
3. Richardson, D.R., and G.S.
and South Texas,” Journal of
rates increase from 1.9 to 3.5
Hammock, “Alcohol and
Psychoactive Drugs, 28(2)
percent. In one school district
Acquaintance Rape,” in
(April–June 1996).
on the Texas-Mexico border, 14
A. Parrot and L. Bechhofer
percent of the students reported
6. “Gamma Hydroxy Butyrate
(eds.), Acquaintance Rape: The
ever having used Rohypnol, and
Use—New York and Texas,
Hidden Crime, New York: John
5.3 percent reported using it in
1995–1996,” Morbidity and
Wiley and Sons, 1991, 83–95.
the past month. See Maxwell,
Mortality Weekly Report,
J.C., and L.Y. Liu, 1998 Texas
4. A national survey based on a
46(13):281–283 (April 4, 1997).
School Survey of Substance Use
sample of students in higher
Rosen, M.I., H.R. Pearsall, S.W.
Among Students: Grades 7–12,
education showed that 55 per-
Woods, and T.R. Costen, “Effects
Texas Commission on Alcohol
cent of female student victims
of Gamma-Hydroxybutyric Acid
and Drug Abuse, 1999.
of acquaintance rape and
(GHB) in Opioid-Dependent
National Institute of Justice Journal s April 2000
15
