Getting More Women To The Top In Research
MAPPING THE MAZE:
GETTING MORE WOMEN
TO THE TOP IN RESEARCH
Y
D
U
ST
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Directorate L – Science, economy and society
Unit L.4 – Scientifi c culture and gender issues
E-mail: Vera.fehnle@ec.europa.eu
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MAPPING THE MAZE:
GETTING MORE WOMEN
TO THE TOP IN RESEARCH
2008
Science, economy and society
EUR 23311 EN
Scientifi c culture and gender issues
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Contents
Foreword ................................................................. 1
Chapter 3. Potential for Change: good
practice and measures .................................. 27
WIRDEM working group ........................... 2
3. 1. Follow the money: Measures to
Executive
Summary ........................................ 3
promote gender equality
in decision-making for funding
Introduction .......................................................... 5
research ......................................................................... 27
Gender balance on
decision-making
bodies ................................... 27
Chapter 1. Research Decision-Making:
Special programmes for women
a different perspective .................................. 8
in
funding ..................................................................... 28
1. 1. Who decides the research funding?
3. 2. Getting women to the top: Measures
...
9
to promote gender equality
1. 2. Are there equality regulations
in
decision-making
governing the research system? ............. 10
for
appointments ................................................... 29
1. 3. How fair are the nomination
Transparent
procedures ................................... 29
or appointment procedures? ..................... 10
Targets and quotas ............................................... 30
1. 4. Are both research and power
male? The image of science,
Hiring
incentives .................................................... 31
scientists and decision-making ............... 12
Mentoring and empowerment ................... 31
1. 5. Does language restrict
Work-life
balance ................................................... 32
research to males? ............................................... 15
3. 3. Good research practices to benefi t
women – and men: Measures to
Chapter 2. Facts and Figures: a gendered
promote gender equality as part
world and why it needs to change .... 16
of quality management .................................. 33
3. 4. Changing policy: Measures to
2. 1. The situation today ............................................ 16
promote gender equality
Problem 1: women are less likely
in setting policy ...................................................... 34
to be promoted to top positions .............. 18
Problem 2: low proportion of
Chapter
4. Conclusions
women on research
and
Recommendations ................................ 38
decision-making
boards ................................... 20
End Notes
Problem 3: women researchers
................................................................ 41
paid less than men on the same
ANNEX
level (gender pay-gap)
......................................................................................... 42
...................................... 21
Belgium .......................................................................... 42
Problem 4: the more money
spent on R&D the fewer women?
Estonia ............................................................................. 44
........... 22
Finland
Problem 5: “There is no problem”-
............................................................................ 46
a lack of awareness
France .............................................................................. 47
and
commitment .................................................... 22
Germany ........................................................................ 49
2. 2. Arguments for change ..................................... 23
Greece ............................................................................. 52
Human rights arguments
Norway ........................................................................... 54
................................. 23
Utilitarian arguments
Portugal .......................................................................... 56
concerning
quality ................................................ 24
Romania ......................................................................... 58
Utilitarian arguments concerning
Slovakia .......................................................................... 59
effi ciency ....................................................................... 24
Slovenia .......................................................................... 61
Common good argument ............................... 25
Spain ................................................................................. 63
Sweden ........................................................................... 65
Switzerland .................................................................. 67
United
Kingdom ..................................................... 69
Foreword
Foreword
Since the 1990s, an analysis of senior university staff reveals a serious dichotomy in career outcomes for
men and women, insofar as men are three times more likely than women to reach the top level positions
in research.
On scientifi c boards women are under-represented in almost all European countries. The scarcity of
women in senior positions in such bodies inevitably means that their opinions are less likely to be voiced
in policy and decision-making processes, which may lead to biased decision-making and priority setting
in scientifi c research.
The European Union has set itself the goal to become a knowledge-based society. In a truly knowledge-based
society traditions, including traditional gender roles, need to be challenged. To not fully use the potential of all
qualifi ed people will affect quantity and especially quality of scientifi c research.
The aims of the expert group on Women In Research Decision Making (WIRDEM) have been to identify and
review positive actions and gender equality measures at institutional and national level to promote women
into senior positions in public research. The WIRDEM report has been produced during the 2007 European
Year of Equal Opportunities for All, an initiative leading the way to a bolder strategy to establish defi nitely
the fi ght against discrimination and to promote equality between women and men at EU level. It contributes
successfully to the key activities of this Year, promoting rights, representation, recognition and respect.
This report examines and describes in detail nomination procedures, obstacles, facts and funding limita-
tions that women need to overcome in their academic careers. It reviews the procedures for evaluating
and promoting research personnel to senior positions and identifi es examples of good practice at nation-
al and institutional levels.
Based on this analysis, the report proposes recommendations to facilitate the design of a framework for
better targeted actions at European level, and highlights the problem of poor awareness and visibility.
It clearly determines that transparent and fair evaluation and promotion procedures alone are not suffi cient to
improve gender balance in research decision-making; a change of culture is required. The experts therefore
also make suggestions, as to how the prevailing scientifi c culture could change to become more inclusive.
I am convinced that a good gender balance in scientifi c research at decision-making level is one of the key
elements that will contribute to improving the European Research Area.
I welcome therefore this independent report as an important contribution to the debate on women in
research decision-making.
José Manuel Silva Rodríguez
Director-General for Research
page 1
WIRDEM working group
WIRDEM working group
Chair
Maya Widmer Swiss National Science Foundation, Switzerland
Rapporteur
Tiia Raudma Ministry of Education and Research, Estonia
Members
Susanne Baer
Humboldt University, Germany
Rosie Beales
Research Councils UK, United Kingdom
Alexandra Bitusikova Matej Bel University of Banska Bystrica, Slovakia
and European University Association, Belgium
Andrew Collins University of Oslo, Norway
Suzanne de Cheveigné CNRS, France
Capitolina Diaz Ministry of Education and Science, Spain
Danica Fink-Hafner University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
Barbara Hartung Lower Saxony Ministry of Science and Culture, Germany
Carl Jacobsson Swedish Research Council, Sweden
Anne Kahru National Institute of Chemical Physics and Biophysics, Estonia
Eugenia Kovacs Carol Davila Medical University, Romania
Ana M. Lobo New University of Lisbon, Portugal
Marie-Paule
Mingeot-Leclercq UCL, Belgium
Juha Sihvola University of Helsinki, Finland
Maria Stratigaki Panteion University, Greece
Scientifi c Offi cer European Commission
Ekatherina
Charvalos
Left to Right, Front Row: Danica Fink-Hafner, Alexandra Bitusikova, Suzanne de Cheveigné, Capitolina Diaz, Eugenia Kovacs, Ana M. Lobo
Second Row: Maria Stratigaki, Rosie Beales, Maya Widmer, Tiia Raudma, Anne Kahru
Back Row: Susanne Baer, Andrew Collins, Barbara Hartung, Carl Jacobsson, Marie-Paule Mingeot-Leclercq, Juha Sihvola
page 2
Executive Summary
Executive Summary
Why are there so few women in decision-making
from opacity to transparency
positions in research and why is this a problem?
Only 15% of full professors in European universi-
Funding, promotion and nomination procedures lack
ties are women, and women are under-represented
transparency, and this lack tends to disadvantage
on decision-making scientifi c boards in almost all
women, particularly in top positions in science. There-
European countries. Such a situation must inevita-
fore, transparent procedures should be implemented
bly mean that the individual and collective opinions
by the scientifi c community, and the criteria, success
of women are less likely to be voiced in policy and
rates and evaluation reports must be made public.
decision-making processes, which may lead to
biased decision-making on topics of future research
development. If women scientists are not visible
from inequality to quality
and not seen to be succeeding in their careers, they
cannot serve as role models to attract and retain
Equality is part of quality in science. Therefore,
young women in scientifi c professions.
inequality must be addressed by taking measures to
This report has looked at the facts and fi gures,
systematically introduce the gender perspective in
listed the existing problems and the arguments
human resource development and in future research.
for change, and examined a number of possible
This includes training the decision-makers, which
successful measures aimed at advancing the posi-
often includes peers, to avoid gender bias, and
tion of women in research – thereby contributing to
eradicating gender bias both in research, as well as
equality and quality, and has concluded that what
in recruitment and promotion procedures. There can
is needed is a change:
be no quality without equality.
from inertia to awareness and commitment
from ignorance to knowledge
We need a sincere commitment, particularly among
The existing data on gender imbalances must be
leaders in science, to the goal of equality – for the
consistently updated, assessed, put to use and made
benefi t of quality. There is widespread ignorance
public. The existence of complete data would make
and denial of the problem of gender inequality in
it possible to calculate the cost of losing women in
science. Therefore, the national governments need
science.
encouragement from the EU to address the inequal-
ity issue in research, to support concrete measures
with suffi cient resources, and to assist in raising
fi nally, from complacency to urgency
awareness amongst decision-makers, as well as the
public, so that gender stereotyping can be resisted.
European science is falling behind, the potential of
our women in research is under-utilised, young
people are staying away from science. The Euro-
from imbalance to balance
pean Research Area needs women and the young.
So we must act now.
Women are under-represented in practically all deci-
sion-making bodies, and at the professor / Grade A
level in general, and have less access to decision-
making positions than men. Therefore, a) reasonable
gender balance (e.g. 40:60) should be made manda-
tory in decision-making bodies, b) the working
environment in research should be updated to
improve the current work-life balance for the benefi t
of both women and men, c) the gender balance
should be closely monitored (by the EU as well as
national governments) and any imbalance must be
justifi ed.
page 3
Introduction
Introduction
“Gender equality in science is not simply a question of fairness. To strengthen
research… total human capital must be utilised. A better gender balance will mean
that the universities, colleges and research institutes will secure the best talents
among both sexes, as well as refl ecting population diversity… Improved gender
balance in the academic staff will have positive effects on recruitment of female
students and research fellows.” 1
Since the 1990s, the majority of university graduates
Keeping in mind the 18.04.05 Council Conclusions
in Europe have been women, but an analysis of
aiming to “increase significantly the number of
senior university staff reveals a serious dichotomy in
women in leading positions, with a 25% target in the
career outcomes for men and women, where men
public sector” including women as full professors,
are three times more likely than women to reach the
together with the stated principle in the EU Treaty
most senior levels. Although there has been a slight
“to eliminate inequalities, and to promote equality,
increase for women in the top grades of university
between men and women”, it is apparent that the
staff in recent years, the average percentage (15%,
situation in research decision-making needs to be
2004, EU-25) of women in senior academic positions
examined and addressed. In particular, existing
in the Member States is considerably lower than the
approaches to gender equality in research need to
overall percentage for all women in all academic
be critically assessed, moving beyond ideology and
positions (36%). Analysis by fi eld of science reveals
mere rhetoric to rationally decide on actually how to
that even in the fields where the proportion of
change the situation.
women is quite high (humanities, social sciences,
biology), there is still an under-representation of
women in senior academic positions.
EU Roadmap for Equality
The scarcity of women in senior positions, and as a
“The participation of women in science and techno-
result in bodies such as scientifi c boards, inevitably
logy can contribute to increasing innovation, qua-
means that their individual and collective opinions
lity and competitiveness of scientifi c and industrial
are less likely to be voiced in policy and decision-
research and needs to be promoted. In order to
making processes, which may lead to biased
reach the target of 25% women in leading positions
decision-making on topics of future research develop-
in public sector research, policies should be imple-
ment. The data on the composition by gender of
mented and progress monitored. Further networking
scientific boards show that women are under-
and availability of EU data are essential.”
represented in almost all European countries.
European Commission’s Roadmap for Equality
If women scientists are not visible and not seen to
Between Women and Men, 2006-2010;
be succeeding in their careers, they cannot serve as
http://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/
role models to attract and retain young women in
news/2006/mar/com06092_roadmap_en.pdf
scientifi c professions.
page 5
Introduction
The fewer than expected numbers of women rising
In October 2006, the European Commission estab-
to decision-making positions indicates an under-use
lished a group of independent experts, known as
of qualifi ed human capital, which cannot help but
the WIRDEM (Women in Research Decision-Mak-
affect the goal of excellence in science. In addition,
ing) Expert Group. This Expert Group, whose
there is the need to be competitive in an increasingly
members (14 women and 3 men) are senior scien-
globalised world, so European states must strengthen
tists from various disciplines, representing not
their position in the global research community. specifi c countries but universities, research institutes,
For this, the research potential must be maximized
funding agencies and administrations. The experts
and full use must be made of Europe’s human initially reported on the situation specifi cally in their
resource. This human resource argument for increas-
country of origin (Belgium, Estonia, Finland, France,
ing the proportion of women in decision-making
Germany, Greece, Norway, Portugal, Romania,
positions is also supported by the human rights argu-
Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Unit-
ments of social justice and fairness. In today’s world,
ed Kingdom). Since the bases for the report are these
it should be concluded that this can only be done
15 country-specifi c overviews, this report cannot
with an eye on gender, and more precisely: with
claim to cover the whole of Europe. However, the
respect both to gender equality in the community of
commonalities found did provide a basis for the
scientists and to the gender dimensions of research.
development of the report with the help of the wider
knowledge of the experts on research in general.
For abridged versions of the country-specifi c over-
views, see the Annex.
‘Such a waste of talents’
“…this raises the question of how the scientifi c
system actually promotes men and women to senior
The WIRDEM Expert Group had been tasked
positions. Almost every scientist you ask will tell you
with the following:
scientifi c excellence is the only aspect that counts.
But… if that were true, how is it possible that only
• To review procedures for evaluating and promoting
15% of all full professors are women?… Such a waste
research personnel and to identify examples of
of talents is one of the main challenges to address
good practice at national and institutional levels.
in order to boost European competitiveness and
innovation. …When it comes to recruitment and
• To identify and review positive actions and gender
promotion, more light needs to shed over factors
equality measures in place to promote women
such as “same gender preference”, networking, fa-
into senior positions in public research at institu-
mily background, peer group inclusion and exclusion,
tional (including universities, research institutions
interview designs and interpretation… none of these
and research councils) or national level.
factors are related to scientifi c excellence, but they
have all been shown to infl uence the choice of can-
• To identify which measures have proven success-
didates.”
ful and which are not, and the reasons for this,
Zoran Stančič, Deputy Director General, European
and to determine whether transparent and fair
Commission. Gender Issues in Research – Innova-
evaluation and promotion procedures alone are
tion through gender equality: Conference 18-19 April
suffi cient to improve gender balance in research-
2007, Berlin.
decision-making positions.
‘Fix the administration’
• To produce a report of in-depth best practice
“…programs aimed at increasing the numbers of
examples (case studies), including recommenda-
women in science generally attempt to ‘fi x the
tions to facilitate the design of a framework for
women’… to make them more competitive. …But
better targeted actions at European level.
this is not enough … you also have to fi x the
administration.”
Londa Schiebinger. Gender Issues in Research –
Innovation through gender equality: Conference
18-19 April 2007, Berlin.
page 6
Introduction
In carrying out its mandate the WIRDEM expert
In Chapter 1, we provide an overview of the struc-
group was able to use as its starting point the
tures, regulations and realities regarding gender in
reports prepared by previous expert groups and
research. In Chapter 2, we focus on the present
working groups convened by the Commission.
situation, looking at the available data on women
These include ‘Science policies in the European
and men in leading positions in research, as well as
Union – Promoting excellence through mainstream-
observing the gendered nature of the culture of
ing gender equality’ (Osborn, 2000) prepared by
research. The problems are listed and arguments
the ETAN Expert Group, set up by the Commission
are presented for change. Chapter 3 describes the
in 1998, as well as ‘National policies on women and
good practices and measures that have either
science in Europe’ (European Commission, 2002)
already been implemented, or could be implemented,
prepared by the Helsinki Group on Women and
in addressing the problems described in Chapter 2,
Science, established by the Commission in 1999,
thereby moving research towards increased gender
and the most recent report by the Enwise Expert
equality. The report ends with conclusions and
Group on women and science in the post-commu-
recommendations in Chapter 4.
nist countries, ‘Waste of talents: turning private
struggles into a public issue. Women and Science in
The report is addressed not only to those who are
the Enwise countries’ (European Commission, already experts in the fi eld but in particular to the
2003). The European Commission 2006 publication
many researchers, women and men, who do not
‘She Figures 2006: Women and Science Statistics
believe that there is a gender issue in science. The
and Indicators’ 2, refl ects the valuable work done by
report is intended for the European Commission,
the statistical correspondents of the Helsinki Group,
policy makers, assessment bodies, hiring commit-
and has been the main source of offi cial data for
tees, university administrations, funding agencies
the WIRDEM report.
and the research community at large.
In the continued striving for a more gender-
balanced society, new orientations have emerged.
The approach has been changing: from women’s
rights (and the still valid arguments of human rights,
democracy and social justice) to human resources
and integration (also involving men), from policy
defi nition to policy assessment, and with a greater
emphasis on the reconciliation of professional and
private life for men and women. In addition, the
economic benefi ts of an increased involvement of
women in science must be taken into account.
This report attempts to present a summary of the
situation in the fi eld of research decision-making, to
identify problem areas (‘making the invisible visible’)
and to recommend changes. Since research in Europe
is carried out in institutions of higher education, pub-
lic and private research institutions, membership
organisations such as some Academies of Science,
non-governmental non-profi t organisations and com-
mercial enterprises, this report cannot cover all
institutions and confi nes itself to covering the public
sector, including universities, where a large part of
research is carried out. Conclusions, however, may
be drawn for the other sectors as well.
Courtesy of AMONET
page 7
chapter 1
Research Decision-Making:
a different perspective
Although European countries vary greatly in their
families, encouraging even well-educated women to
organisation of research, the allocation of funding
remain outside the labour market. Examples are the
for research, the structures and rules of the deci-
German-speaking countries (Germany, Austria and
sion-making bodies, the procedures for higher level
Switzerland) and the UK, but France and Slovenia
appointments, and the priority placed on gender
could also be included although the taxation rules
balance, some generalisation is needed to gain a
and availability of child care are somewhat more
picture of the existing situation. Looking at research
favourable to working women.
decision-making, and the role of women in this, the
Expert Group suggest a grouping based on some
3. Countries with recently-introduced good policy,
common features that became apparent on analysis
and strong family support, which compensates to a
of the country-specifi c overviews. This grouping
degree for the restricted availability of child care,
provides a broad picture of policy strategies in
and where the situation of women researchers is
Europe and is thereby generally informative, but
somewhat better than the European average. Some
due to a lack of more precise comparative data it
countries, such as Spain, have recently introduced
will not be used to structure the whole report.
measures similar to the Scandinavian countries as
regards gender parity on decision-making boards,
1. Countries with good policy and good results,
but it is too early to tell the results of the implemen-
where there is a direct government to research link,
tation. Spain’s taxation system is similar to the
and gender equity is considered a priority. This
Scandinavian ones in that it does not penalise
results in government-declared targets of 40:60 gen-
double-income families. The Mediterranean coun-
der parity on research decision-making boards,
tries tend to belong to this group.
which are generally achieved. Appointment proce-
dures also take gender equity into consideration,
4. Countries with weak policy and weak commit-
but there is still a clear shortage of women in high-
ment, but where there is a relatively good child
er decision-making positions. In these countries
care provision and a high proportion of women in
there are good child care systems and taxation rules
the labour force, like the Scandinavian countries,
that do not penalise double-income families, which
but results like the German-speaking countries
could explain the larger share of women in the
(almost exclusively male decision-making boards
research workforce. For example, the Scandinavian
and male-dominated high positions, and no genui ne
countries tend to belong to this group.
commitment to gender equity). There is very low
gender awareness, even amongst women, and
2. Countries with good policy but weak results,
gender equity does not exist as an issue. Although
where there may be extensive and comprehensive
their statistics tend to show a higher proportion of
gender equality legislation, even in research, but
women in top positions, post-communist countries
where the implementation is still weak and the results
could still be included in this group (except perhaps
consequently modest. There is an obvious lack of
for Slovenia).
gender equity on decision-making boards, and in
appointments to higher positions. In these countries,
Decisions on research are taken on several levels.
there is only a limited availability of child care, and
Most important are decisions on jobs and on research
the taxation rules often discourage double-income
funding, hence positions as university rectors and
page 8
chapter 1
funding body chairs are positions of power. Signifi -
cant power is also wielded by full professors since
Gender socialisation
they are the ones hiring and promoting researchers,
A Spanish study in 2003 found that gender socia-
carrying out peer review for jobs and funding, and
lisation infl uences the perception of women about
they have the advantage of reputational capital. The
their careers. They do not easily admit that they
power of the state in research matters varies from
have had diffi culties related to gender discrimina-
country to country, depending on the level of auton-
tion in their academic career, and they stress either
omy in the universities and research institutions. This
their own merits to explain their promotion, if it
chapter provides an overview of the background
happened, or their own decisions and preferences
issues affecting the participation of women in research
(usually family-related) to explain why they did not
decision-making.
reach higher positions. Interestingly enough, they
frequently asserted that once they gained a tenured
position, they did not ‘feel like’ climbing up the hie-
1.1 Who decides the research
rarchy or that they lacked ‘ambition’ to fi ght for a
decision-making post. However, the authors explain
funding?
how gender-related obstacles emerge further on in
the interviews: the extra effort related to family res-
ponsibilities and diffi culties in combining these with
Most European states have a mix of research funding
a career in research and teaching, or going abroad
ranging from direct state allocations to competitive
for research. The failure of other women is a source
grants and rewards, with different structures for the
of discouragement for the rest. All these elements
grant-awarding bodies – either specifi c bodies for
hinder the development of women’s careers and,
each of the main fi elds of research, or an umbrella
thus, their access to decision-making posts.
organisation, where the processes of strategic plan-
Pérez Sedeño, Eulalia, coordinadora (2003) La si-
ning, policy development and awarding of grants may
tuación de las mujeres en el sistema educativo de
be sub-divided in order to deploy appropriate exper-
ciencia y tecnología en España y su contexto inter-
tise. Therefore, this report also examines appointments
nacional,
to councils or boards that allocate research funding,
http://www.ifs.csic.es/mujeres/documentos.htm
and touches upon peer-review processes which have
(11 May 2007).
a particular role in this context.
Generally, decision-making power in research With the recent positive changes, however, both
depends on the status attributed to it, which in turn
parental leave and military service are now taken
depends on gender. For example, a Slovenian pilot
into account.
study3 demonstrated that female academic staff get
broader access to leading positions when these
The origin of research funds can also be different
positions become less rewarding in terms of the
for women and men. In Belgium, for example, the
honour, and of the symbolic and real political
observation has been made that women generally
power of these roles.
prefer to compete for funds from universities, but
men are more active in negotiating contracts with
Women can be disadvantaged in funding decisions
industry.
because of family obligations or role stereotyping.
For example, in Estonia, target-funded research
Fairness in funding is a fundamental element in
projects are the main source of salaries for research-
allowing women (and men) to play their part in
ers. Up until 2007, parental leave was not taken
research. Thus, to achieve bias-free decision-mak-
into account in decisions (the decision-making
ing, the procedures according to which people are
Science Competence Council consists of 9 men and
nominated or elected into positions are crucial.
no women), with the main criterion being peer-
Yet, as we shall see, despite the existence of formal
reviewed papers published within a certain gender-related regulations, women are still drasti-
timeframe. Women staying home with children
cally under-represented in research decision-making
cannot publish and therefore do not ‘qualify’ –
positions.
meaning that there is no money to pay their salaries.
page 9
chapter 1
1.2 Are there equality regulations
a part in increasing acceptance of such principles.
Greece does have a regulation prescribing that all
governing the research system?
nominated public committees (including research
councils) should include at least 1/3 women, or men,
but the weak enforcement of the law means that this
Although specifi c research-related regulations exist,
regulation is not respected, due to the large number
as well as regulations on employment relations in
of committees and the low priority of the issue.
the research area (universities, research institu-
tions), there are fewer instances of regulations
A good example has been set by the European
targeting non-discrimination and gender equality in
Commission with its decision to have in the medium
research. In particular, existing legislation rarely
term at least 40% of members of each sex in all
extends to top-level appointments in academia or
expert groups and committees. This has led to a
positions on research councils. This is especially
strong increase in the participation of women on
relevant for the post-communist countries (except
evaluator panels for research proposals submitted to
for Slovenia) whose experience in gender equity as
the Framework Programmes (see also Gender balance
an issue is still relatively recent.
on decision-making bodies)4.
Sometimes, equality regulations exempt research.
For example, in France there is a 2001 law on pro-
1.3 How fair are the nomination
fessional equality, requiring the balanced composition
of decision-making bodies and selection committees
or appointment procedures?
in the civil service. This law, however, exempted the
fi elds of higher education and research. A recom-
mendation was made to remove this exemption but
The most relevant factor for equality in research deci-
this has not yet occurred.
sion-making is the appointment procedure to full
professorship in a university, to a senior position in a
In other cases, regulations apply but are not imple-
research institution, or to membership of a funding
mented consistently. In Germany, all federal and
body. In all such instances, rules exist but informality
state university laws explicitly address gender equal-
and lack of transparency, as well as the rejection of
ity, including rules to appoint a minimum number of
gender equality as a valid and integrated goal in
women on university boards, and all public employ-
research policies (even though gender equity and
ment is subject to federal and state equal scientifi c excellence can and do go hand in hand),
opportunity laws. However, the implementation to
and the lack of knowledge about gender issues, all
date has not yet resulted in sustainable change,
particularly in funding bodies, and especially if they
are formed through elections or peer proposal.
Importance of inclusive
and transparent networking
Although the existence of regulations themselves is
This report confi rms the importance of formal
an important part of the picture, it is context and
and informal networks as tools for integration in
commitment that determine their effectiveness.
science and research as well as for the promotion
In the Scandinavian systems, for example, universi-
of scientifi c careers. It, however, argues that such
ties and research councils are obliged to promote
networks need to be inclusive and transparent.
gender equity in research, and this has increased
Against this background, the report critically ques-
women’s share on committees, in Finland, for exam-
tions the powerful infl uence of established formal
ple, to 43%. In Norway, 40/60 representation (i.e. a
and informal old-boy networks, which often lead
minimum of 40% for each sex) on boards for state
to opaque decision-making and the exclusion of
enterprises and institutions (including universities)
women. At the same time and for the same reasons,
has been a legal requirement since 2004. The law
the report advocates the promotion, strengthening
was extended to all privately-owned public limited
and funding of institutions and formal and infor-
companies in 2006. The inclusion of large state enter-
mal women networks which question and combat
prises in this regulation has contributed to public
exclusion and lack of transparency.
awareness of the gender equity issue and may play
page 10
chapter 1
Informal selection procedures
Decision-making in corporate strategy
favour men
A recent book review in The Economist on corporate stra-
“There are prejudices about women among those who tegy comments that the topic is “man’s territory. Like
co-opt, promote or have the key to promotion. The golf, religion and the working breakfast, it seems set on
bodies which control this are mostly male and, even if excluding women from decision-making. …Strategy to-
they are not totally conscious of it, they see an academic
day still assumes that corporate decision-makers are like
woman fi rst as a woman and secondly as a colleague…
generals on a battlefi eld fi ghting in a sequential world…
It seems that this system (informal selection procedure In reality, though, strategy is now a world more familiar
for promotion – Ed) favours men over women, becau-
to working mothers, where the inhabitants juggle many
se obstacles appear when others, mostly men, judge issues at once and rarely face clear-cut either/or situa-
suitability and deny women their entrance to higher tions…”
categories”.
The Economist, July 14th 2007, ‘Be fi rm, be fl exible’,
Study on the situation of women researchers, commis-
reviewing The Strategy Paradox: Why Committing to
sioned by the Spanish Foundation for Science and Tech-
Success Leads to Failure (and What to Do About It). By
nology, 2005.
Michael E. Raynor. Currency, and Unstoppable: Finding
Hidden Assets to Renew the Core and Fuel Profi table
Women working harder for the same
Growth. By Chris Zook. Harvard Business School Press.
position: US and Slovenian experience
A study at MIT on women faculty “demonstrated how UK ASSET Survey 2003: SET (science,
marginalization has frustrated, even thwarted, women’s engineering, technology) professors
career paths. Marginalization is quantifi ed by inequities
The survey received 471 professor respondents (10%
in resources, access to leadership roles and exclusion were women). 55% of women professors (75% of the
from high-level decision-making processes. Some dif-
men) agreed that their senior colleagues were suppor-
ferences in compensation were noted, as well as low tive. 55% of the women (77% of the men) felt socially
representation in many departments, and greater diffi -
integrated within their department. 75% of the women
culty for women in balancing family and work respon-
(84% of the men) felt they had the opportunity to serve
sibilities”.
on important committees. 58% of the women (74%
http://web.mit.edu/newsoffi ce/2002/
of the men) felt their administrative contribution was
genderstudy-0320.html
valued. The fi ndings suggest that even when women
A Slovenian study showed that female managers often
make it to the top, many still feel they are less valued
feel that they have to work much harder to achieve the
than their male colleagues and that women in general
same position as their male colleagues, but their male
are disadvantaged in terms of salary, promotion and
colleagues usually do not notice this. The same can be
access to career development.
said for female academics.
http://www.embo.org/gender/athena_assets_
Kanjuo-Mrčela, Aleksandra (1996) Ženska v menedžmentu,
presentation.pdf
Ljubljana: Enotnost.
pose diffi cult problems. This is valid in both selection
are important in determining the potential success of
and election procedures, including headhunting
female candidates. Despite the existence of detailed
(talent-searching) activities, for leadership positions,
equality regulations, both prohibiting discrimination
for peer review and for funding or science policy
and calling for positive measures, these can easily be
bodies. Informality, peer networking and closed-shop
met with resistance as long as they are perceived as
deals dominate, resulting in a lack of transparency
external to scientifi c causes of quality and excel-
and a preference for sameness, i.e. maleness, in
lence, or as being ‘unfair’ to men. This results in
recruiting.
non-compliance, either due to ignorance of the
regulation or by way of evasion, which is possible
For example, in Germany full professors are well-
because the decision-making process is often carried
paid civil servants with a lifelong contract and high
out in an informal manner, or by activating old-boy
status. Competition for such positions is naturally
networks5. (See Box on Importance of inclusive and
fi erce, and the appointment procedures themselves
transparent networking).
page 11
chapter 1
In research, networking is important but is still a
Regarding appointment and nomination procedures,
predominantly male realm. Due to persistent stereo-
there are factors that may interact with gender, result-
types and associated practices, it is still more ing in a disadvantage for women and non-traditional
diffi cult for women to enter infl uential lobbies, infor-
men. For example, age is an important indirect factor
mal in many cases, which constitute an important
in competition for jobs in research. Women who have
element of support for access to decision-making
spent time raising children or who have not moved
posts. The impact of networking can also be seen in
quickly during their career may be considered ‘too
the pay-gap: although status and salaries can be sim-
old’ for promotion (see Box on Biological Clocks).
ilar for both sexes, when it comes to extra activities
Finally, access to higher posts of the hierarchy takes
(lectures, being members of boards for PhD theses,
a lot of time, effort and support for anyone, but
advisory committees, etc), it is very often men call-
women face gender-related obstacles that make
ing upon their male colleagues.
their progress up the career ladder even more
burdensome. These are based on the traditional
In addition, the criteria for selecting excellent gendered division of labour where women are the
researchers may be tainted. Scientifi c reputation,
active parents and men are the breadwinners, or
which is important in appointments and assessments
are associated with certain images and understand-
of quality, is determined by a researcher’s peers. In
ings: that the image of research and the image of
many such processes, ‘fi tting in’ is a more important
power are both male. Therefore, efforts need to be
criterion in decision-making than actual perform-
made to achieve a better work-life balance, which
ance6. Rather, and quite contrary to the common call
also includes addressing time-management issues
for objectivity and excellence, personality traits are
in the way that working in research is organised.
treated as indicators of performance. In science, such
traits tend to be the willingness to be present at all
times and to collaborate informally and after regular
1.4 Are both research and power
working hours, which confl icts with active parent-
hood in a context of few child care options. Another
male? The image of science,
such trait is getting along well with others and being
similar to them socially (‘when the chemistry is right’),
scientists and decision-making
which is why sex and social or class background can
be decisive.
The image of science and scientists seems to be pre-
dominantly male, just as the image of power and
decision-making tends to be a male picture. Relevant
images and traditions still pertain to the person of the
Biological clocks
scientist as a man (see Box on Who’s the Scientist),
A recent study of promotion processes to Grade A
and to research issues and activities, as well as exert-
positions in the French CNRS showed the attraction
ing power, as masculine. Put differently, gender is a
for evaluators of ‘meteor-like careers’. One of them
constant player in the world of science and power.
is quoted as explaining “In theory, age is not an
This is particularly relevant because of a dominant
argument, we try and concentrate on the scientifi c
understanding that science is neutral, objective, imper-
aspects of the work but, in practice, the profi les
sonal, bias-free, where most believe that ‘gender is a
of young people who have rapidly published good
difference that doesn’t make a difference’7. As a result,
quality articles are selected as future directors of
the role played by gender is not acknowledged, and
large laboratories. It’s true that when we run out
this role primarily works to the detriment of women
of scientifi c arguments, we tend at the end, in this
and non-traditional men, and furthers the inequalities
[disciplinary] section to be more impressed by peo-
in research, particularly in decision-making.
ple who have moved fast.”
Marry, Catherine (2005) Enquête sur les promotions
The question of why women do not generally fare
CR-DR dans une section des sciences de la vie du
well in research decision-making today is often met
CNRS, Report to the Mission for the place of wo-
with very specifi c assumptions about women and
men in CNRS, Unpublished.
men. Such assumptions turn laws and regulations
into mere text, commitment into simple rhetoric and
measures into window-dressing.
page 12
chapter 1
Who’s the Scientist?
Seventh graders describe
scientists before and after
a visit to Fermilab:
http://ed.fnal.gov/projects/
scientists/amy.html
For example, even if women do partake in the image
many scientifi c publications as do the men. This in
of being scientists, it is still a common gender stereo-
part may refl ect a tendency for women to be in areas
type to see women as talented teachers (commu-
of research where the pressure to publish is less;
nication, soft skills, an open ear for students…), and
another suggestion is that women are not as good as
men in research (hard thinkers, analytical, more
men in concentrating on their own careers, but get
objective…). This image is refl ected in the ‘gender-
side-tracked into teaching and administration.
biased division’ of labour in academia with female
staff concentrated in the teaching and lower-ranked
In addition, there is also a gendered notion of
administration areas, and the males in research:
science as a profession. The image in society of a
“Women teach, men think”.
professor, a scientist, is often seen as a person
without a private life, including obligations of care
In Germany, for example, research is generally seen
in a family. According to this image, scientists
as the priority while teaching is a burden, which is
“bond with research” instead of with human beings
why directors at Max Planck institutes or other
(married to his job).
research-only institutions profi t from higher reputa-
tional capital than regular academics. Needless to
Maleness as the norm is a complex phenomenon.
say that in the political debate, teaching positions are
For example, a study shows there seems to be a limit
seen as less valuable and cheaper than research
to the share of women researchers that is acceptable
positions, and that in quality assessment procedures,
in a research group at any one time, resulting in a
excellence in teaching will fare worse than excel-
‘revolving-door’ effect: if a fi eld already has 25%
lence in research, with all its gender implications.
women, additional women are then only allowed to
At some universities in Belgium, all academic staff
enter if others leave8. There is also the threshold of
are evaluated annually, for both their teaching and
relevance. This is necessary for the diversity of
research activities. If a woman has a good evaluation
research teams, where the productive effects of gen-
for teaching, due to her capacity to interact well with
der-mixed teams in science occur only if women are
students, she is likely to be promoted up the teach-
not just a singular exception or ‘token’, but cross the
ing, rather than up the research ladder. A recent
threshold of relevance. The recommended level for
survey carried out by the University of Oslo showed
this threshold is 40%, which is considerably higher
that women researchers there produce about half as
than mere ‘tokenism’9.
page 13
chapter 1
on male elites indicates that sexist images, ‘jokes’
etc. are an important part of male bonding, and the
same would apply to male-only areas in science11.
Taking women seriously, not just in the world of
research, may also not always be the norm. In some
countries, such as Germany, Switzerland and the
post-communist countries, complaints about sexual
harassment (say in the form of sexualizing com-
ments and ‘jokes’ directed at women) are treated as
un necessary disturbances rather than a violation of
rights. For example, U.S. guest professors to Germany
have been amazed at the lack of sensitivity of male
professors regarding the issue. In such cultures, these
incidents will mostly be treated as an excessive reac-
tion by feminist ideologues, rather than raise
awareness about problematic traditions in research
or the violation of the basic rules of fairness and
respect – as rights enshrined in law.
© Nysgjerrigper.no, Research Council of Norway
Furthermore, often based on a lack of knowledge, it is
widespread to attach negative connotations to feminist
research and gender studies generally. Here the
Academic fi elds are stereotypically and empirically
assumption of women doing women’s work seems to
quite heavily gendered, with most fi elds characterized
produce a very diffi cult mix. In this context, women’s
as male, and some less ‘scientifi c’ fi elds like pedagogy
or languages, as female, and with men dominating
the fi elds that are perceived as being exciting, fast-
moving or ‘relevant’. This also contributes to devaluing
Experience of male scientist (German)
the contribution of women to research – i.e. the more
acting as equality offi cer
‘scientifi c’ the fi eld, the more power and resources are
“I have been treated like a woman. I was put un-
invested in the position, and, therefore, the more
der massive emotional pressure. I was treated with
attractive it is to men (or exclusive of women). Never-
patronizing indulgence, as if my mental capacities
theless, even in female-dominated fi elds, there is
and knowledge were not quite suffi cient to grasp
generally a shortage of women at the top: in the
the intellectual heights of the male mind. My state-
French CNRS, for example, two of the most female-
ments were ignored, but if they were too unsettling,
dominated fi elds, biology and social anthropology,
it was later claimed that I had never made them.
are among the ones with the fewest women at the top
I was, however, spared having my contributions to
of the hierarchy.
discussions ‘stolen’ – i.e. a statement by a woman
will often be quickly ascribed to a man, and the
In addition, there are sexist images and metaphors
more intelligent the statement was the more likely
in the culture of science. They are sometimes used
this would be.” He describes a feeling of ‘shame’
bluntly, but mostly quite innocently, that is, without
witnessing the systematic devaluation of women’s
the sensitivity or competence to assess their
achievements and of sexist slander. “The spectrum
discriminatory effects. The stark cases are hard to
ranged from subtle pinpricks in the choice of words
prove because people will refrain from talking
and in puns to the spreading of denunciatory ru-
about them in mixed public forums, because men
mours in the university Senate…”
fear criticism and women fear stigma or retaliation.
Siegele, Ulrich (1998) in: Diemer, Susanne/ Kirsch-
However, research indicates that “there is high
Auwärter, Edit/ Philipps, Sigrid (eds.), Gleichstellung
evidence for the existence of exclusion mechanisms
und Institution: Schule und Hochschule im Reform-
and open or subtle discrimination of women in
prozess. Eine Festschrift für Doris Knab, Tübingen.
science and in universities”10. In addition, research
page 14
chapter 1
representatives, specifi cally those who are not profes-
sors and thus potential peers, are devalued and
Language use
stereotyped quite frequently, using female attributions
Letter to Slovakian woman researcher from the
like ‘hysterical’, ‘overly sensitive’, ‘overstating the point’
Chairwoman of the selection committee for the
or ‘quarrelsome’, which results in defi ning them as
position of rector: “Dear Dr … va (female form),
external to the system, and keeping them out of deci-
you have been nominated (male form) for the
sion-making processes. As a result, there is a tendency
position of rector (male form)…”
in the more old fashioned cultures to defend the right
to discriminate in the area of research, and to criticize
equality efforts as ‘brainwashing’ and ‘American politi-
scientists, male and female, cannot assist in the
cal correctness’.
attempts to include women in the image of research.
(An exception to the existence of a gendered
The world of science imagines itself as non-bureau-
pronoun is the Finno-Ugric group of languages,
cratic, living on inspiration and ideas, and associating
including Estonian, Finnish and Hungarian, where
freely in academia. Measures to establish gender
the pronoun is gender-neutral. In Estonian, the word
equality in science are confronted with this specifi c
for he/she is ‘tema’.) Although there are several
emphasis on informality. Yet the more informally
regulations in Germany that proscribe the use of
organisations operate, the more likely they are to
gender differentiated language, thus prohibiting the
discriminate on the basis of sex. Thus, specifi c chal-
use of the male denominator commonly used in
lenges derive from the images and traditions which
German to include women and men (in Switzerland,
govern the fi eld.
there are also federal guidelines on how to avoid
only male forms in the French language as well),
language with its symbolic power regarding male-
only cultures is changing rather slowly, and much
offi cial text, despite regulations on the issue, still
refers exclusively to men.
In Slovakian, with female and male grammar forms
(as in all Slavonic languages), the use of the male
language is dominant in research. The pronoun ‘he’
is almost always used when referring to a researcher
in all institutional or national offi cial documents or
speeches. There is no debate or even awareness,
Peter Galle © GeM Koordinationsstelle, Wien
and even women scientists often use the male form
when talking about themselves. A similar situation
1.5 Does language restrict research exists in Greece. In Slovenia, the pair of words (M/F)
to males?
is used at the start of legal/political documents, and
it stated that ‘thereafter’ only the male is used to
denote both sexes, resulting in the symbolic mascu-
One issue which also influences the image of
linity remaining.
women and men in research is the language used
to describe research. Questions have been raised as
Therefore, the use of adequately gendered language
to the relevance of this issue, but this report refl ects
should be acknowledged as one symbolic and there-
it as an indicator of resistance to a culture of accept-
fore powerful effort towards equality in science, and
ance and equality.
should be encouraged more strongly.
Making sure the female sex is included in research
language is much more diffi cult in German or Span-
ish with their gendered nouns than it is in English,
for example. A similar problem exists with other
continental European languages. The continued use
of the pronoun ‘he’ when referring in English to all
page 15
chapter 2
Facts and Figures:
a gendered world and why it needs to change
2.1 The situation today
phenomenon is also described as the ‘leaky pipe-
line’. Data also exist concerning leading positions in
All available data show an under-representation of
universities and in research institutions. Yet, in gen-
women in leading positions in research. The statis-
eral, it is diffi cult to get actual data regarding heads
tics available on the presence of men and women in
of faculties and departments in part because of the
research have improved considerably over recent
annual change in many such positions. There are
years due to the infl uence and activities of the Euro-
less available data on the various boards that allocate
pean Commission, and the resultant changes in
research funding.
Eurostat (Statistical Offi ce of the European Commu-
nities) procedures. Thanks to the efforts of the In Spain, sex-disaggregated data are available on all
Helsinki Group on Women and Science set up by
research projects fi nanced by the Ministry of Educa-
the European Commission, and the Helsinki Group’s
tion and Science, including the number of female
statistical correspondents, there are now more statis-
researcher applicants and their success rate, but such
tics and indicators available on women in research.
data are not available on research fi nanced by other
The European Commission’s She Figures 2006 pub-
ministries (e.g. Industry, Defence). Sex-disaggregat-
lication12 provided the data for this report.
ed data are also available in Spain on academic
positions, by discipline, and on top positions in uni-
However, the availability of data varies in detail. It is
versities and public research institutions13.
now much easier to fi nd data on the proportions of
men and women holding various higher positions in
Availability of data is also seen as quite good in Scan-
academia and research. But fi nding detailed infor-
dinavia, whereas it has been deemed unsatisfactory in
mation on funding (particularly male-female Greece, and generally insuffi cient for in-depth study
breakdown) or on peer-review is still problematic
in most of the older EU member states (e.g. according
since the organisation of statistics in this area tends
to She Figures 2006, data are unavailable from the UK
to be country-specifi c – i.e. not offi cially requested
on the proportion of female researchers, and France
by Eurostat. Information on the male-female repre-
cannot provide gendered funding success rates). The
sentation on research decision-making boards (and
post-communist countries are also relatively badly-
funding data) is collected directly by the European
provided with data, except for Slovenia.
Commission, but is not uniform and is not provided
by all countries (see She Figures 2006).
In order to continue studies on women in research
– or, more broadly, on equality and fairness in
Various country cases illustrate the challenges. In
research – the statistics collected would need to be
Germany, sex-disaggregated data are collected on
improved since some very basic data are still una-
academic positions and disciplines, as well as on the
vailable. Data on the gender situation in private
appointment procedures for professorships. There
research, including industrial research, are still limited
are also data regarding the development of scientifi c
(this area, however, is outside the mandate of this
careers in universities as well as in some research
report). Data on gender-balance in funding is hard to
institutions that show a higher proportion of women
come by, as well as on pay-gaps between male and
researchers than men dropping out of the research
female researchers of equivalent level (however, a
system over time (see the ‘Scissors diagram’). This
recent EU study does make a start in this area –
page 16
chapter 2
see page 21), on gender breakdowns of funding per
gender equality of women in leading positions in
research institution, appointment procedures to fund-
science. Another area of interest could be a study
ing committees and the evaluation of research examining the proposition that countries that do not
funding applications. Detailed data on success rates
pay their professors particularly well have higher
can help to identify the levels of discrimination more
proportions of women professors.
clearly. The UK Research Councils, for example, do
publish such data in their Annual Reports14, as did the
Clearly, sex is not the only factor that can lead to
European Research Council with its data on Stage 1
discrimination: it intersects with other factors such
of the evaluation for starting grants, presented as class, ethnicity and religion, sexual orientation,
in 200715. However, if such data do show gender
age or disability. Such data are almost non-existent,
gaps, more detailed examination will be needed.
although it would be important to fi nd out exactly
which women and which men encounter which
In addition, the German expert organisation CEWS
problems, in order to target measures more effi -
(Centre of Excellence for Women in Science16) has
ciently, and obtain the benefi ts of diversity.
indicated the need for research, for example, on the
lower promotion opportunities for women in female-
All available data show an under-representation
dominated departments (carried out in 200717), the
of women in leading positions in research, and
low numbers of children among female academics
the associated problems could be summarised as
and on the relevance of female role models for
follows:
Figure 2.1:
“Scissors diagram” – Proportions of men and women in a typical academic career,
students and academic staff EU-25, 1999-2003
% 100 •
• Women 2003
• Men 2003
87
85 • Women 1999
80 •
• Men 1999
70
62
63
68
60
59
•
56
54
57
58
52
56
54
48
46
44
43
46
42
40 •
44
41
38
32
37
30
20 •
15
13
0 •
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
s
Grade C
Grade B
Grade A
Graduates
ISCED 5A Graduates
ISCED 6 Enrolments
ISCED 5A Enrolment
Source: Eurostat Education data, DG Research
page 17
chapter 2
Problem 1: women are less likely to be promoted
The EU average for the proportion of women in top
to top positions
academic positions is 15%, with Romania on 29%,
Portugal and Finland on 21%, but the most common
There are proportionally more women holding the
range for countries is 10-15% (see table 2.1. on Pro-
position just below full professor than there are full
portion of female academic staff in grade A positions).
professors (or Grade A positions), but moving that
The higher proportions in some post-communist EU
one extra step seems to be problematic. It could be
countries may be explained with a reference to the
said, therefore, that the ‘glass ceiling’ (see Box and
low salary levels among academics and the low
Figure 2.2. on Glass Ceiling Index) in academia
esteem of academic occupations.
exists between the level of associate professor and
full professor.
The position of heads of universities (rectors) is
also generally important in European research deci-
Women students are in the majority in higher educa-
sion-making. However, there are no offi cial EU-wide
tion, but for registered students at PhD level, the
data available. Nevertheless, some examples can be
male/female proportions are reversed, and thereafter
found – ranging from Sweden with a relatively high
women’s representation continues to decline, with the
proportion of women as rectors (39%) to the more
greatest divergence at the top grade. This is graphi-
usual 5-10% for the rest of Europe. Despite the fact
cally illustrated by the ‘scissors’ diagram showing the
that the proportion of women undergraduates has
way in which the gender gap changes throughout the
been consistently high in Europe for some time,
stages of an academic career (see the Figure in 2.1).
and that the proportion of women amongst new
PhDs has also been on the increase, the proportion
Therefore, the relatively high proportions of women
of women in the top level as professors remains
at the PhD level have not translated into more equi-
stubbornly low. (See Box on Swedish Experience)
table proportions at the top level. Analyses have
demonstrated18 that the lack of women in higher
To sum up, it can be clearly seen that women are
decision-making positions is not a problem that
much less likely to be promoted to the top posi-
will be resolved over time. The consistently higher
tions in research, and that this is indeed a problem
numbers of qualifi ed women in humanities have
that needs to be addressed.
not brought about gender-balance at the top level.
Figure 2.2:
% 12 • 11,7
Glass Ceiling Index, 2004
10 •
8 •
6 •
4 •
3,2 3,1 2,9 2,9 2,7 2,6 2,4 2,3 2,3 2,2 2,2 2,2
2
2,1
2,1 2,0
•
2,0 2,0 2,0
1,9
1,9
1,9
1,8
1,8
1,8
1,8
1,7
1,7
1,7
1,4
1,1
0 •
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Italy
Malta
Israel
Cyprus
Austria
Latvia
EU-25
Estonia
Iceland
Greece
France
Spain
Turkey
Sweden
Finland
Poland
Norway
Lithuania
Slovakia
Hungary
Denmark
Slovenia
Germany
Portugal
Bulgaria
Belgium
Romania
Netherlands
Switzerland
Czech Republic
United Kingdom
Source: WiS database, DG Research
page 18
chapter 2
Table 2.1: Proportion of female academic staff in Grade A positions, 2004
Grade A
Grade B
Grade C
Grade D
Total
EU-25 15,3
32,2
42,0
43,3
36,4
Austria 9,5
16,2
35,6
37,9
29,7
Belgium 9,0
20,7
33,1
46,6
32,7
Bulgaria 18,0
34,9
–
52,4
43,8
Cyprus 10,2
17,2
37,5
33,5
31,0
Czech Republic
10,3
22,1
40,2
48,8
34,0
Denmark 10,9
24,4
37,6
42,7
31,8
Estonia 17,2
37,1
56,6
66,6
49,2
Finland 21,2
46,6
52,9
42,8
40,9
France 16,1
38,7
–
39,3
32,9
Germany 9,2
16,1
25,9
35,6
29,2
Greece 11,3
22,7
31,9
39,4
29,0
Hungary 15,4
30,9
46,0
36,7
36,3
Iceland 15,1
29,9
53,0
–
33,8
Israel 10,6
21,6
33,6
44,7
24,6
Italy 16,4
31,4
43,8
–
31,2
Latvia 26,5
37,0
65,0
–
57,7
Lithuania 12,1
37,4
49,5
59,9
49,1
Malta 2,3
31,7
14,2
25,0
26,6
Netherlands 9,4
14,2
27,0
39,4
31,4
Norway 15,7
28,2
45,5
48,8
37,6
Poland 19,5
27,4
41,0
–
34,9
Portugal 20,9
34,4
43,4
50,4
41,8
Romania 29,1
49,1
–
55,2
42,9
Slovenia 12,9
25,8
39,3
47,9
31,4
Slovakia 13,5
31,5
48,5
54,3
41,1
Spain 17,6
36,1
52,2
50,6
42,1
Sweden 16,1
38,6
40,0
50,0
42,5
Switzerland 16,5
23,3
33,8
41,3
30,8
Turkey 25,5
27,4
40,5
41,6
35,7
United
Kingdom
15,9 31,2 46,1 46,1
41,2
Source: WiS database, DG Research
Glass Ceiling Index
Swedish experience
The Glass Ceiling Index (GCI), as recorded in She
A study carried out on 5000 people who received
Figures 2006, is an indicator that measures the
their PhD in 1980-85 showed that it was twice
relative chance for women compared to men of
as likely for a man to become a professor within
reaching a top position, The GCI is the proportion
18 years of the PhD than for a woman. The conclu-
of females in the top grades (A+B+C) divided by
sion: a higher number of women with PhDs does
the proportion of females in grade A. A GCI of one
not necessarily mean a high number of women
says that there is no difference between men and
professors.
women, and the higher the value the thicker
Swedish National Agency for Higher Education
the glass ceiling. The EU25 average is 2.1, with
Romania on 1.4 and Norway on 1.7 (thinner glass
ceiling), Spain on 2.5 and Estonia on 2.6 (thick
glass ceiling).
page 19
chapter 2
Problem 2: low proportion of women
on research decision-making boards
‘Gate-keepers’ on research councils
How women fare in the research application pro-
According to She Figures 2006, the proportion of
cess also depends on the members of research
women on scientifi c boards is above 40% for only
councils – the ‘gate-keepers’ who are usually senior
Norway, Finland and Sweden. In the UK and Den-
academics. But senior academics are usually male.
mark the proportion is approximately 30%, with
It is essential to include women in the gate-keeping
France on 27%. Among other countries in Europe,
procedure, and councils need to have strategies for
the percentages range from 7% (Cyprus) to approxi-
widening the pool of reviewers.
mately 20% (see Figure on Proportion of women on
NORFACE gender equality workshop, Reykjavik, 2005.
scientifi c boards).
Address by Professor Barbara Bagilhole
The percentages drop, however, when one looks at
Where are all the women?
only the boards where the major decisions in
Sixty percent of medical students are female, so
research are made. In many countries, these boards
why is it that 88% of professors in UK medical
operate without any female representation at all
schools are men? New research (“Women in the
(e.g. Estonia, which currently has no women on its
UK academic medicine workforce”, published in the
two most infl uential research policy decision-mak-
Journal of Medical Education) blames a lack of role
ing boards, and has only one woman in its
models and workforce practices.
57-member Academy of Sciences).
http://bulletin.sciencebusiness.net/
ebulletins/showissue.php3?page=/548/2589/9011
% 50 • 48
47
47
Figure 2.3:
Proportion of
40
women on scientifi c
•
boards, 2004
35
33
31
30 •
n = total number of
27
27
board members
24
22
22
21
21
20 •
20
20
18
17
14
13
12
10
10
•
7
7
0 •
n= 29
61
83
139
128
443
271
427
140
292
694
81
207
103
370
232
3518
354
795
313
157
139
75
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Italy
Norway
Finland
Sweden
Iceland
France
Latvia
Ireland
Estonia
Poland
Cyprus
Denmark
Bulgaria
Slovenia
Hungary
Lithuania
Germany
Belgium
Slovakia
Netherlands
Switzerland
Czech Republic
Source: WiS database, DG Research
United Kingdom
page 20
chapter 2
% 30 •
Figure 2.4:
Gender Pay-Gap
covering the
25 •
whole economy,
2002 and 2004
20 •
• 2004
15 •
• 2002
Gender Pay Gap =
10 •
the difference between
average gross hourly
5 •
earnings of male paid
employees and of
0
female paid employees
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
as a percentage of
average gross hourly
Italy
Malta
Cyprus
EU-25
Spain
Latvia
Estonia
Austria
France
Ireland
Greece
Poland
earnings of male paid
Slovakia
Finland
Norway
Germany
Bulgaria
Denmark
Sweden
Belgium
Lithuania
Romania
Hungary
Slovenia
Portugal
employees.
Netherlands
Luxembourg
United Kingdom
Czech Republic
Source: Eurostat Economy and fi nance statistics
Problem 3: women researchers paid less than men
of up to 20%. In contrast, Sweden has a very small
on the same level (gender pay-gap)
pay-gap in the university sector.
Although there is very little specifi c data readily avail-
Therefore, the existence of a clear gender pay gap is
able on the gender pay-gap in the research fi eld, a
to be counted as a problem for women in research.
recent study published by the European Commission
on the remuneration of researchers in public and pri-
vate commercial sectors in the EU-25 and associated
‘Mind the gap’ – pay discrimination
countries also includes information on male-female
between male and female scientists
differences in researcher remuneration (pay-gap). The
The Economist recently wrote in its Science and
male-female difference in pay, in this particular study,
Technology section about the study conducted by
ranges from about 10% in Iceland, 11% in Denmark to
Sara Connolly of the University of East Anglia, analy-
47% in Estonia and 36% in Portugal19.
sing the results of a survey of over 7 000 scientists.
She found that the average pay gap between male
There is also Eurostat pay-gap data available for the
and female academics working in science, enginee-
whole economy, where the country trends are similar
ring and technology is around 1 500 GBP a year.
to the range of pay-gaps seen in the above study on
Men are also likely to earn more within any given
researcher salaries (see Figure on Gender pay-gap).
grade of the hierarchy. Male professors, for example,
earn over 4 000 GBP a year more than female ones.
Country studies show that Slovenia has a gender
Explicable differences (seniority, experience and age)
pay-gap of 12% in research in the highest positions.
amounted to 77% of the overall pay gap between
Estonia, with its general pay gap of 24%, provides no
the sexes. “This still left a substantial 23% pay
offi cial data on pay-gaps in universities but examina-
gap, which Dr Connolly attributes to discrimination.”
tion of the information available on the website of
The Economist, September 9th 2006, “Mind the gap.”
one of Estonia’s major universities showed a pay gap
page 21
chapter 2
Problem 4: the more money spent
Problem 5: ‘There is no problem’–
on R&D the fewer women?
a lack of awareness and commitment
Despite the high numbers of women researchers in the
Although there are gaps in the data available on
post-communist countries, the very top positions are
women in research, there is suffi cient to clearly indi-
still very much dominated by men. The Enwise report
cate a lack of gender balance. This imbalance, and
introduced the concept of the Honey Pot Indicator,
its consequent problems, is little-known, and the
defi ned as the measure of the relationship between
lack of discussion on the topic means that there is
concentrations of women and men, and Research &
low awareness – even amongst the research com-
Development (R&D) expenditure. The conclusion,
munity itself, not to mention the public. In many
based on the Enwise countries studied, was that the
countries, this specifi c lack of awareness is com-
highest proportion of women is to be found in the
pounded by a general low level of awareness on
countries and sectors with the lowest R&D expendi-
gender issues, even amongst women.
ture, and the lowest proportions of women are in the
sectors with the highest R&D expenditure.
This lack of awareness could also be counteracted
by clearly-stated top-level commitment to gender
In addition, according to the She Figures 2006, coun-
equality, starting at the EU level. Recommendations
tries with low levels of R&D expenditure per capita
by the European Commission on achieving gender
researcher, e.g. the post-communist countries (except
balance do have an infl uence on national policies.
Slovenia) and Greece, have the highest proportion
of women in research. In the case of Greece, this
Indeed, the Swedish experience shows that top-level
could be explained by the relatively low status of
commitment is vital in achieving gender equality in
research jobs and the high prevalence of state-owned
research. Commitment needs to be expressed at
research institutions (as the public sector is tradition-
national level and visible governmental bodies must
ally a woman-friendly sector). Similarly, countries with
be seen to refl ect gender balance. This top-level
the highest R&D per capita researcher, i.e. Luxem-
commitment must also be followed by measures in
bourg, Netherlands, Switzerland, have the lowest
universities and research institutions, and the results
proportion of female researchers (18% for Luxem-
must be regularly monitored and acted upon (based
bourg, 17% for the Netherlands, 21% for Switzerland
on the systematic collection of statistics and feed-
– with the EU average being 29%).
back from measures).
To sum up, there seems to be a problem regarding
To summarise, while there are still areas where more
the particular lack of women in well-funded areas of
data are required, the currently available facts and
research.
figures clearly show the existence of numerous
problems resulting in the much lower than expected
proportion of women in research decision-making
positions. These problems already convey a clear
call for change.
© Lorenz Meier, Zürich
page 22
chapter 2
and the communist states had their own special situ-
No problems in Portugal?
ation (see Box on Gender-awareness problem
At a national level, the women’s issue is slowly
among women).
entering the political vocabulary but realistic lea-
dership commitment to equality in general, and to
Today, at the beginning of the 21st century, the
equality in science decision-making in particular, is
goal has become to insert gender into the main-
still absent. The proportion of women amongst the
stream of research. Despite the fact that the
top grade of university staff, although only 21%, is
equality of men and women is a right and an obli-
high compared to the EU average of 15%, which
gation in all European constitutions, and although
means that the political leadership uses the oppor-
there are national laws and regulations in effect,
tunity to claim that Portugal has no problems.
success has been limited.
Not a problem for one out
Policy objectives regarding the consideration of
of two French women scientists
gender in research – and even more so the argu-
In a survey carried out in 2007, CNRS researchers
ments to support them – have changed over time.
and high-level engineers were asked whether the
These policy objectives target personnel, resources
fact of being a woman was an advantage, a handi-
and content, and there has been a shift from formal
cap or neither, for a career in public research. 2% of
equality to equality of opportunity or equality in
women and 8% of men thought it was an advan-
numbers, to gender balance and equity.
tage, 47% of women and 19% of men thought it was
a handicap, 51% of women and 72% of men thought
There are a number of reasons that argue in favour
it was neither.
of having more women in research decision-making
Daniel Boy (2007), Enquête sur la responsabilité
positions. These could be grouped into three major
sociale du scientifi que,
categories: ethical/human rights arguments, utilitari-
http://www.cnrs.fr/colloques/sciences-societe/
an arguments and common good arguments. The
quoideneuf.htm
ethical arguments of social justice and human rights
say that it is only fair that women should be able to
reach these positions, and the utilitarian arguments
concern quality (modern research will be better if
2.2. Arguments for change
led by more women) and effi ciency (not employing
these women to the best of their capacities is a waste
The data show that there is still a grave under-
of the training invested in them). Finally, the com-
representation of women in research – particularly
mon good argument reminds us that both women
in top positions. Time alone will not mend this
and men are taxpayers, contributing to the funding
problem. There are structural barriers, embedded
of research.
in regulations, which have been created by the still
predominantly-male hierarchies, and there are
social assumptions concerning the role of men and
Human rights arguments
women that hinder the utilisation of potential.
The arguments of social justice and fairness say
Gender discrimination in research has a long tradi-
that all people, men and women should have equal
tion, and lasting effects: thus there are even more
opportunities and suffer no discrimination. Such
reasons to seriously pursue change. In many coun-
arguments are deeply anchored in the democratic
tries, women’s movements fought for equal rights in
tradition. What is more, improving fairness for
the 1970s, and for institutional presence (women’s
women, improves fairness for all.
representatives or equal opportunity offi ces) and
regulations including affi rmative action in the 1980s,
For instance, having inclusive and transparent
while the 1990s was the time to move to gender
promotion processes in the research world means
mainstreaming and women in politics, from people
that women and men are granted access to formal
to issues, thus introducing women’s and gender
networks in the research world in a way that exclu-
studies. There were, however, variations to this
sion and opaque decision-making by old-boy
development pattern in some European countries,
networks could be counteracted.
page 23
chapter 2
Utilitarian arguments concerning quality
Gender-awareness problem
among women
Diversity increases creativity. Research activities rely
Lack of gender awareness seems to be a particular
heavily on creativity. Diverse research teams from
problem in post-communist countries where many
diverse origins are in general more open to new ideas,
women are quite satisfi ed with men dominating
procedures and experiments, and thus more innova-
leadership positions, be it in business, research
tive. This requires the presence of both women and
or politics. A recent series of interviews with top
men from different walks of life. Such an advantage
Romanian women researchers demonstrated that
has long been recognised by research departments in
most do not see the problem – hardly any of the
multinational companies who actively develop pro-
women interviewed admitted to experiencing dis-
grammes to hire and retain women (as well as ethnic
crimination. Some typical comments from Slova-
minorities) throughout their careers20.
kian researchers: “Problems of gender equality are
marginal when compared to other, more serious
Diversity increases quality. The more diverse the
problems in science.” “Serious and successful re-
background and experiences of the researchers, the
searchers don’t waste time talking about non-issues
less likely it is that research is biased, or that prod-
such as gender (in)equality in science. There just
ucts target only part of the market. The closer to
isn’t a problem.”
reality the research is, the better it can produce prod-
ucts that people actually need and use. This means
Lack of gender awareness in Estonia
drawing on the complete pool of human capital, and
A Ministry of Social Affairs survey (October 2006)
accepting that the life experience of women is also
found a general public lack of gender awareness:
necessary for understanding the world. Gender bias
only 63% of women (45% of men) believe that
lowers the quality of research, traditionally exclud-
women and men should have equal pay; 48% of
ing women and gender from consideration.
women (68% of men) say that they have no pro-
Traditional research could be enhanced by remov-
blem with the higher-paid jobs being dominated by
ing the bias and considering aspects that are
men; half the women (32% of men) agree with the
otherwise ignored.
statement that men are better suited for manage-
ment positions.
Having gender balance in research brings science
closer to society by refl ecting the actual composi-
In addition, a recent (yet unpublished) study on
tion of society. Thus science can be more relevant to
Estonian women researchers in science and tech-
society’s needs. In addition, gender equality in
nology shows that they blame themselves and not
research means targeting areas and themes other-
the system for the lack of women in decision-ma-
wise easily neglected – since they may be better
king positions. Most respondents to the survey
known to women than to men.
stated that they did not really want the manage-
ment jobs since they preferred doing research ra-
ther than administrative work and having to deal
Utilitarian arguments concerning effi ciency
with fi nding research funding.
BASNET (Baltic States Network “Women in Sciences
Optimisation of human resources. Not including
and High Technology”) Project Survey, 2007.
more women is a waste of human resources. There
is a disproportionately low rate of participation in
Avoiding the issue in Belgium
research for women compared to the number of
Universities in Belgium are increasingly concerned
undergraduate and graduate students. Having con-
about their international rankings. This ranking is
siderably fewer women in decision-making than
mainly determined by the numbers of publications,
among PhD holders/students is a waste of a consider-
numbers of patents, post-doctoral fellows, etc, but
able investment in their training.
not by gender equality. This is therefore a minor
issue for the universities and perhaps an excuse for
Gender equity improves effi ciency. This ties in with
avoiding responsibility as regards gender equality
a new orientation of universities towards business
in research.
strategies. Just as the economic world has started to
ask for more qualifi ed personnel as ‘human capital”,
page 24
chapter 2
and to become concerned about the lack of quali-
fi ed men, thus turning to women and migrants, some
Diversity example from industry
countries have started to consider the recruitment of
Nissan Motor in Japan has seen the benefi ts of di-
highly qualifi ed female researchers as a prime policy
versity and increased its recruiting and promoting
objective, particularly in male dominated fi elds like
of women. “To meet the diverse needs in the glo-
engineering, and even going beyond national bor-
bal market, you need to have diversity in the com-
ders. This is attractive because economic concerns
position of your employees. A homogeneous group
are prevalent in the world of science, and it high-
can only come up with something homogeneous.”
lights the potential of women – where the situation
International Herald Tribune, June 2-3, 2007, “Japan
of women dropping out of research is viewed as an
Inc. embraces diversity”
effi ciency problem.
Does gender matter?
Gender equity increases international competitive-
Diversity leads to quality
ness. Universities and research institutions with very
Commentator Ben A. Barres from Stanford Univer-
low percentages of female professors could lose out
sity asks what could be done to ensure women
in international competition for partnerships with
achieve their full potential and suggests a number
other countries that have a greater participation of
of actions including: 1) enhancing leadership diver-
women researchers, and thus a larger pool of talent,
sity in academic and scientifi c institutions. Diversity
and have thereby benefi ted from the quality increase
provides a substantially broader point of view, with
brought about by greater diversity.
more sensitivity and respect for different perspect-
ives, which is invaluable to any organization. More
female leadership is vital in lessening the hostile
Common good argument
working environment that young women scientists
often encounter, 2) diverse faculty role models are
Since research is driven by common needs, and
important so job searches must be open and fair
fi nanced by public funds that are provided by tax-
in order to recruit top women scientists – search
payers – women and men, it would demonstrate
committees should not always be chaired by men,
commitment to a socially-balanced community if
and the committee itself should be highly diverse.
gender equality in research decision-making were
Nature, 13 July 2006, Does gender matter? Ben A.
ensured – i.e. it would be for the common good.
Barres
In addition, the economic benefi ts to society of an
increased involvement of women in science cannot
be ignored: birth rates are higher in countries with
higher gender equity in the labour market (see also
Box on Womenomics in 3.4).
To summarise: if the arguments about human rights,
social justice and fairness are not suffi cient to justify
improvements in women’s position as decision-
makers, it can also be argued that more women as
decision-makers contribute to the mobilisation of all
possible capabilities for ensuring the quality and
effi ciency of research itself. More women in key
positions are needed to recognise relevant research
topics and themes, to develop new and innovative
methodologies and to challenge the current discipli-
nary and methodological understandings. Women’s
experiences are urgently needed to structure and
clarify the goals of research. Hence, if we have more
women as decision-makers, we will have better and
more effi cient research, and a more effective use of
the human potential.
page 25
chapter 2
Media comment on the lack
US report says women burdened
of women in decision-making
by bias in the sciences
On 22 June 2007, SME, the major Slovak daily, pu-
An expert panel convened by the National Academy
blished an article titled “Lack of women in deci-
of Sciences concluded in its report “Beyond Bias
sion-making positions at universities”.
and Barriers” that American women in science and
“The extremely low representation of women at
engineering are hindered by bias and “outmoded
Slovak universities is a problem. It is a problem
institutional structures” in academia. The panel said
because it is yet another important area of public
that in an era of global competition, the US could
life besides politics where the voice of women is
not afford “such under-use of precious human ca-
missing. This voice has the ability to ask questions,
pital”. The report recommended that universities
express opinions and make decisions that men of-
alter procedures for hiring and evaluation, change
ten do not even think of. The world today brings
typical timetables for tenure and promotion, and
many diverse challenges. Resolving these needs a
provide more support for working parents. The real
lot of people thinking in diverse ways. It is bad
problems for women, says the report, are uncons-
if women are not part of this process. Society is
cious but pervasive bias, arbitrary and subjective
impoverished, it does not use its full potential, and
evaluation processes, and a working environment
in the end both women and men suffer. It is for
in which “anyone lacking the work and family sup-
men to realise this. And it is for women to aspire
port traditionally provided by a ‘wife’ is at a serious
to higher positions, to push their visions forward.
disadvantage.”
If they don’t, things will still keep working. But
http://www8.nationalacademies.org/onpinews/
things could work so much better.”
newsitem.aspx?RecordID=11741
Lucas Fila, SME daily, 22 June 2007, Lack of women
See also: International Herald Tribune, Septem-
in decision-making positions at universities.
ber 19, 2006, “U.S. women burdened by bias, not
http://www.sme.sk/clanok_tlac.asp?cl=3360369
inability, in the sciences”.
page 26
chapter 3
Potential for Change:
good practice and measures
There are many possible measures, and existing good
The third group of measures look at how gender
practices, to address the lack of gender balance in
equity could be integrated into quality manage-
research decision-making. This report groups these
ment for institutions, and become mainstream
measures – starting with those in the fi eld of research
policy rather than a separate issue. Continuing with
funding, since funding is fundamental to good the example of our woman researcher who has fi rst
research. If a researcher gets fair access to research
received the funding, then been promoted to a
funding (e.g. through successful grant applications),
decision-making post, we then integrate the good
she will have the opportunity to carry out her research
practice that brought her to this level into the every-
rapidly and effi ciently, and she will be able to publish
day operation of the institution, resulting in
better and more – in other words, she will be in a
enhanced overall research quality.
position to be promoted. This is why it is important
that women have fair access to such funding, and
The fourth group of measures deal with issues of
why information on women’s participation in appli-
policy. It is clear that the steps needed for each of
cations for funding, and on their success rates, is also
these groups of measures cannot be taken unless
important. This report has already referred to the lack
there is leadership support for the principle of gen-
of comprehensive statistics in this fi eld (see Chap-
der balance, a belief in its benefi ts for research, and
ter 2), and this lack is refl ected in the data provided
a commitment to change the current situation.
in Annex 4.1 of She Figures 2006, where the num-
bers of male and female applicants and benefi ciaries
of research funding are presented. In some countries,
3.1 Follow the money:
such as France, there are no data available at all. The
existing data, however, clearly demonstrate that there
Measures to promote gender
is an equality issue regarding how research funding
is allocated.
equality in decision-making
for funding research
The second group of measures presented in this
chapter cover the area of appointments/promotions
in research jobs. If the fi rst group of measures put a
Gender balance on decision-making bodies
woman in a position to be promoted in her scientifi c
career (since she had been successful in obtaining
Equality in decision-making starts with having a
funds for her research), this second group of meas-
gender balance on the bodies that decide on
ures should work to put her in a better position in
research funding. At the very least, having male-
gaining promotions to decision-making posts. The
only committees risks replicating stereotypes and
proposed measures include existing good practice in
bias, both regarding applicants and issues in
ensuring gender parity on boards, transparency in
research. Therefore, measures are needed to have
appointment procedures and results, setting gender
both women and men fairly represented on decision-
parity targets and improving work-life balance.
making bodies.
page 27
chapter 3
Gender Distribution
60 •
on Groups,
Panels and
50 •
committees FP 4/5/6
•
40
FP4
•
• 1999
• 2000
30 •
• 2001
• 2002
20 •
• 2003
• 2004
• 2005
10 •
• 2006
0 •
•
•
•
•
•
•
n
s
t
s
s
AG'
Panel
Exper
Panel
Boards
Advisory
Evaluatio
databases
Monitoring
Programme
Committees
Source: DG Research
Here the EU itself sets an example by committing
opportunities, but also a way to avoid direct com-
to place at least 40% women in its research evalua-
petition between men and women. However, such
tion commissions, and this measure has certainly
extra funding also created another reason to stig-
been successful in increasing the numbers of matize women in research as those who are
women researchers in these commissions (see Fig-
successful due to biology rather than quality.
ure on Gender Distribution on Groups... and End
In addition, such funding left old-boy networks
Note 4). The EU Charter for Researchers21 supports
untouched, and mostly established parallel struc-
this goal of aiming ‘for a representative gender bal-
tures. The last programme (2001-2006), which was
ance’. A number of countries, including Norway,
fi nanced at the federal and state levels, and com-
Sweden and Finland, have also set 40% targets (as
prised 30 million EUR, was aimed at enhancing
regards the under-represented sex) for their gender research, the participation of women in
research councils.
leading positions, and in technical studies, and did
result in a broad set of successful measures22.
Special programmes for women in funding
In Spain, fi ve points out of 100 are given to projects
directed by a woman or with a higher than aver-
To target equality in funding, there have been several
age representation of women in the project team.
strategies to allocate money for research with a
Only projects that have passed the quality threshold
consideration of gender equality: to establish extra
may benefi t from this measure. There have been
funds for women researchers, to allocate bonus
protests, however, claiming that it could compromise
points to projects with a good gender balance, to
scientifi c quality.
establish economic incentives, or sanctions, within
research institutions.
In Greece, research projects to be funded by the
state in 2001 received a bonus of 5% on the evalu-
In Germany, with the aim of providing equal oppor-
ation scale for each woman researcher on a research
tunities to pursue a career, governments and some
team. This was applied to all fi elds of research, not
scientifi c organisations have set up special pro-
only those where women were underrepresented.
grammes or provided separate funds for women
Thus traditionally ‘female’ research fi elds acquired
researchers since the end of the 1980s. This was
an advantage over ‘male’ ones, provoking reactions
not only a shift from equal presence to equal
from the research community and resulting in the
page 28
chapter 3
measure being discontinued. The measure could
have been successful if the bonus (as is the case
Benefi t of targeted fi nancing in Greece
with all positive measures favouring women) was
In 2003 the Ministry of Education in Greece and the
applied only to research fi elds where women are
European Social Fund co-funded gender research.
under-represented. More generally, withdrawal of
A total of 4.5 million EUR was spent on 37 research
the measure could have been avoided if the design
projects presented by teams of Greek universities.
of the measure had integrated both the positive
Thanks to the measure, the amount allocated per
action rationale and a stricter monitoring system.
gender research project was double the amount allo-
cated to all other research areas. The policy measure
enhanced research on gender issues as well sup-
3.2. Getting women to the top:
ported women researchers (almost all the project
leaders were women). Without the targeted funding
Measures to promote gender
by the Ministry, the research proposals would cer-
tainly have been scuttled by the male-biased evalua-
equality in decision-making
tion system, which would have considered gender
for appointments
research non-signifi cant and/or non-scientifi c. This
allocation of targeted funding for gender research
has had the indirect effect of upgrading women re-
Equality in decision-making also depends on getting
searchers in the university hierarchy, at a time when
into the pool of candidates from which decision-mak-
new evaluation schemes for university staff were to
ers are selected. Generally, measures to promote
have been introduced under the recent legal reform
gender equality in decision-making for appointments
of higher education.
may differ in that some target employment positions,
as for full professors, and others target representative
positions, as on boards. Many measures are similar to
those which target funding decisions.
Generally, in selection decisions, a short list of suit-
able candidates is prepared, ranking them according
to academic or professional qualifi cations. However,
Transparent procedures
such a short list could be presented, without the
ranking of candidates, to a further selection commit-
Open, transparent procedures work to lessen the
tee who would be free to apply other criteria (such
infl uence of informal old-boy networks that often
as the need to correct the gender balance).
exclude women. Measures are needed to ensure
that procedures are fair, to gain the best in the fi eld
Proactive searches (headhunting) for excellent
without bias. Standardised procedures and clear-
researchers have become increasingly common
cut qualifi cation criteria are central in ensuring
since there is now intense global competition for
quality, and they also enhance the chances for
talent. Women’s networks are resourceful coopera-
women in appointment procedures 23. Such criteria
tion partners here since they have targeted
should be well thought out and could include
databases and active contacts within the scientifi c
activities in which women may tend to invest more,
community that can be used to enlarge the pool of
such as teaching. Transparency also enables the
qualifi ed applicants.
procedures to be evaluated more readily.
Another suggested measure is to set up a search
Other measures include widely-published job committee with the aim of specifi cally looking for
advertisements, which encourage women to apply
qualifi ed female candidates for a senior position
(no male-only language), and the monitoring of
(equality-oriented search). It is recognised that
gendered data on applications (including publish-
women tend not to be so thoroughly ‘networked’ as
ing the fi nal results of hiring procedures as well the
men and so are more diffi cult to trace. In Norway,
call for the application, and providing information
at NTNU in Trondheim, search committees have
on the gender balance on each selection round).
been used very successfully to identify qualifi ed
More generally, it should be possible to review and
women. Additionally, job advertisements can be
evaluate selection procedures after the fact.
designed to encourage women to apply.
page 29
chapter 3
gender equality offi cers should be suffi ciently inde-
UK appointment procedures
pendent of the institution for which they monitor
The UK Offi ce of the Commissioner for Public
appointment procedures, and they should regularly
Appointments is an independent body to set stan-
and publicly report on the selection processes.
dards and regulate the recruitment process for
appointments in public bodies, in order to ensure
that appointments are made on merit after fair and
Targets and quotas
open competition, and also to encourage equal op-
portunity and diversity. Progress against diversity
Measures to be taken to promote gender equality in
targets are published, as well as information on
decision-making for appointment may include both
initiatives to encourage greater diversity in public
targets and quotas. Both measures set goals to be
appointments.
reached, over a certain time period, but not achiev-
ing targets results in no sanctions. Quotas, on the
Gender Equality offi cers and units
other hand, due to their stricter nature, can produce
In Germany, equal opportunity offi cers were made
radical change over a short period. Experiences in
mandatory for universities in the 1990s. These
research hiring, however, show that targets are gen-
offi cers were to represent women’s interests in
erally better accepted than quotas. Systems of
institutions and contribute to the transparency of
reserved quotas for women are nearly unanimously
decision-making. The policy objective is mainly
rejected on the grounds that women would be
the presence of the issue of gender equality in
judged according to their sex, not according to their
research, rather than gender research itself. In
scientifi c abilities or intellectual value. (This claim
Spain, a recent amendment to the Universities Act
could be countered by the suggestion that in reality
obliges all universities to set up Gender Equa-
there are currently ‘reserved quotas’ for men.) There
lity units by 2008. The same amendment requires
is also an argument, however, saying that in the case
regular reporting on the advancement of gender
of scientifi c job decisions, such as hiring and promo-
equality at each university
tion, targets are an alternative to quotas, whereas in
partially political decisions, such as nomination to
US Good Practice: Train the hirers
decision-making boards, committees, etc, quotas
to avoid gender bias
could be applied.
The ADVANCE Program, promoting diversity and
excellence at the University of Michigan, has set
In Norway, if two candidates are equally qualifi ed,
up the STRIDE Committee “to provide information
the less represented sex can be favoured, as is stated
and advice about practices that will maximize the
in the job advertisement. It is recognised that there is
likelihood that diverse, well-qualifi ed candida-
often a bias (conscious or unconscious) among
tes for faculty positions will be identifi ed, and, if
departmental staff who might tend to promote one
selected for offers, recruited, retained, and promo-
of their own colleagues (or one of their own sex).
ted at the University of Michigan. The committee
Therefore it is required to have an external repre-
leads workshops for faculty and administrators in-
sentative (from another faculty) on the selection
volved in hiring.”
committee.
Source: http://sitemaker.umich.edu/advance/stride
In Finland, it has been accepted as a general prin-
ciple that preference should be given to the
under-represented sex, if the applicants are equally
competent or if the difference between their com-
The mere presence of a woman on a selection board
petences is slight.
does not ensure gender competence. Gender exper-
tise, or at least gender awareness, on selection boards
In Sweden, the concept of quotas is not popular
would help to ensure the quality of decisions.
but that of goals and follow-up is quite accepta-
ble. Since the higher education institutions rely on
The presence of gender equality offi cers can help
public funding, political pressure in the form of
to monitor the transparency and fairness of the goals and policy can be effective, even given the
appointment and selection procedures. But these autonomy of the institution.
page 30
chapter 3
Gender parity targets on selection boards can help
to increase the number of women selected for posi-
Successful use of targets in the recruit-
tions. For example, in Spain, there has been a
ment of women professors in Sweden
40:60 ratio requirement since 2005 for selection
In Sweden, the proportion of women among new pro-
boards in public employment, and the largest pub-
fessors was 7% in 1985-92 and 12% in 1993-95. The
lic research body (CSIC) also has compulsory sex
goals set for each university added up to a national
parity on its selection and promotion boards. This
goal of 19% for the period 1997-1999. The proportion
has resulted in an increase in the number of women
of women among new professors for all universities
selected for positions, particularly for the highest
together was 21% in this period as well as in the
position of research professor.
next period for which goals were set – i.e. 2001-2004.
Although a number of factors could have infl uenced
this outcome, the goals set by the government are
Hiring incentives
generally seen as having played a major role.
An example of incentives being used to encourage
Problems with the word ‘quota’
the hiring of more female professors is provided by
The idea of quotas is generally unpopular. This is
Switzerland24. An incentive programme was started
particularly the case with post-communist societies.
in 2000, and every year the responsible federal
Informal interviews with researchers carried out
institution publishes a ranking on the results. The
in Slovakia and Estonia – both men and women
universities were not obliged to use the extra fund-
– showed that the respondents think that quotas
ing for gender issues but they generally did (e.g.
could be counter-productive (as they were in the
for fi nancing gender equity offi ces). Despite the
communist past). “I do not like quotas… There used
generally positive results, the level of funding is
to be quotas everywhere – starting with school…
rather modest to work as an effective incentive, and
enrolment quotas, e.g. for children from working
the appointment committees for professorships
class families… Quotas are very dangerous be-
often are not aware of the Programme’s existence.
cause they discriminate against women, men or
whomever.”
In the University of Oslo, about 350 000 € per year
Sedova, T. (ed.)2003. Zeny a veda v SAV. (Women
is available (as matched funding) to support at the
and Science at Slovak Academy of Sciences.) Bratis-
departmental level projects involving existing
lava: Veda SAV. There is no problem having a 1/3 ge-
female staff (e.g. paying travel costs, expanding
neral quota for women in expert bodies in Slovenia
research activities, paying for support staff). This
(except for technical sciences where there is a quota
pot of money also supports the mentor programme,
of 1/5), but there is no wide acceptance of a quota
as well as meetings for school leavers to encourage
for women in academic positions.
more female students to apply to faculties such as
engineering and mathematics where women are
seriously under-represented. An ‘incentive model’
Mentoring and empowerment
has been introduced, by which funds are redistrib-
uted and awarded to institutes that have increased
To empower women to reach positions in decision-
their senior female staff, but the money is limited
making in research, mentoring is an interesting
and the scheme is not well publicised. In fact, in
measure to select. However, without changes to
2006 not all the budget was allocated, as institutes
selection committees and in organisations, there will
were not able to maintain the increases from year
be no real change in the situation. It is not enough to
to year. A Ministry of Education committee is evalu-
fi x the women, if we do not also fi x the institution,
ating the incentive scheme and may recommend it
and work together with men, as American scholar
to all universities in Norway.
Londa Schiebinger puts it. Thus, mentoring is but one
available measure, which also needs to be
A Finnish example of gender-based targeted funding
wisely tuned to reach its objective. The recent setting
is also provided by the Minna Canth Academy Pro-
up of the European Network of Mentoring Pro-
fessorship in Women Studies and Gender Research
grammes (eument-net) for women in academia and
at the Academy of Finland, and other equivalent
research promises to provide a platform for high
positions in various universities.
standard mentoring programmes25.
page 31
chapter 3
increase the visibility of women in research, to create a
Good practice in networking from Africa
positive image of women working in male-dominated
The Forum for African Women Educationalists (FAWE)
fi elds, and for the fi ve women featured on the DVD to
brings together high level female education policy
act as role models for aspiring woman scientists.
makers including Ministers and Deputy Ministers of
Education, Vice Chancellors and Deputy Vice Chan-
Women’s networks have been established in Europe
cellors. It immediately invites any new appointee to
to assist in transforming the ‘private struggles’ of
join the organisation – the invitations are always
women researchers into ‘public issues’. The inter-
accepted – and has been very successful in building
disciplinary nature of some of these networks also
an active and effi cient working network.
brings gender researchers into contact with ‘hard’
Source: www.fawe.org
science specialists, which benefi ts both parties.
Slovakian leading woman researcher
on work-life balance
Work-life balance
“The work-life balance is the biggest challenge for
me. When I work, I feel guilty that I am not with my
To get women into decision-making bodies in
family. When I am with my family, I feel guilty that
research, but also to let men be active parents,
I am not working.”
more attention needs to be paid to work-life-bal-
Sedova 2003
ance. This should not be limited to measures for
child care only, but more broadly to the quality of
Parental leave amendment in Iceland
work in research, and specifi cally to time manage-
reduced pay-gap
ment policies in science. Measures are needed to
Since 2000, parental leave in Iceland has been set
target time arrangements that discriminate against
at 3 months for the mother, 3 months for the fa-
active parents, as in the organization of meetings.
ther, and 3 months to be shared as the parents
More fl exible timeframes for research may help to
wish. A specifi c aim of this policy was to reduce the
solve some problems here, for both women and
pay difference between men and women. Over the
men, and for all kinds of private life obligations,
period of 4 years after the law came into force, the
such as caring for aged parents.
pay-gap narrowed by 6%.
In Slovenia, there is a measure freezing the contracted
period for young researchers when they take paren-
In Oslo, two programmes have been carried out. tal leave. There is also a freezing of the ‘habilitation’
One-to-one links are set up between PhD students/
period during maternal leave. Finland, Sweden and
post-docs and professors (male or female) to discuss
Norway also extend research appointments by tak-
career opportunities and to try to overcome some of
ing into account the duration of parental leave, and
the diffi culties that face young scientists seeking to
male researchers, in particular, are encouraged to
advance on a career track. The schemes are volun-
use all their parental leave. One of Belgium’s main
tary. About 25 mentor-pairs have been set up so far.
universities in the French community can now ben-
Evaluation by those taking part has been positive:
efi t from a new measure: Individual Academic Project
the programmes are seen as being very helpful. Indi-
(PAI), which means that researchers can now modify
vidual faculties, such as Law and Medicine, have had
their objectives (e.g. research vs. teaching) in accord-
their own mentor programmes as well, again with
ance with their family situation. For example, this
considerable success.
measure would permit a woman researcher’s career
to evolve with the age of her children: from working
In Germany, career advice is provided to women at
more from home at the start to spending more time
early and intermediate stages in their research in the laboratory later on.
career, as well as leadership training for potential
promotions (e.g. the European programme “Encour-
However, it needs to be taken into account that fam-
agement to Advance”, administered by CEWS26).
ily care obligations can lead to gendered age
discrimination, with women being penalised for tak-
In Greece, a DVD was recently produced depicting the
ing time off to raise a family. Taking into account
lives of five woman researchers. The aim was to the ‘academic age’ instead of the biological age can
page 32
chapter 3
mitigate this effect. This measure would also benefi t
men who wish to take paternal leave.
Study on work-life balance in Europe
Although France has historically offered extensive
Other measures need to target the assumptions held
childcare support to working mothers, it has signi-
about men and women and their availability and
fi cantly higher levels of work-life confl ict than in
commitment to science. In Germany it became a con-
Finland and Norway, which have similar extensive
cern in academic institutions that a lack of
childcare support. A recent study reveals that the
work-life-balance may also hinder men from being
domestic division of labour is relatively traditional
recruited into research if dual careers are discouraged.
in France, and that this is associated with higher
Some institutions pay attention to work-life balance
levels of work-life confl ict.
because a lack of women in science means not only
Source: http://asj.sagepub.com/cgi/content/
an effi ciency defi cit but also an excellence defi cit, los-
abstract/49/4/379
ing the potential for innovation from the best talents
– independently of their sex, who will leave research
Better childcare and maternal leave:
institutions and switch over to industry or the public
do they encourage or discourage
service. Measures, however, tend to be used to target
women in following academic careers?
the mothers, completely ignoring the fathers, and
Two contrasting views:
more practical measures like childcare, adequate time
1. Generous policies in terms of maternal leave and
policies – including the scheduling of meetings and
support (as in Norway) encourage women to stay
leadership expectations – are rarely implemented.
in a research career track. It is quite common to
interrupt a PhD course to have a baby or two, and
a quick return to work is made possible by the ex-
3.3 Good research practices to
cellent childcare facilities that are available.
However, there is an alternative view, that this policy
benefi t women – and men:
is too ‘soft’.
Measures to promote gender equality
2. A generous maternal leave policy means that
as part of quality management
many women make a break in their research career
in their 20s, and this (a) makes it hard for them to
resume that career, since the fi eld will have moved
Quality management can concern quality of deci-
on without them and they will have a lot of re-lear-
sions (regarding procedures, appointments) as well
ning to do; (b) provides an opportunity for women,
as quality at the institutional level. If gender equality
during maternity leave, to consider other kinds of
is acknowledged as a quality in itself, and as a factor
career, outside academia. As a result, many never
promoting quality in research and teaching, then
return to the world of research and teaching.
quality management should promote (and include)
gender equality.
Americans tend to present the latter argument: in
the USA, maternal leave and job guarantees are
General principles to ensure quality are transparency,
very limited, the workplace is more competitive,
clarity and accessibility – in the selection of candi-
and women are not so distracted by the pressures
dates for a position, in the funding of projects, as well
of the family (perhaps because they are less likely
as in the regular publication of criteria and proce-
to have a family at all). They do not drift away from
dures, and results such as success rates or application
research. As a consequence, there is a better gen-
rates (see Box on Swiss good practice). Regular review
der balance (see Box on Better gender balance for
of evaluation procedures is also important (see Box
professors in the US, at the end of 3.4).
on Swedish peer review studies). Such principles are
favourable for both women and men.
Examples of measures in the area of quality manage-
In Finland most universities and some funding
ment are target agreements, equality plans with
institutions have established formal equality plans
quantifi able goals and indicators for success and
amongst their quality management measures.
output-oriented funding decisions for institutions
Unfortunately these do not generally include quan-
(such as recruitment goals, as used in Sweden).
tifi able goals or clear indicators for success.
page 33
chapter 3
Gender bias in peer review:
Meta-analysis of gender equality:
Swedish studies
Women less successful in applying
The Wennerås and Wold study concerning awards of for research funds
post-doctoral fellowships of biomedicine found that A meta-analysis of 21 studies carried out by Zurich
women researchers had to publish twice as much in researchers (Bornmann et al) showed that among
order to receive the same score as men. Also, men and
grant applicants men have statistically greater odds
women who were not known by any committee mem-
of receiving grants than women by about 7%.
ber had to publish twice as much in order to receive Source: Bornmann, Lutz (2007). Bias cut. Nature 445
the same score as those who were known by at least (I February) 566.
one committee member. Unknown women thus suffe-
http://arxiv.org/ftp/math/papers/0701/0701537.pdf
red from a double handicap.
see also http://www.ethlife.ethz.ch/articles/news/
Wennerås, C. & Wold, A. (1997). Nepotism and Sexism
genderbias.html
in Peer-Review’. Nature 387 (22 May) 341-43.
Good Practice in UK for women in SET
A recent study by the Swedish Research Council showed
The Athena Project has established The Athena SWAN
mostly equal success rates for women and men, but Charter which is a recognition scheme for UK univer-
higher success rates for men than for women in the sities and their science, engineering and technology
case of fellowships for postdocs abroad and for most
(SET) departments. It aims to assist the recruitment,
of the grant types in the fi eld of medicine.
retention and progression of women in SET. The award
Gustafsson, G., Jacobsson, C. & Glynn, C. (2007). A ques-
winners have produced case studies.
tion of balance. Nature, 449 (17 October) 944. Jacobsson,
(Source: http://www.athenaproject.org.uk/
C. Glynn, C. & Lundberg, E. (2007). Equality between
casestudies.htm)
men and women in Swedish research funding? – The UK Resource Centre for Women in SET has deve-
An analysis of the Swedish Research Council’s fi rst
loped a unique tool to analyse workplace culture. It is
years (2003-2005). Report from the Swedish Research
a questionnaire designed to assess the factors identi-
Council.
fi ed to be important in gender equality. The attributes
assessed are both the ‘hard’ tangible and the ‘soft’,
Swiss good practice
more intangible factors that contribute to the under-
The annual reports of the Swiss National Science lying, often unspoken, workplace cultures.
Foundation use sex-disaggregated data for submitted/
http://www.setwomenresource.org.uk/
accepted proposals, success rates, etc.
advice_services/employers/expertise_services/
http://www.snf.ch/SiteCollectionDocuments/
organisational_culture
por_fac_sta_jb06_d.pdf
It is most important that the leadership of an organi-
3.4 Changing policy: Measures
sation is positive regarding gender equality – both in
word and deed. A passive, or even worse, passively
to promote gender equality in
negative leader can ruin almost any well-meant gen-
setting policy
der equality measure. In addition, the staff of an
institution need to be sensitised regarding the issue
of gender equality. Regular training, especially for
There are several possible measures to actively
persons responsible for appointment or funding address equality as a policy goal in science. These
decisions, can help reach this goal.
include offi cial declarations on gender equality as
an integrated part of research, made by important
As the avoidance of gender bias is part of the quality
players in the scientifi c community, with especially
of research, and gender studies and research centres
good results if stated by infl uential men. Here, the
are important in identifying, and increasing awareness
European Commission itself is a good example,
about gender bias, gender studies and centres are where its recommendations trickle down into insti-
therefore an integral part of quality management.
tutions and infl uence decisions. European Union
page 34
chapter 3
member states are also positively infl uenced by
policy decisions made at the European level.
Gender budgeting in Norway
In Norway, government ministries have a statutory
To gain acceptance and commitment, gender equal-
requirement to carry out a gender-budgeting exer-
ity has to be understood as an integral part of
cise. The University of Oslo has adopted this policy,
excellence in research. This has been the core idea
and a working group was set up to look at the dis-
of the strategy of gender mainstreaming, gender
tribution of funds (between male and female staff)
budgeting and gender assessments. First and fore-
within selected faculties. The main task will be to
most, it has to be pursued by committed leaders in
evaluate, from an equal opportunities point of view,
science, be they in formal leadership positions or
the plans and budgets of the university, with the aim
highly regarded peers exerting power. Good policy
of initiating corrective action where necessary to en-
in research means considering the effect of gender
sure a fair and effective use of resources. The com-
on effi ciency and scientifi c excellence.
mittee, led by the vice-rector, includes members with
expertise in equal opportunities, personnel manage-
Networks of women scientists have been identifi ed
ment, fi nance, planning, and faculty leadership.
as key players in the research policy process, not
only for being instrumental in the empowerment of
Gender impact assessment in Spain
women scientists, but also in the efforts to increase
New legislation has been introduced on applying
the number of women scientists in top positions,
gender equality in all aspects of life, thereby affec-
and to make the voice of women scientists heard in
ting higher education institutions and establishing
the policy debate on a national, regional and inter-
the need to assess gender impact periodically for
national level.27 The European Platform of Women
all plans of special economic, social, cultural or
Scientists EPWS was established in November 2005
artistic relevance.
as an umbrella organisation of networks of women
scientists and networks promoting women scien-
Promoting scientifi c excellence
tists, and it currently represents over 10 000 women
through good policy
scientists from all disciplines across Europe28.
The German Fraunhofer institutes, funded by the
federal government’s BMBF, established the project
Depending on the institutional structure of science
‘Discover Gender’ in which researchers can quickly
policies in the various countries, Women and Science
test whether they should consider gender in their
units in the ministries responsible for research may
work. Findings about voice recognition software,
also play a role. In Spain, for example, the Women
which had been designed for men only and thus li-
and Science Unit in the Ministry of Education and
mited its market potential severely, serve as good
Science aims at identifying the obstacles and biases
examples for gender policies in science. It has shown
preventing women academics and researchers from
the importance of paying attention to these aspects
reaching the positions that correspond to their ability
at an early stage of projects and product planning,
and worth. The activities include implementing meas-
to avoid cost increase in later stages. However, such
ures that promote women in science, gender studies
examples tend to be limited to applied sciences,
in universities, gender awareness and the gender
which allow researchers in the humanities as well as
perspective in research.
in basic research in the natural sciences, or in medi-
cine, to reject the relevance of gender to their work.
Equal Opportunities Offensive
In 2006, an alliance of seven top scientifi c organisa-
tions in Germany (Science Council, German Research
Foundation, Max Planck Society, et al) launched the
‘Equal Opportunities Offensive’, committing them-
selves to considerably increase the participation of
women in research, especially in the institutions, to
monitor progress and to evaluate the results.
http://www.wissenschaftsrat.de/texte/
chgleich_all.pdf
page 35
chapter 3
Norwegian Committee for Mainstreaming When Research Works for Women:
Women in Science
Australian Study
In February 2007, the Committee published a Green A 2005 study undertaken by Monash University investi-
Paper on Women in Research with recommendations gated those factors that support or impede women’s re-
for further gender equality work in the research sector
search productivity. Interviews with top female resear-
and summarises the recent developments in gender chers at the university produced a number of positive
balance and gender equality work in academia. It views
factors including having effective mentors and supervi-
the EU Recommendation on a Charter and Code of sors in the early stages of their careers, fl exibility in the
Conduct for Researchers and the ERA-MORE web por-
workplace, family friendly work units, and moderate
tal and network of mobility centres as positive for the
involvement in administrative duties.
recruitment of women researchers. It also suggests that
http://www.adm.monash.edu.au/sss/equity-diversity/
the Ministry of Education and Research offer economic
wlas/when-research-works.html
rewards to institutions that hire women as associate
professors and professors.
Better gender balance for professors
in the US
Recommendations for Research Councils According to the American Association of University
from the NORFACE Report on Best
Professors Faculty Gender Equity Indicators 2006 re-
Practice in Promotion of Gender
port, women made up 24 percent of full professors at
all institutions nationwide in 2005-2006. But they only
• Research councils need to have equal opportunities comprise 19 percent of full professors at doctoral uni-
policies, practices and action plans. If not they will versities. Tenured female faculty at baccalaureate and
tend to rely on tried and tested methods that en-
master’s degree institutions averaged 29 percent and
hance the status quo.
28 percent of the total faculty, respectively.
AAUP: Women Professors Lag in Tenure, Salary. Banerji,
• New council members should be trained in issues Shilpa. Diverse: Issues in Higher Education, 11/16/2006,
relating to gender (such as peculiarities of women’s Vol. 23 Issue 20, p27-27. The article provides informa-
career tracks, possible measures to increase gender tion on the report, AAUP Faculty Gender Equity Indica-
equality).
tors 2006, from the American Association of University
Professors.
• Research councils should increase transparency by
monitoring at every stage in the evaluation process.
‘Womenomics’
A recent article in the Finance and economics section
• Women should be included in all gate-keeping posi-
of The Economist stated that “if more women were in
tions. This can more easily be achieved by relying on
paid work, the world could be much richer”. The ob-
comprehensive databanks for women scientists.
servation was made that “where the gap between male
and female employment rates is small, women tend
• The membership of boards and review panels should
to have more babies. The reason seems to be that in
change frequently as new scientists are required for countries where taxes on second earners are high or
the review process.
affordable child care is hard to fi nd, women must often
choose between children and work … Where second
NORFACE, Contract No ERA-CT-2003-510205, Delivera-
earners are not penalised by taxes or where child care
ble 3.3, 24.3.2006, Report on Best Practice in Promo-
is cheap (or subsidised), they can have both.”
tion of Gender
The Economist, April 21st 2007, “Economics focus,
Womenomics revisited”.
page 36
chapter 3
Are things changing for the better?
Good News 1
Good News 2
Woman as new head of European
First female rector in 152 years
Science Foundation
Pharmacy Professor Heidi Wunderli-
The European Science Foundation
Allenspach was recently elected, as
recen tly named University of Helsinki’s
the fi rst woman, to be rector of the
Marja Makarow as its Chief Executive,
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology.
making her the fi rst woman to take the
She is only the second female rector
top post in the science organisation’s
of a Swiss university.
33-year history.
http://www.sl.ethz.ch/people/
http://www.helsinki.fi /en/index/
wunderli
uutiset/P_358.html
Swiss house Singapore, European Higher Education Fair 2007.
page 37
chapter 4
Conclusions and Recommendations
This report has looked at the facts and fi gures, list-
the good design of national and organisational
ed the existing problems and the arguments for
policies that are supported with adequate
change, and examined a number of possible meas-
resources, and are properly implemented, mon-
ures aimed at advancing the position of women in
itored and constantly improved;
research – thereby contributing to equality and
quality in the fi eld. The conclusions drawn from the
• the national governments need to make sure
above fi ndings, as well as the resulting recommen-
that high-level commitments to equality are
dations, are summarised here under fi ve headings.
known in the scientifi c community and that they
are implemented;
From inertia to awareness and commitment
• the EU, national governments, funding bodies,
research institutions and universities, including
Commitment to the promotion of women must be
each department, should demand, develop,
anchored at the topmost political and institutional
implement and monitor action plans to advance
level. Failing that, all suggestions for changes at
gender equality in research, including concrete
the national level will tend to be ignored, or result
measures to support women in research as well
in enormous delays in their implementation. Here
as research on gender;
the European Commission’s role is of paramount
importance, given the fact that it has the attention
• there should be training of new leaders, includ-
of national governments and their agencies.
ing committee or board members, on the gender
aspects of their work. It cannot be taken for
What we need is less ideology, a clear acknowledg-
granted that people already know all they need
ment of where we are, and a sincere and manifest
to know, and can effectively resist pervasive
commitment, particularly among leaders in science,
gender stereotypes.
to the goal of equality - for the benefi t of quality.
There is widespread ignorance and denial of the
And, in order to enhance the visibility of women
problem of gender inequality in science, which is
in science, so that they would be regarded as can-
resulting in extremely slow change.
didates for top positions:
Therefore,
• the EU as well as the national governments should
• national governments, as well as research institu-
fund networks, and support programmes to
tions and the science community deserve, and
increase public awareness of the gender issue,
will profi t from, clear messages and stronger
e.g. through advertising campaigns, compilation
commitment from the EU. This should include
of informative materials, providing the media with
fl agging discrimination where it occurs, in order
special training on gender and science;
to end the belief that gender is the difference that
makes no difference;
• having high-profi le prizes and especially women
winning prizes, having visible gender balance at
• the EU needs to encourage, following the con-
conferences.
sensus recorded in EU documents and strategies,
page 38
chapter 4
From imbalance to balance
From opacity to transparency
Women are under-represented in practically all
Funding, promotion and nomination procedures
decision-making bodies, and at the professor/
lack transparency, and this lack tends to disad-
Grade A level in general, and have less access to
vantage women, particularly in nominations to
decision-making positions than men. More bal-
top positions in science, as well as scientists who
anced decision-making is important in the do not fi t the dominant image of ‘the scientist’.
assessment of quality of work, including peer-
Therefore, the scientifi c community should:
review, hiring and appointment decisions, and
selection procedures for leadership, as well as in
• commit itself to establish and implement stand-
funding decisions. Therefore, the scientifi c commu-
ardised, transparent procedures with clear
nity, and regulators and policy-makers should
quality criteria in selection and appointment
processes and quality assessment, in order to
• make reasonable gender balance (30% or 40%,
avoid any bias or subtle discrimination;
perhaps progressive over time, and refl ecting the
pool of qualifi ed people) mandatory in deci-
• since publicity is part of transparency, publicly
sion-making settings, such as committees, boards
advertise positions, and use external represen-
(especially high-profi le bodies), defi ning clear
tation to combat gender imbalance; in selection
quantifi able targets for all levels of a career in
committees, publicise criteria, success rates,
science, to enlarge the pool of qualifi ed women
evaluation reports, etc;
and men for top positions in science;
• intensify dialogue between men and women
• take measures to enable both men and women in
about bias in the scientifi c system and promot-
research to pursue a scientifi c career with an
ing an anti-discrimination culture.
adequate work-life balance, by providing suffi -
cient child care facilities and assessing, and
eventually changing, time-policies and time-cul-
From inequality to quality
tures in scientifi c organisations, tackling negative
images of working mothers and promoting active
This report points out that equality is part of quality in
fatherhood, which would allow science to move
science. Therefore, the scientifi c community should:
away from the image of a scientist without family
responsibilities and needs;
• take measures to systematically introduce the
gender perspective in human resource develop-
• monitor the balance: in particular, the EU should
ment and in future research. It is important because
systematically collect data on member states as
a gender perspective would bring out the subtle
well as on its own programmes, including the
and hidden mechanisms that prevent women from
European Research Council, regarding the
developing academic careers on equal terms and
progress made in reaching the goals set for gen-
would facilitate deeper changes in the structure
der balance in science, and should require actors
and organisation of the academic structures, much
to justify imbalances and suggest appropriate
needed for the development of women’s careers;
measures.
• train decision-makers, which often includes peers,
to avoid gender bias;
• understand the interconnectedness of gender stud-
ies and gender equality in the scientifi c world, to
systematically eradicate gender bias both in
research as well as in recruitment, appointment
and promotion procedures, since quality, innova-
tion and excellence are enriched by different views
of diverse staff, and the quality of research depends
upon the inclusion of gender aspects (excellence:
no quality without equality).
page 39
chapter 4
From ignorance to knowledge
• systematically evaluate gender policies, making
We already have clear data on the imbalances regard-
any data showing the existence of discriminatory
ing gender in the world of science but this data must
practices readily available to the public and widely
be consistently updated, assessed and put to use.
disseminated;
However, additional knowledge is needed on the
impact of measures, using qualitative data as well as
• at the highest level in research policy, be it the EU
quantifi able and verifi able indicators. Therefore, the
or the member state or a board, constantly moni-
scientifi c community should:
tor the gender balance, and declare that non-balance
must be justifi ed; the measures implemented need
• collect adequate sex-disaggregated statistics on
to be monitored (with a list of the countries);
gender imbalance in science, on all applications
and allocations of research grants, research • recommend that all institutions provide informa-
projects, including success rates, and positions,
tion on positions, age, gender balance, income (on
as well as resources for research; these should be
their websites). Such information could also be
regularly provided and they should be made
added to the criteria for international evaluations.
public;
• ensure that the data are comparable across
And fi nally, from complacency to urgency
the EU;
There is a clear risk that European science is falling
• calculate the cost of losing women in science;
behind. The potential of our women in research is
under-utilised, young people are staying away from
• support research on gender bias in science, e.g.
science. The European Research Area needs women
evaluation of evaluation procedures, committee
and the young. So we must act now.
and conference practices, family structures;
page 40
End Notes
1. Norwegian Committee for Mainstreaming – Women in
16. www.cews.org
Science, 2004.
17. CEWS-Sonderauswertung:
Retrospektive Verlaufsanalyse von
2. http://ec.europa.eu/research/science-society/pdf/
Karriereverläufen in den Geisteswissenschaften (for BLK).
she_figures_2006_en.pdf
18. Empfehlungen zur Chancengleichheit von Wissenschaft-
3. Faculty of Social Sciences of the University of Ljubljana
lerinnen und Wissenschaftlern. Wissenschaftsrat 2007,
(Luthar and Šadl 2002).
p. 13/14.
4. On
17.02.1999, the Commission adopted a Communication
http://www.wissenschaftsrat.de/texte/8036-07.pdf
(COM(1999) 76 Final) in which, among other commitments,
19. http://ec.europa.eu/eracareers/pdf/final_report.pdf, Table
it undertook to develop a coherent approach towards
13 – the average weighted total yearly salary of researchers
promoting women in research, financed by the European
in EU25 and Associated Countries, per gender and country
Communities, with the aim of significantly increasing the
(2006, all currencies in terms of PPS, N=6110), p.49.
number of women involved in research during the period of
20. European Commission (2006): Women in Science and Tech-
the Fifth Framework Programme. The Commission’s stated
nology - the Business Perspective. EUR 22065 EN. p.19-25.
aim was to achieve at least a 40% representation of women
21. http://ec.europa.eu/eracareers/pdf/
in Marie Curie scholarships, advisory groups, assessment
am509774CEE_EN_E4.pdf
panels and monitoring panels.
22. See CEWS, HWP portal.
5. Sala,
Renata/
Bosisio, Roberta (2007): The role of formal
23. CEWS (2006), Kurzexpertise zum Themenfeld Frauen in
and informal rules in Italian academics’ career. Are there
Wissenschaft und Forschung, Bonn, p. 14.
equal opportunities for men and women? In: Siemienska,
24. http://www.cus.ch/wEnglisch/beitraege/chancenglei-
Renata/ Zimmer, Annette (eds): Career trajectories in aca-
chheit/index.php Universities utilise Module 1 of the Fede-
demia in cross-national perspective. Warsaw 2007.
ral Programme for Gender Equality at Universities (that also
6. Empfehlungen zur Chancengleichheit von Wissenschaftle-
includes mentoring and childcare modules).
rinnen und Wissenschaftlern. Wissenschaftsrat 2007, S. 25.
European Commission (2006): Women in Science and Tech-
http://www.wissenschaftsrat.de/texte/8036-07.pdf
nology - the Business Perspective. EUR 22065 EN. p.19-25.
7. Heintz, Bettina (2003) in: Wobbe, Theresa (ed.), Zwischen
25. http://eument-net.gendercampus.ch/default.aspx
Vorderbühne und Hinterbühne. Beiträge zum Wandel der
26. http://www.cews.org/cews/index.php
Geschlechterbeziehungen in der Wissenschaft vom 17.
27. Women and Science: Networking the Networks. Declaration
Jahrhundert bis zur Gegenwart, Bielefeld.
of Networks Active in Europe, 1999:
8. Allmendinger, Jutta/ Podsiadlowski, Astrid (2001) in: Heintz,
ftp://ftp.cordis.europa.eu/pub/improving/docs/
Bettina (ed.), Geschlechtersoziologie, Sonderheft der KZfSS,
women_dec.pdf
Wiesbaden.
http://ec.europa.eu/research/science-society/pdf/
9. Allmendinger, Jutta/ Hackman, Richard (1999), ‘The more
women-sc-net-guide_en.pdf
the better? On the Inclusion of Women in Professional
28. www.epws.org
Organisations’, Social Forces 74.
10. Majcher, Agniezska/ Zimmer, Annette (2004) in: Becker,
Ruth/ Kortendieck, Beate (eds.), Handbuch Frauen- und
Geschlechterforschung, Wiesbaden.
11. http://www.itas.fzk.de/tatup/022/doeg02a.pdf
http://www.ruendal.de/aim/pdfs/Meuser.pdf
12. http://ec.europa.eu/research/science-society/women/
wssi/publications_en.html
13. A publication with sex-disaggregated data (2005-2006)
on academic and leading positions is expected by the end
of 2007.
14. See EPSRC Annual Report, p.49
http://www.epsrc.ac.uk/CMSWeb/Downloads/
Publications/Corporate/AnnualReportAccounts0607.pdf
and page 4 of the BBSRC Annual Report: http://www.bbsrc.
ac.uk/about/pub/policy/bbsrc_annual_06_07.pdf
15. http://erc.europa.eu/pdf/erc-scc-press-release-2007-10-
01_en.pdf
http://erc.europa.eu/pdf/erc-stg-statistics-stage1-
20071001_en.pdf
page 41
Annex
Country-specifi c overviews
Note: These informative overviews have been compiled by the members of the WIRDEM working
group to refl ect their countries of origin, and as such should not be seen as offi cial national reports.
exclusive identifi cation with science. Men, especially
BELGIUM
French Community
among the 45-50-year-old leaders, consider their
activity far removed from the concerns of everyday
There are two ways to reach an academic position in
life. Society sees the care of children and home-life
Belgium (French Community): the FNRS [Fonds
organization as the role of women. The consequence
National de la Recherche Scientifi que] (research) path-
is that women do not have enough time to apply for
way or the academic pathway. The highest position
top positions, do research, write publications in jour-
through the FNRS pathway is Research Director, and in
nals with high impact value, acquire funding and
the academic pathway the top position is ‘professeur
manage their research team – since it is all on top of
ordinaire’. To gain an academic position, both research
their family duties. This situation in research is
and teaching are required. The criteria are excellence
accepted without any real refl ection, perhaps due to
in research and an appropriate Curriculum Vitae and
the thinking that men and women have equal pos-
the decision is made by committee. Research is funded
sibilities for working in research since this type of
from various sources, including European Funds,
work is by defi nition ‘neutral’. There is also a fear
Federal State (Pole d’Attraction Interuniversitaire –
surrounding gender studies, which are viewed as
PAI), Regions (Walloon, Brussels-Capital and Flemish
‘non-scientifi c studies’. Fortunately, the situation is
Regions), Universities (Concerted Research Actions),
evolving and the gap will probably be less marked
funds for scientifi c research (FNRS) and industries.
with the new generations.
Although the proportion of women amongst PhD
In science, men’s and women’s research interests do
holders is around 55% (this percentage is higher in
not overlap completely. Thus if we have an inequal-
Belgium as compared to the situation in Europe), the
ity between men and women we lose in terms of
proportion of women in the top professorships in
variety. The type of research activity preferred by
Belgium is similar to that in Europe – i.e. around
women is also different than that of men. Women
15%. As regards the decision-making boards, the
generally prefer laboratories belonging to academic
representation of women ranges from 29% to 7% on
excellence networks whereas men are more present
research councils and FNRS commissions. The suc-
in socio-economic oriented laboratories. The fi eld of
cess rate for funding applications is approximately
research chosen can also tend to be different.
the same for women as for men.
Although there are many women interested in a pure
formal theory, on average, women seem more inter-
The culture of research includes a male model of
ested in ‘soft’ fi elds. At a glance, compared to men,
practice, characterized by full-time devotion, and
the activities of women are characterized by a
page 42
Annex
greater sensitivity to a disinterested quest for truth,
l’injustifi able ou justifi er l’inexplicable.
involvement in the concerns of everyday life, and
Refl ets et Perspectives, XLIII, 95-107.
see research work ultimately as a collective activity.
It is therefore necessary to promote the openness
• Scheepers S. (2007) Discourses on diversity in the
and completeness of the scientifi c endeavour. The
Belgian and Flemish public sector. Leading the
issue is not merely fairness towards women but a
future of the public sector. The third transatlantic
responsibility of our society to give everyone the
dialogue, Delaware, USA. Workshop 2: Diverse
means to reach this objective.
leaders and leading, a diverse workforce.
In Belgium, there have been a number of positive
• MIT, Massachussetts Institute of Technology (1999)
actions including the creation of the position of a
A study on the Status of Women Faculty in Science
Minister “chargé de la politique d’égalité des chances
at MIT.
entre hommes et femmes” since 1992; creation of
“Institut pour l’égalité des femmes et des hommes en
• Réponse au questionnaire sur la mise en œuvre
2002”. This is a step towards equality (www.iefh.fgov.
du programme d’action de Beijing (1995) et
be) and the missions are clearly defi ned. A multi-
des textes issus de la vingt-troisième session
disciplinary journal called Sextant has been published
extraordinaire de l’assemblée générale (2000).
by the Groupe interdisciplinaire d’Etudes sur les
Belgique (2004) pp. 1-25.
Femmes of the Université Libre de Bruxelles since
1993. Sextant aims to diffuse the results of academic
• Toren, N (2000) Hurdles in the Halls of Science,
research in women and gender studies in Belgium
Lexington books, Lanham, Maryland.
and elsewhere (http://calenda.revues.org/nouv-
elle6443.html). One of Belgium’s major universities
• Direction de l’égalité des chances du Ministère
from the French community (Université Catholique
de la Communauté française. Priorités, missions,
de Louvain) has introduced programmes that include
activités et perspectives de travail.
gender courses (http://www.ucl.ac.be/etudes/2006/
Novembre 2001-Décembre 2002, pp. 1-53.
cours/en/demo3450.html), and encourages an envi-
ronment where both men and women can evolve
• Actualités CFFB. Rapport de l’assemblée générale
their career by moving between research, teaching
extraordinare du 26 janvier 2006, pp. 1-20.
and administration. An additional positive action is
the creation of the Sophia network (www.sophia.be),
• European Union-Supported Research in Social
which sets up links between researchers who work
Sciences and Humanities (1998-2005), pp. 1-200.
in university and other centres, and links the wom-
en’s movement with the scientifi c and academic
• http://www.univ-paris8.fr/RING/activites/
spheres, also providing general information about
rencontres.euro.06.html
women and gender in Belgium.
• http://www.sophia.be/scripts/dossiers/
Compiled by Marie-Paule Mingeot-Leclercq
• http://www.bwf.at
Bibliography
• http://www.ieth.fgov.be: Institut pour l’égalité
• de Henau, J. et Meulders, D. (2003) Alma Mater,
des femmes et des hommes: Rapport d’activités
Homo sapiens? Quel genre pour la recherche
(2004-2005) et Institut pour l’égalité des femmes
universitaire, Brussels Economic Series, Editions
et des hommes. Femmes et hommes en Belgique.
du DULBEA, Bruxelles, 220.
Statistiques et indicateurs de genre (2006).
• Marage, P., Meulders, D., Mosconi, N. (2003)
• http://www1.fnrs.be/
Accessibilité, Egalité, Mixité, Les cahiers du
CeDop, ULB, pp. 1-37.
• http://statistiques.wallonie.be: Institut wallon de
l’évaluation de la prospective et de la statistique.
• Meulders D., Plasman, R. et Rycx F. (2005)
Femmes et homes en Wallonie; portrait
Les inégalité salariales de genre: expliquer
statistique, égalité (2005).
page 43
Annex
The Estonian Research and Development and
ESTONIA
Innovation Strategy for 2007-2013, titled “KNOW-
LEDGE-BASED ESTONIA”, is a document of 49 pages.
The Ministry of Education and Research is respon-
However, a search of the document for the words
sible for the organization of Estonian research and
‘gender’ or ‘equality’ gave no results. A search for
education policy. Although Estonia has fully adopt-
the keyword “woman” yielded 2 hits:
ed the European Union acquis under the research
1) …The proportion of women researchers is 43.1%,
chapter, the European Charter for Researchers that
which in the European Union is bigger only in Latvia,
is recommended to all member states has not been
Lithuania and Portugal (p.17), and 2) “Women and
implemented as regards gender equality in the
men will be ensured equal opportunities in their
research decision making bodies. Namely, the Char-
research careers (Measure 1. Development of human
ter (section concerning gender balance states: capital; p. 25). The fi rst statement on the high per-
“Employers and/or funders should aim for a repre-
centage of women researchers is rather a refl ection
sentative gender balance at all levels of staff,
of the relatively low salaries of (female) scientists in
including at the supervisory and managerial level.
Estonia, and in several other post-communist coun-
This should be achieved on the basis of an equal
tries (see this report). The latter statement on ensuring
opportunity policy at recruitment and at the subse-
equal opportunities is an empty one since no quan-
quent career stages without, however, taking titative steps are foreseen. Thus, in this strategy there
precedence over quality and competence criteria.
are no serious efforts planned regarding gender
To ensure equal treatment, selection and evalua-
equality issues.
tion committees should have an adequate gender
balance”. This Charter has even been translated into
As mentioned above, the proportion of women
Estonian but no undersigning organisation from
researchers in Estonia is 43.1%. However, the report
Estonia is reported by the EC researcher’s mobility
of the Science Competence Council on targeted
portal (in contrast to, for example, Lithuania), and,
funding projects (2003-2006) shows that although
as mentioned above, it has not been implemented in
there is a relatively equal number of women and
the research decision making bodies, where there is
men as members of the projects, project leaders are
a dramatic under-representation of women.
mainly men (79%). This tendency is continuing as
among 34 new funded projects (starting in 2007)
Institutions advising the Ministry of Education in
there were 30 men and 4 women among the project
research and educational issues include the Esto-
leaders.
nian Academy of Sciences (amongst 57 full members
there is only 1 woman, Professor Ene Ergma) and
Statistical analysis of the Faculty of Biology and
the Research Competency Council (TKN), with
Geography at the University of Tartu (a research
9 men and no women. The Council of the Estonian
area that should theoretically contain equally men
Science Foundation (ETF), which supports research
and women researchers, as opposed to physics
projects through the allocation of grants, contains
(traditionally more males) or language or educa-
6 men and 1 woman. In addition, the Research and
tional sciences (traditionally more females) showed
Development Council (TAN) (12 members, all men)
the clear under-representation of women in the top
advises the Government on strategic issues in the
positions. In 2006, this Faculty had about 300 aca-
fi eld of research and development, thereby direct-
demic personnel (46% women), including 145 with
ing the systematic development of the national
PhD or equivalent (31% women). However, all
Research&Development and Innovation system.
24 Chairs of this Faculty were held by men. In 2005
Currently, 75% of Estonian research funding is dis-
and 2006, a total of 36 PhD degrees were defended
tributed by the Ministry of Education and Research
in this faculty: 20 women and 16 men. Given that
via the Research Competency Council (TKN) and
these young post-docs would like to continue their
25% by Estonian Science Foundation.
research career in this Faculty, then, for young male
post-docs, there is a high probability of ending up
Thus, as of October 2007, the four most infl uential
as senior research scientist, followed by a good
decision making bodies concerning the funding of
probability of becoming a full professor. However,
Estonian research and science were composed of
for the young female post-docs, it is more probable
almost 100% men.
that they will work as research scientists (on the
page 44
Annex
same salary level with MSc level scientists) or at
Bibliography
even lower-paid positions.
• Ministry of Education and Research of Estonia;
When comparing this gender pyramid with the sal-
http://www.hm.ee/
ary rules and average salaries of academic personnel
at the University of Tartu in 2006, a direct correla-
• European Charter for Researchers
tion can be observed: the lower the salary, the more
(Euroopa Harta teadlastele);
women. Moreover, there was a discrepancy even
http://ec.europa.eu/eracareers/pdf/kina21620b1c_
on the same qualifi cation level: women full profes-
et.pdf
sors got 11% less compared to male full professors,
female docents or senior research scientists 9% less,
• Estonian Academy of Sciences;
female lecturers or research scientists 3% less http://www.akadeemia.ee/en/
because the minimum offi cial salary set by the insti-
tution could be increased to a certain extent by the
• Research Competency Council (TKN);
head of the institution/unit. This is quite common
http://www.hm.ee/index.php?045153
for all such institutions in Estonia.
• Estonian Science Foundation (ETF);
The origin of this gender unequality and potential
http://www.etf.ee
solutions for restoring gender equality may be
found in the analysis of the decision-making and
• Research and Development Council (TAN);
advisory structures. The election rules, the criteria
http://www.riigikantselei.ee/?id=3706
for the selection of Board members and the proce-
dures of the funding organs must be transparent,
• KNOWLEDGE-BASED ESTONIA.
strictly followed and should be available on the
Estonian Research and Development and
websites (including the number of women/men
Innovation
Strategy, 2007-2013;
who applied). If gender balance in decision making
http://www.hm.ee/index.php?0&popup=download
bodies is not achievable (for example, there are no
&id=5961
qualifi ed men or women in the specifi c area), it
must be justifi ed.
• Report of the Science Competence Council on
Targeted Funding of Science in Estonia during
Since the Estonian Research and Development and
2003-2006;
Innovation Strategy for the years 2007-2013 essen-
http://www.hm.ee/index.php?popup=download&id
tially does not consider gender equality issues, and
=5073
women are strongly under-represented, or do not
exist at all, on the current Boards that take the cru-
• Structure of the Faculty of Biology & Geography
cial decisions on science funding, it seems that
of Tartu University in 2006;
considerable European Commission pressure is
http://www.ut.ee/3463
(assessed in June 2007).
needed to introduce gender equality to the scien-
tifi c world in Estonia.
• Salary rules of Tartu University;
http://www.ut.ee/orb.aw/class=fi le/action=preview/
To end on a positive note, there are some winds of
id=38136/xx1.htm
change, such as taking into account parental leave
(and military service) in the evaluation of the eligi-
• Statistics on salaries in Tartu University as by 2006
bility of applicants for Estonian Science Foundation
(incl gender-wise);
grants since 2006, and targeted research funding
http://www.ut.ee/rahandus/statistika/palk
grants since 2007.
(no longer on the website but downloaded
and assessed in June 2007).
Compiled by Anne Kahru
• Sihtasutuse Eesti Teadusfond juhend grantide
taotlemiseks 2007. aastaks, 17.04.2006 (in Estonian);
http://www.etf.ee/fi les/13/Juhend_2007.pdf
page 45
Annex
dates and their names and reports are public
FINLAND
documents. Many universities have established
(gender) equality plans, which are supposed to be
The role of women in Finnish universities and the
applied in appointment procedures.
academic community in general can be considered
to be relatively strong, compared with other Euro-
The Academy of Finland was the fi rst major aca-
pean countries. The share of female professors in
demic institution in Finland to establish a formal
universities has risen considerably: it was 22% in
equality plan in 2002. The main principles through
2005 – the highest among the non-post-communist
which gender equality is promoted are: Research
EU countries. The even higher proportions of Councils are required to make every effort that the
women in Romania, Latvia, and Turkey may be
underrepresented gender occupies at least 40% of
explained with a reference to the low salary levels
research positions, but not at the cost of scholarly
among academics and the low esteem of academic
quality; it is explicitly required that preference be
occupations.
given to the underrepresented gender when the
applicants are equally competent. Concrete meas-
In the research funding agencies, effective meas-
ures in the Equality Plan include encouraging
ures have been taken to promote women’s women to apply, an extension of the funding peri-
academic careers. This can also be seen from the
od and/or additional funding corresponding to
figures. The percentage of female members in
parental leave, grants raised by 20% for researchers
Research Councils at the Academy of Finland is 47
working abroad and having under-age children,
(2006, cf 48 in Norway, 47 in Sweden, 35 in Den-
with the principle that acceptable absences due to
mark, and fi gures between 7 and 33 in other EU
family life should not have a negative impact on
countries). The high number can be explained
the granting of funding, and a strong recommen-
with the reference to the quota principle intro-
dation that RCs should appoint equal numbers of
duced with an amendment to the Finnish Act on
women and men to serve as peers to evaluate
Equality between Women and Men in 1995. Gen-
applications.
der quotas have since been applied in all
government committees, advisory boards, working
In Finland it is generally believed that equality
groups and other corresponding bodies for prepa-
measures should promote the reconciliation of
ration, planning, and decision-making as well as
work and family life and thereby be advantageous
municipal bodies, excluding municipal councils
for both women and men. It has been argued,
elected in elections. The gender quotas (40/60)
however, that generous maternal leave policies
have increased the women’s share in committees
work against the target of increasing the propor-
to 43 per cent.
tion of women in senior academic positions, since
they encourage women to drop out of and not to
The situation is, however, far from satisfactory,
stay in the academic community. It should be noted
even in Finland. The glass ceiling phenomenon is
that male researchers are also encouraged to take
easy to recognize. The proportion of women advantage of parental leave. The situation might,
among the lower academic teaching positions is
however, be changing with the younger generation.
around fi fty, and the same goes with the number
of female PhD graduates (49% in 2003). There is of
It is a widely shared view in Finland that academic
course more pressure to increase the number of
gender equality is primarily an issue of morality
women in higher academic decision making positions
and justice. Equal access for both genders to the
when more and more women enter the academic job
key positions in academic decision-making greatly
market. However, it is generally recognized that the
promotes the fl ourishing of intellectual capabilities
natural development is not suffi cient, but positive
of both men and women, and it is a crucial ele-
measures are needed to support women’s academic
ment in social justice that each and every citizen
careers.
has a genuine opportunity to a fl ourishing life that
consists in the free development of her or his capa-
The appointment procedures of professors in Fin-
bilities. This perspective of fairness should be
land are relatively complicated but also transparent.
taken into account in the organization of both fam-
External referees are invited to assess the candi-
ily and working life. A hierarchic division of
page 46
Annex
functions in academic institutions according to
FRANCE
gender roles is plainly unjust. It can also be argued
that more women as decision-makers indirectly
improve the quality of men’s life and the develop-
Generally speaking, there is a (slow) movement
ment of their capabilities.
towards more gender equality in France, that is
perhaps most visible in politics. The situation of
Compiled by Juha Sihvola
working women in France is reasonably favourable,
with good child-care and relatively high activity
rates for women. Around 2000, there was strong
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support for equality in research with the creation
of a number of specifi c support structures. In 2007,
• Academy of Finland, Equality Plan 2005-2007,
however, the enthusiasm has weakened and the
http://www.aka.fi
movement has slowed down.
• Husu, Liisa, Sexism, Support and Survival in
The French public research system employs nearly
Academia. Academic Women and Hidden
93 600 researchers (equivalent full time), 32% of
Discrimination in Finland, Helsinki: Department
whom are women. This includes universities,
of Social Psychology, University of Helsinki 2001.
mainly public, and research organisations. Perma-
nent researchers and teachers are civil servants
• Husu, Liisa, Gate-keeping, Gender Equality and
and are recruited by competition (‘concours’). By
Scientifi c Excellence, in: Gender Excellence in the
law, this procedure must be totally confi dential,
Making, Brussels: European Commission, 69-76.
which is an obstacle to transparency and account-
ability.
• Husu, Liisa, Women’s Work-related and Family-
related Discrimination and Support in Academia,
In the university, to reach Grade A positions, one
in: M. Segal and V. Demos (ed.) Gender Realities
must pass a ‘Habilitation’, then have it recognized
– Local and Global, Amsterdam: Elsevier (2005)
by a national selection committee and fi nally be
pp. 161-199.
selected by a local committee. Elections are taking
place to renew the national committee in 2007; no
• Husu, Liisa, Women and Universities in Finland:
mention is made of gender balance in the decree
Paradoxes in the Paradise of Gender Equality, in:
organizing this. In the main research organisation,
M.A. Danowitz Sagoria (ed.) Women, Universities,
CNRS, candidates to Grade A level are selected by
and Change. Gender Equality in the European
a selection committee whose advice is generally
Union and the United States, New York: Palgrave
followed by the Director of the organisation. The
MacMillan 2006.
committee has 40 main disciplinary sections: three
of their presidents are women. A law on profes-
• Kantola, Johanna, Mykät, kuurot ja kadotetut.
sional equality between women and men forbids
Sukupuolten tasa-arvo Helsingin yliopiston
any discrimination and requires a balanced com-
valtio-opin laitoksella (The deaf, the dumb and
position of selection committees in the civil
the damned. Gender equality at the University
service. However, in the decree of application,
of Helsinki Political Science Department), Acta
higher education and research are exempted
Politica 29, Helsinki: University of Helsinki 2005.
from having to balance their committees. The new
law on research passed in 2006 calls for “a bal-
• She Figures 2006. Women and Science.
anced representation of men and women” in all
Statistics and Indicators, Brussels:
committees. It also created a new agency centralising
European Commission.
most funding. Directorial positions within it are not
well balanced, though a woman is at the head. So far,
• University of Helsinki Equality Plan,
it does not publish gendered success rates.
http://www.helsinki.fi /henkos/tasa-arvo/
equality_plan.pdf
page 47
Annex
The glass ceiling index in France is 2.0 (EU-25
Bibliography
average 2.1). The situation in the research organ-
isations is more favourable to women than in the
• Bilan Social du CNRS;
universities. Women laboratory directors are 2 to
http://www.sg.cnrs.fr/drh/publi/default.
3 times less numerous than in the researcher pop-
htm#bilans
ulation in their fi eld. Data on decision-making
bodies is not easily available, but they include
• Carisey, Martine (2006) Analyse de la participation
24% women. There has been a regular increase on
des femmes aux instances scientifi ques,
evaluation committees, but administrative and
Report to the Mission pour la parité dans
policy structures stagnate since 1999. The propor-
la recherche et l’enseignement supérieur;
tion of women presidents of evaluation committees
http://www.cnrs.fr/mpdf/IMG/pdf/
has gone from 6% in 1984-88 to 15% in 1999-2002
RapportOST20052006parite.pdf
and has not progressed since. There are 10 women
University presidents out of 87.
• Cheveigné, Suzanne de (2002) Parcours de
femmes, Itinéraires masculins (et féminins)
The gender pay gap, for the whole French econo-
au CNRS, Report to La Mission pour la place
my, is 12% (EU-25 average 15%). In public research,
des femmes au CNRS.
salaries are fi xed on an offi cial scale. There are no
pay gaps between men and women if they are in
• Cheveigné, Suzanne de (2008), The Career Paths
the same position with the same seniority. But if
of Women (and Men) in French Research,
women get to positions later than men on aver-
to appear in Social Studies of Science.
age, their salaries will be lower.
• Conseil supérieur de la recherché et de la
Some basic French data is missing from She Fig-
technologie (2007) Rapport relatif au statut
ures 2006, i.e. the proportions of women per fi eld
et aux conditions de travail des jeunes chercheurs
of science, the distribution of R&D personnel. Pay
et des jeunes enseignants-chercheurs;
gaps need more analysis but the most serious
http://www.enseignementsup-recherche.gouv.fr/
point is the lack of funding success data.
conseil/csrt/2007/rapdefi nitifchantierjc.pdf
The conscience of a gender problem is clearly
• Crance, Michèle & Suzy Ramanana-Rahary (2006)
missing in France. Researchers, men and women,
La recherche scientifi que française: les ensei-
commonly say they are not aware of any discrimi-
gnants-chercheurs et les chercheurs des EPST,
nation. Offi cial reports do not take up the question.
Paris: Observatoire des sciences et techniques;
A Senate report on human resources management
http://www.obs-ost.fr/doc_attach/Rapport_
in research organisations did not mention gender,
Chercheurs_29nov2006.pdf
nor did a National Assembly report preparing for
the new law. A Cour des Comptes report on life
• Crompton, Rosemary and Clare Lyonette (2006)
sciences discusses the problems of young research-
Work-Life ‘Balance’ in Europe, Acta Sociologica
ers but does not mention the fact that this is one
Vol 49(4): 379–393.
of the disciplines where the glass ceiling is the
most oppressive.
• Haut Conseil de la Science et de la Technologie
(2007) Avis sur la désaffection des jeunes pour
CNRS’s Mission for the Place of Women is an
les études scientifi ques supérieures;
example of good practice. It has fi nanced high
http://www.hcst.fr/download.php?lng=fr
quality research on the history of women in the
CNRS, on career problems, on evaluation pro-
• Hermann, Claudine & Françoise Picq (2005)
cesses to understand the mechanisms that handicap
Les femmes dans l’enseignement supérieur et la
women (and men). A new structure which fi ghts
recherche publique, report to the Comité de pilotage
all types of discrimination, in all areas, appears to
pour l’égal accès des femmes et des hommes aux
be promising.
emplois supérieurs des fonctions publiques;
http://www.anef.org/telechargement/
Compiled by Suzanne de Cheveigné
FemmesEnseignementSuperieur.pdf
page 48
Annex
• Kaspi, André & Girolamo Ramunni (Eds) (2004)
GERMANY
Les Femmes dans l’histoire du CNRS
Paris: CNRS – Mission pour la place des femmes
et Comité pour l’Histoire du CNRS.
The higher education (HE) system is dominated
by public universities and universities of applied
• Le Pors, Anicet & Françoise Milewski (2005)
sciences, and they depend primarily on public
Vouloir l’égalité,Troisième rapport du Comité
funding. Both are governed by federal and state
de pilotage pour l’égal accès des femmes et des
law and by internal regulations, and govern them-
hommes aux emplois supérieurs des fonctions
selves through committees and a professional
publiques, Paris: La Documentation française.
presidency or rectorate.
• Marry, Catherine (2005) Enquête sur les promo-
As to research bodies, 4 publicly funded grand
tions CR-DR dans une section des sciences de la
‘societies’ oversee 65,000 staff and a 6 bn € budget.
vie du CNRS, Report to La Mission pour la place
The German Research Foundation (DFG) adminis-
des femmes au CNRS, Unpublished.
ters 1.4 bn € of primarily public research funds. In
2005, the influential advisory Science Council
• Ministère de l’enseignement suérieur et de la
(WR) and the DFG set up an excellence competi-
recherché (2005), Etat des lieux : les femmes
tion for large lump sums (total 1.9 bn €) for
dans la recherche;
research clusters and structural modifi cations in
http://media.education.gouv.fr/fi le/
universities.
91/1/20911.pdf
The Federal Ministry for Education and Research
• Observatoire de l’emploi scientifi que, L’état
is in charge of research policies and funding, while
des lieux de l’emploi scientifi que en France;
the states pass HE regulations, including HE equal-
http://media.education.gouv.fr/fi le/10/8/7108.pdf
ity laws. These require women’s or equal
opportunities representatives on university and
department levels and allow for equal opportuni-
ties target plans, which are binding instruments to
prescribe detailed measures, defi ne quantitative
goals, and install an incentive and sanction system.
Professors are lifelong civil servants with pensions
upon retirement (age 65 at present), earning € 4,723
per month in top positions (W3) and € 3,405 in
junior positions (W1), with additions based on job
offers from other institutions. Additional incentive
bonus payments may also impact on the pension.
Since 1989, the Federal Statistical Offi ce and, par-
ticularly, the Bund-Länder Commission for
Educational Planning and Research Promotion
(BLK, a body of federal and state governments)
have collected sex disaggregated data on the rep-
resentation of women in different stages of
academic careers and at each step of appointment
procedures for professorships. Data is missing on
equal pay for work of equal value, especially with
regard to primes and extra equipment for profes-
sors, and on gendered success rates regarding
grants. However, all available data show clear
signs of vertical and horizontal gender segrega-
tion, particularly an under-representation of
women in leading positions in science.
page 49
Annex
Since 2000, the federal government officially Bibliography
embraces gender mainstreaming, yet activities are
rather limited. In research, gender equality has
• Allianz der Forschungsgemeinschaften (2006)
been defi ned to serve excellence, both in content
Offensive für Chancengleichheit von
or methodology, and in staff, as full use of poten-
Wissenschaftlerinnen und Wissenschaftlern,
tials, tying in with a recent orientation of
29.11.2006;
universities towards business strategies. Equal
http:// www.wissenschaftsrat.de/texte/chgleich_
opportunities form part of special development
all.pdf
programmes for HE and research. The 2001-06
programme provided € 30 mill p.a. for measures
• Allmendinger, Jutta/ Hinz, T. (2002)
to qualify women for professorships, support gen-
“Programmierte Ungleichheit.
der research and motivate women for natural
Geschlechtsspezifi sche Chancen bei der
sciences and engineering.
Bewilligung von Forschungsanträgen”,
Zeitschrift für Soziologie, 33/4, 275-293.
The alliance of top scientifi c bodies has embraced
the issue in an “Offensive towards Equal Opportun-
• Baaken, Uschi/ Plöger, Lydia, eds. (2002) Gender
ities” in 2006. WR and BLK recommendations are
Mainstreaming. Konzepte und Strategien zur
important material for equal opportunities offi cers,
Implementierung an Hochschulen. Bielefeld: Kleine.
yet of limited infl uence in the scientifi c community.
The WR’s 1998 recommendations on equal opportu-
• BLK (2006) Frauen in Führungspositionen
nities for women in science and research, reinforced
an Hochschulen und außerhochschulischen
in 2007, were perceived as groundbreaking, also
Forschungseinrichtungen, 10. Fortschreibung
for research institutions, yet peers often remain
des Datenmaterials;
unaffected. There is a university ranking based on
http://www.blk-bonn.de/papers/heft136.pdf
gender justice criteria (CEWS, 2005) which could
help to bind actors to their commitments.
• Bührer, Susanne et al. (2006) Gender-Aspekte
in der Forschung. Wie können Gender-Aspekte
Policy discussions often focus on work-life balance.
in Forschungsvorhaben erkannt und bewertet
Audit awards provide incentives for family-friendly
werden?, München: Fraunhofer IRB-Verlag.
work conditions, and in quality assessments relating
productivity to age, the DFG has started to consider
• CEWS (2005) “Hochschulranking nach
‘academic age’ instead of the actual age of applicants,
Gleichstellungsaspekten - 1. Fortschreibung”,
discounting child care periods with regard to age
Cews.publik.no7;
limits, and dropping all age limits for research
http://www.cews.org/cews/fi les/306/de/CEWS_
grants. Quotas have been successful in some
Gleichstellungsranking2005.pdf
instances but remain contested; men still dominate
upper positions in science.
• CEWS (2006) Kurzexpertise Frauen in
Wissenschaft und Forschung;
Quality management (QM) as such is desired, but
http://www.bosch-stiftung.de/content/language1/
not a standard. Attempts include the use of incen-
downloads/Publikation.pdf
tives, such as the presence of women in the
academy as an indicator of quality, in university
• Page, Julie/Leemann, Regula Julia, eds. (2000)
budgeting rules and in contractual governance, i.e.
Karriere von Akademikerinnen. Bedeutung
contracts between the state and universities or
des Mentoring als Instrument der Nachwuchs-
between different university bodies.
förderung. Bern: BBW-Schriftenreihe.
Compiled by Barbara Hartung and Susanne Baer
• Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft (2006) Bedarfsgerechte
Lösungen für Nutzerinnen und Nutzer:
Gender-Aspekte in der Forschung;
http://www.fraunhofer.de/fhg/Images/FhG_
Gender_Projekt_12_Seiten_tcm5-56413.pdf
page 50
Annex
• Heintz, Bettina/ Merz, Martina/ Schumacher,
Hochschule im Reformprozess. Eine Festschrift
Christina (2004) Wissenschaft, die Grenzen
für Doris Knab, Tübingen: edition diskord,
schafft: Geschlechterkonstellationen im
pp. 70-75.
disziplinären Vergleich, Bielefeld: transcript.
• Vogel, Ulrike/ Hinz, Christiana (2003)
• Helmholtz-Gemeinschaft Deutscher
“Karrieren von Wissenschaftlerinnen
Forschungszentren (2005) Fair ist mehr:
und Wissenschaftlern an der Hochschule –
gleiche Chancen für Männer und Frauen in der
Ein Bericht über eine qualitative Studie”,
Helmholtz-Gemeinschaft, Bonn;
Zeitschrift für Frauenforschung und
http://www.helmholtz.de
/Downloads/3_
Geschlechterstudien, vol. 21, no. 1, 23-38.
Publikationen_und_Bibliotheken/ Detailseite_
Publikation/Fair_ist_mehr_
• Wissenschaftsrat (1998) Empfehlungen zur
Chancengleichheit.pdf
Chancengleichheit von Frauen in Wissenschaft
und Forschung, Drs 3534/98, Mainz, 15.5.1998.
• Hochschulrektorenkonferenz - HRK (2006)
Empfehlung des 209. Plenums der HRK vom
• Wissenschaftsrat (2007) Empfehlungen zur
14.11.2006 – Frauen fördern: Empfehlungen
Chancengleichheit von Frauen in Wissenschaft
zur Verwirklichung von Chancengleichheit im
und Forschung, Drs. 8036-07 Berlin, 13. Juli 2007.
Hochschulbereich; http://www.hrk.de/de/
download/dateien/Empfehlung_Frauen.pdf
• Zimmermann, Karin (2000) Spiele mit der Macht
in der Wissenschaft: Passfähigkeit und Geschlecht
• Kahlert, Heike (2003): Gender Mainstreaming
als Kriterien von Berufungen, Berlin: ed. sigma.
an Hochschulen. Anleitung zum
qualitätsbewussten Handeln. Opladen:
Leske + Budrich.
• Krimmer, Holger; Zimmer, Annette (2003):
Karrierewege von Professorinnen an
Hochschulen in Deutschland, Zeitschrift für
Frauenforschung und Geschlechterstudien,
vol 21, issue 4, 18-33.
• Matthies, Hildegard et al., eds., (2003)
Gleichstellung in der Forschung.
Organisationspraktiken und politische
Strategien. Berlin: edition sigma.
• Merz, Martina/Schumacher, Christina (2004)
Wissenschaft, die Grenzen schafft: Geschlechter
konstellationen im disziplinären Vergleich,
Bielefeld: transcript.
• Metz-Göckel, Sigrid/Kamphans, Marion (2002)
Gender Mainstreaming in Hochschulleitungen
von NRW. Mit gebremstem Schwung und alter
Skepsis: Gespräche mit der Hochschulleitung,
Dortmund.
• Siegele, Ulrich (1998) “Frauenförderung und
männliche Identität”, in: Diemer, Susanne/
Kirsch-Auwärter, Edit/ Philipps, Sigrid (eds.),
Gleichstellung und Institution: Schule und
page 51
Annex
positive image of women working in male dominated
GREECE
jobs), a photo exhibition on the image of researchers
in Greece since 1920 and further studies on this issue.
The General Secretariat for Research and Technology
Within the dynamism created by PERIKTIONI a
(GSRT) supervises the 19 national Research Centres.
National Association of University Women was found-
The Minister nominates the members of the National
ed and the already existing Greek Women’s
Research and Technology Council (currently com-
Engineering Association (EDEM) was further mobi-
posed of 63 men and 2 women), which designs
lised. As a direct impact there is pressure to include in
national policies, evaluates candidates for top posi-
the coming Law on Research the need for gender bal-
tions in research centres and appoints peer reviewers.
ance in research decision-making bodies. EU funding
The Ministry of Education funds research in Univer-
was crucial for launching and implementing the
sities and Technological Education Institutions project as only minimal administrative infrastructures
through open calls for proposals. From 2000-2006
had been allocated to the project (i.e. no specifi c unit
there were 1406 research projects co-funded by the
or post has been established for gender equality in
European Social Fund (ESF).
research). There is therefore no guarantee that when
EU funding runs out (2008) the activities of Periktioni
The heads and staff of universities and research insti-
project will continue.
tutes are elected by their peers after public calls.
Males dominate in higher levels and they tend to
2. The Ministry of Education allocated a ring-fenced
reproduce this domination. Cultural aspects are also
budget for research on gender related topics.
important, thus preventing women of equal qualifi -
A total amount of 4.475.000 Euros was spent on
cation from advancing in professional research 37 research projects in Greek universities. Almost all
careers and sustaining gender stereotypes such as
the project leaders were women. This made it pos-
that the top level “hard” science and technology posi-
sible to launch research on gender issues that until
tions are for men while women are more fi t for life
then had been regarded as ‘secondary’ priorities, if
sciences. This in turn reinforces gendered dichoto-
indeed they were seen as scientifi c at all. Thematic
mies. From the scarce data on women in research
areas such as gender and migration, women in
decision-making it is concluded (19 universities) that
research and other gender-related areas became for
in 2003-2004 there were 14% women among profes-
the fi rst time research topics. This allocation of spe-
sors, 26% among associate professors, 32% among
cifi c funding for gender research has had the indirect
assistant professors and 39% among lecturers (The-
effect of upgrading women researchers in the uni-
fylis project). In the period 1994-1999, there were
versities, at a time when evaluation schemes are
514 women leaders for 5,103 research projects co-
being introduced under the recent legal reform of
funded by ESF. The GSRT is currently collecting
higher education.
more data on women scientists by fi eld of science
and in top positions in research institutes and uni-
Measures that should be taken urgently in Greece
versities, as well on Masters in gender studies.
are: (a) The evaluation process for publicly funded
research projects should include positive action
There are no positive measures for achieving equal-
measures in favour of women, like extra bonuses for
ity in research and technology except for the women researchers, the encouragement of women
regulation prescribing that all nominated public
to apply for funding and to participate in peer review
committees should include representation of at least
panels, research committees, etc. (b) GSRT must
1/3 women, or men; however the enforcement of
develop a comprehensive action plan for gender
this regulation is almost nonexistent. The following
equality in research and technology through legisla-
policy initiatives could be mentioned:
tion, positive action, gender mainstreaming and
other gender equality policy tools, incentives for
1. The PERIKTIONI network of women scientists
research on gender, etc. Evaluation and selection
created at the initiative of two female civil servants in
mechanisms should become more meritocratic and
the GSRT as a result of EU activities on ‘Women in
less “political”. Academic and research institutions
Science’. The network was part of a project that also
should also introduce similar action plans.
included a production of audiovisual material on
women researchers (one 16-minute DVD creating a
Compiled by Maria Stratigaki
page 52
Annex
Bibliography
–
Conclusions and Key Findings from papers
submitted to the Conference The State of
• National Centre for Social Research (EKKE),
Women Academics in Greek University Faculty
(2001), Research on the women’s participation
and Gender Policies in Universities, Research
in scientifi c research in Greece, (Research team:
Report, THEFYLIS Project, University of Athens
Afroditi Teperoglou, Laoura Maratou-Alipranti,
Publications, Vol. 2, No. 12, 2004.
Ioanna Tsiganou, Maria Ketsetzopoulou)
–
The Women Faculty Members of the University
(in Greek).
of Athens, Research Report, THEFYLIS Project,
University of Athens Publications, Vol. 6,
• Ministry of Development, General Secretariat
No. 10, 2006.
for Research and Technology (GSRT), (2002),
National Report on Women in Science,
• University of Athens research project, Career
(Research team: Laoura Maratou-Alipranti,
Paths in the Professional Development of Women
Kalliroi Dafna, Leda Giannakopoulou,
Academics: The Role of Gender as a Career
Zografi a Kymberi, Paraskevi Repa) (in Greek).
Setting Criterion for Women Students and
Faculty, (Research Team: Bessy Dendrinou,
• Greek Women’s Engineering Association
Christine Vlachoutsikou, Liopi Abatzi, Lydia
(EDEM) publications:
Vaiou). Publications:
–
Research about the professional and occupa-
–
Gendered Institutions: Women’s Presence
tional status of women engineers in Greece,
at the University of Athens, paper presented
Research by MRB Hellas with the contribution
at the International Conference: Women and
of Technical Chamber of Greece & EDEM, 2003.
Citizenship in a Local/Global World, Athens,
–
Creating cultures of success for women
June 2005.
Engineers – WOMENG,
–
Women’s Careers at the University of Athens:
EU Publications Offi ce, 2006.
Dilemmas and Strategies, paper presented at
–
Investigation of causes for the low attraction
the 3rd International Conference on Inter-
of female students in the Technical Universities
disciplinary Education, Athens, March 2007.
and for the slow development of women in
–
Women’s Academic Careers at the University
engineering careers, Conference Education,
of Athens, poster presentation at the 5th
Research & Technology organized by the
European Conference on Gender Equality
National Technical University of Athens,
in Higher Education, Berlin, August 2007.
Metsovo, September 2007.
–
Women’s Careers at the University of Athens:
–
Tackling stereotypes- Maximizing the potential
Dilemmas and Strategies, paper presented
of women in SET, WITEC, Barcelona, 2006.
at the Education and Gender Movement
Conference of the Association of Greek
• University of Athens THEFYLIS project:
Women Scientists, October 2006.
Research on the distribution of men and women
academics in Greek universities: Horizontal and
• University of Ioannina Research project
vertical gender segregation of the academic staff.
Women’s Careers in Education: social obstacles
(Research Team: Stella Vosniadou,
and personal strategies. (Research Team:
Bessy Dendrinou, Lydia Vaiou). Publications:
Eleni Maragoudaki, Vasso Kantzara, Eleni
–
The State of Women Academics in Greek
Sianou-Kirgiou, Sidiroula Ziogou). Publications:
University Faculty, in Pavlidou T-S (ed.),
–
The mapping of gendered accessibility and
Gender Studies: Trends and Issues in Greece
distribution in the four designated positions
and Other European Countries, 2006,
of hierarchy in Hellenic Universities, paper
Zitis Publications, Athens, Greece.
presented at the Education and Gender
–
Organizations, Initiatives and Projects for
Movement, conference of the Association
Promoting Gender Equality in University
of Greek Women Scientists, October 2006.
Faculty Members, Research Report, THEFYLIS
–
Gender and Academic Career in the Hellenic
Project, University of Athens Publications,
Universities, paper presented at the Interna-
Vol. 1, No. 11, 2004.
tional Conference: Women and Citizenship
in a Local/Global World, Athens, June 2007.
page 53
Annex
The University of Oslo has produced statistics com-
NORWAY
paring salaries of men and women in equivalent
positions. Differences seem to be negligible. The
There is an acute awareness that, although for
current project on gender budgeting is looking more
20 years there have been roughly equal numbers
closely into the possible existence of a ‘gender pay
of women and men gaining degrees in Norway,
gap’, and investigating whether men and women
and in spite of the steps taken to encourage the
fare equally well in local pay negotiations.
advancement of highly qualifi ed women, still they
are not playing a commensurate role in decision-
The world’s fi rst gender-balanced university? Sev-
making in the universities.
eral years ago, the University of Oslo, perhaps rashly,
set out its aim of becoming the world’s fi rst gender-
A report on women in science by the Research
balanced university by 2011. ‘Gender balance’ meant,
Council of Norway recommended the setting up
in fact, not balance of numbers, but a thorough
of a committee to promote sexual equality in this
awareness of gender issues within the day-to-day
area. Accordingly, the Norwegian Ministry of Edu-
running of the university, and an integration of gen-
cation and Research founded the Committee for
der-fair policies into every faculty’s strategic thinking
Mainstreaming – Women in Science in 2004. It is
and planning.
clearly recognised that inequality of the sexes in
research is an important issue and that steps need
Headhunting, or calling for female candidates for a
to be taken to rectify the situation.
post: the aim is specifi cally to look for qualifi ed
female candidates for a senior position. It is recog-
Research in Norway is carried out in publicly
nised that women tend not to be so thoroughly
funded universities and colleges, which still receive
‘networked’ as men and so are more diffi cult to trace.
a majority of research funding through their core
At NTNU in Trondheim, search committees have
budget, but also in state research institutions and
been used very successfully to ‘find’ qualified
private research institutions. The main national
women.
funding body is the Norwegian Research Council
(Norges forskningsråd, NFR), which channels one-
The appointment process in the Norwegian univer-
third of the money allocated by the government to
sity system can be tortuous and slow, but is
research.
apparently fair and transparent. The department
leader advises the faculty concerning membership of
Research Council funding applications are judged
the appointment committee; this consists of 3 peo-
by anonymous peer review. It is possible that an
ple, at least one of whom should be female. They
‘old boy network’ tends to operate, and decisions
are chosen as experts (at least one from abroad) and
on funding are made not just on grounds of scien-
do not have a close connection with the department.
tifi c merit; but statistics for receipt of national
It is clearly stated in the job-advertisement that: ‘If
grants suggest that women are not disadvantaged.
two or more of the applicants are considered to have
Research on this is inconclusive. It is true, how-
equal qualifi cations a female applicant will have pri-
ever, that women tend to be in areas of research
ority before a male.’ The report from the committee
which are less well funded, for instance within the
is sent to the department and faculty (and is also
humanities and social sciences, rather than in
seen by the candidates). Candidates at the top of the
technical research fi elds where men dominate.
list are normally called for interview. Affi rmative
action of the radical variety (appointing a woman
In 2006, the ratio of women was lowest among
who is less well qualifi ed than a male applicant for
professors (16%) and highest among lecturers at
the job) is not allowed, but if two candidates are
colleges of higher education, of whom two-thirds
equally qualifi ed, the less represented sex may be
are women. 40% of those awarded PhDs in 2005
favoured.
were women – but the proportion varied between
18% and 60%, depending on faculty. It is offi cial gov-
Gender-budgeting; a committee has been set up at
ernment policy that all state enterprises should have
the University of Oslo to look at the distribution of
40% female representation on their boards. The Uni-
funds (between male and female staff ) within
versity of Oslo currently meets that requirement.
selected faculties. The main task is to evaluate, from
page 54
Annex
an equal opportunities point of view, the plans and
• Article on the gender imbalance among those
budgets of the university, with the aim of initiating
receiving Outstanding Young Investigator awards
corrective action where necessary to ensure a fair
from the Norwegian Research Council.
and effective use of resources.
http://kvinneriforskning.no/english/magazine/
outstanding.html
Economic incentives to Departments: About 350K€
(2.8 million kroner) per year is available (as matched
• Report of the Committee for
funding) to support at the departmental level projects
Mainstreaming – Women in Science.
involving existing female staff at the University of
http://kvinneriforskning.no/english/committee/
Oslo (e.g. paying travel costs, expanding research
KIF_report.pdf
activities, paying for support staff). This pot of
money also supports the mentor programme, as well
• Information & Resources on Gender Equality
as meetings for school leavers to encourage more
& Gender Research in Norway.
female students to apply to faculties such as engi-
http://www.gender.no/
neering and mathematics where women are
seriously under-represented.
• Gender equality co-operation in the Nordic
region.
Compiled by Andrew Collins with assistance
http://www.norden.org/gender/uk/index.asp?lang=6
from Anna Vibeke Lorentzen, University of Oslo
• Report on Gender budgeting.
http://www.admin.uio.no/opa/likestilling/rapport_
Bibliography
likestillingsvurdering.doc
• Statistics related to gender equality in Norway.
http://www.ssb.no/english/subjects/00/02/10/
likestilling_en/
• Information Centre for Gender Research
in Norway.
http://kilden.forskningsradet.no/c17224/artikkel/
vis.html?tid=17282
• This resource bank is initiated by the Committee
for Mainstreaming – Women in Science in
Norway. It aims to be a tool for gender equality
work in the academic sector. It includes statistics,
literature, list of measures and best practises.
http://kvinneriforskning.no/english/
• Representation of women on company boards
etc. – in Norwegian.
http://www.regjeringen.no/en/dep/bld/Topics/andre/
Balanced-gender-representation-on-compan/
Kjonnsbalanse-i-styrer.html?id=439465
• Norwegian Equal Pay Commission.
http://www.likelonn.no/in-english.72942.no.html
page 55
Annex
equality is concerned. At the national level, wom-
PORTUGAL
en’s issues are slowly entering the political
vocabulary, but a realistic leadership commitment
Publicly funded research in Portugal is conducted
to equality in general, and to equality in scientifi c
primarily within universities by academics and
decision making in particular, is still absent. By
their students, and the vast majority of research
and large the situation is perceived as being
laboratories are also physically located within the
acceptable from a women’s point of view, when
university premises. State laboratories attached to
comparisons are made with other European Union
different ministries (health, agriculture, industrial
member states.
manufacture, construction, veterinary, fi sheries,
etc.) complement the structure. Very few research
The result is that leading science organisations, such
laboratories exist outside this system, but a growing
as the most prominent scientifi c societies and the
number of industrial enterprises have initiated a steady
national Science Academy, very seldom address the
effort in innovation that resulted in some form of
issue of women representation. Local non-govern-
applied research being conducted in their premises.
mental organizations, such as AMONET – Portuguese
Association of Women Scientists – with the mis-
The responsible actors in the research system are in
sion, among other things, to draw attention to and
the fi rst place the state political leaders, drawn
propose corrective measures for the women scien-
largely from the academic elites. Seldom do we see
tists issue are a recent phenomena, the impact of
industrial leaders involved in the research process-
which is still to be felt. Pan-European umbrella
es evaluation. Industry is often rather remote from
organizations such as the European Platform of
the universities, though this situation appears also
European Scientists may provide a powerful voice
to be changing as industrial and economic devel-
for national women scientists’ organizations,
opment takes place. Resources are provided to the
through networking and good practices.
system essentially by governmental agencies.
Setting goals with quantifi able and verifi able indi-
From a cultural point of view it appears that the
cators may give an objective scale against which
presence of women in positions of leadership is
progress can be measured. Comparison among
generally well accepted in the country, a clear
countries is also useful and an incentive for the
exception being the political arena. Only during
least ‘advanced’ to keep pace with the more
August 2006 was a parity law of women’s represen-
‘advanced’ ones. The EU statistics on this issue are
tation of 33% approved by the Portuguese of the greatest importance. Appraisal of gender
Parliament. In fact the existing statistics for Portugal
equity should become systematic in all scientifi c
point towards a sizable number of women in the
evaluation schemes.
topmost jobs in academia (ca. 21%). Women are also
prominent in research positions in state institutes.
All committees, but most importantly, committees
that distribute resources for research, should have
However the percentage of ca. 11% for women in
a ratio of female members (or the least represented
the evaluation panels of research projects continues
sex) of no less than 40%.
to be well below the percentage of women at the
highest ranks of the university structures. More wor-
Compiled by Ana M. Lobo
rying is the fact that the number of scientifi c panels
with no women at all amongst their members has
steadily grown between 2000 and 2004 (the most
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70%. Since these are the committees that are prima-
• Amâncio, L. (2005) Refl ections on science as a
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• Amâncio, L. (2003) Gender and science in
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Annex
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page 57
Annex
The factors that shape the position of women in
ROMANIA
research decision making in Romania could include:
the cultural factor, which results not only in subtle
The majority of research funding in Romania is dis-
discrimination by professional colleagues, but very
tributed via project competitions organized by the
often the self-restriction of women themselves from
National Agency for Scientifi c Research. A national
occupying leading positions; overloading female
Body of Evaluators is used for anonymous and
researchers with family tasks as well as job respon-
objective evaluation of project applications. This
sibilities (time-consuming, less productive tasks,
system, apparently, leaves no room for gender dis-
paperwork, many hours of teaching, routine part of
crimination.
research); the lack of gender awareness in most
educated people and offi cials, research women
The She Figures also refl ects an optimistic view on
included. Gender equality is not considered a pri-
women in Romanian science. 43% of the total ority at any level. An invisible factor is network
researchers and 30% of category A researchers are
infl uence; networks are generally dominated by
female; the Glass Ceiling Index (2004) was the low-
men since they occupy most of the leading posi-
est (1.4) among European countries. These fi gures
tions. A recently introduced practice is to display on
place Romania in the top European positions con-
the university sites the Application Dossiers of the
cerning women with seniority in academia. Let us,
candidates contesting for a higher position, so that
however, look closer at the details.
everybody can compare their professional scores.
This measure may help to counteract the network
Romania is among the countries with the lowest
infl uence.
R&D expenditure in PPS per capita researcher. The
proportion of men doubles when you switch
Suggested measures: creation of a gender database
from grade B to A. (Grade A: 3076 Females, 7508
and monitoring system that is made available (most
Men; Grade B: 82116 females, 8507 Men).The dou-
of the European Commission’s reports concerning
bling of male compared to female professors may
women in science lack gender disaggregated data
be related, among other reasons, to the doubling of
from Romania since these do not exist). These data
the professor’s income (compared to associate
must be present in the annual reports to the EU and
professor) introduced by law in 2004. As any pay-
national funding institutions. The funding of uni-
ment difference for equal positions is excluded by
versities/research institutes must be based, among
law, the lower payment of women, as general,
other factors, on success in achieving gender bal-
comes from the fact that fewer women occupy
ance in top decision making positions. Pressure
high, better paid positions.
from European bodies which monitor the country’s
progress in institutional reforms is necessary in
Nevertheless all the women in decision making
order to carry out these measures.
positions that were interviewd by the compiler of
this overview (see Bibliography) declared that they
A proper way to start a gender debate and to
experienced no gender bias in their career ascen-
increase gender awareness would be to include in
sion. They think that fewer women are in the national priority research programs, the funding
decision-making positions due to lack of self confi -
of projects centered on gathering data concerning
dence and the lack of interest in competing for
women’s participation in decision making positions
positions. The direct consequence of this is also a
and to analyze these data from social and cultural
larger number of male applicants for nationally and
points of view, also proposing solutions to improve
internationally funded projects since the scientifi c
the situation. Gathering data must be accompanied
position of the applicant is a strong argument in
by educational measures to change the mentalities.
project evaluation. Of the 49 state universities in
The debate on this subject must include men.
Romania, only 2 have female Rectors and only 8 of
the 49 Vice Rectors responsible for university scien-
Compiled by Eugenia Kovacs
tifi c research are women.
page 58
Annex
Bibliography
SLOVAKIA
• Oana Balutza: Gender and Power (The lion
part in Romanian politics), 2006, p. 238, Gender
The institutional structure of the Slovak research
Studies series, Polirom Printing House, Yassy.
system is divided into four categories: the univer-
sities (mainly basic research), the Slovak Academy
• Vladimir Pasti: The Ultimate Inequality,
of Sciences (basic and applied research), govern-
2003, p. 268 Gender Studies series,
mental research institutes and private research
Polirom Printing House, Yassy.
institutes (branch and commercial research organ-
isations). Distribution of most fi nancial resources
• She Figures 2006: Women and Science.
for public, mainly basic research is in hands of the
Statistics and Indicators, Brussels: European
Ministry of Education and is done on a competi-
Commission DG Research.
tive basis through three funding bodies: VEGA
(grant agency for science), KEGA (Grant agency
• Annual report on the governmental policy
for culture and education) and the Slovak Research
in the R&D and Innovation fi eld in 2005,
and Development Agency.
by National Authority for Scientifi c Research
(Romanian Government, Ministry of Education
Peer review is the main mechanism in selecting
and Research, www.mct.ro).
projects for funding. Selection has clear rules and
is transparent. However, a gender perspective is
• Gender and Excellence in the Making, European
missing in the whole process.
Commission, DG Research, 2004.
Slovakia has adopted several laws that should
• Science Policies in the European Union,
guarantee equal opportunities for men and women
European Commission, DG Research, 2000.
(particularly the Labour Code and the Anti-Dis-
criminatory Law), however, their enforcement has
• Romanian Constitution.
been ineffi cient and formal. Among about 70 wom-
en’s organisations there are none devoted to the
• Law 202/2002 concerning equal opportunities of
problem of women in research decision making. It
women and men.
has been addressed only vaguely by several indi-
vidual women scientists who have been involved
• Women and Science. Excellence and Innovation
in EU activities (either Helsinki Group, ENWISE or
– Gender Equality in Science, EC DG for
some other EU FP projects). Institutional strate-
Research, 2005.
gies, policies and regulations do not address the
issue of gender equality in research.
• National Policies on Women and Science
in Europe, The Helsinki Group on Women
To summarise: lack of awareness, underestima-
and Science, EC, DG for Research, 2002.
tion or even total denial of the importance of the
equality agenda in the research and funding sys-
• Interviews with Ecaterina Andronescu,
tem is the main problem that has a major impact
Margareta Giurgea, Monica Pop, Iulia Mihail,
on the under-representation of women in deci-
Daniela Ion.
sion-making.
The university educational level among women in
Slovakia has been rising since the end of the
1990s. In 2005, women formed 52.5% of all uni-
versity graduates (in doctoral education women
formed only 46.8%, but the number has been
growing). The proportion of academic staff by
grade in Slovakia in 2004 according to “She Fig-
ures 2006”: Grade A: 13.5% (full professors and
DrSc.), Grade B: 31.5% (associate professors),
page 59
Annex
Grade C: 48.5%, Grade D: 54.3%, with a Total of
data, to monitor and analyse them regularly and
41.1%. From surveys it seems that the glass ceiling
take actions; introduce incentives (fi nancial or
appears in the category of associate professors –
other) for those departments/ faculties/ institutes
transition from associate professor to professor is
that promote female staff and female leadership;
a barrier diffi cult to overcome.
establish equal opportunities committee that helps
to develop policies and to search female candi-
Offi cial statistical data about the number of women
dates for leading positions.
in decision-making management positions are
missing. According to unoffi cial data: 1 female
By peers: promote creating support women net-
rector (out of the rectors of 20 public universities,
works; encourage debates on the importance of
3 state universities and 10 private universities),
gender balance in each committee… and thus to
10 female deans (out of the 93 deans of faculties
raise awareness of the issue.
– members of the Deans’ Club), 2 women in the
Presidium of the Slovak Academy of Sciences (out
Compiled by Alexandra Bitusikova
of 15 members).
The key factors hindering equality in research
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decision making are: gender stereotypes; the low
awareness of gender equality concept, issues,
• Kiczková, Z. Posun skleneného stropu
problems and benefi ts among men and women;
na príklade zastúpenia zˇ ien – u cˇ iteliek a v´y
the absence of national and institutional strategies
skumny ch pracovní cˇ ok na FiF UK. (Glass ceiling
and policies aimed at equal opportunities in
on the example of women teachers
research and research decision making; work and
and researchers at Faculty of Arts of Comenius
family balance and choice and societal/cultural
University.) In: Piscová, M. (ed. 2004) Zˇ
eny
expectations.
vo vede – alebo deravé potrubie? (Women in
Science – or broken pipes?), Bratislava:
The key measures that could be taken to reach
Sociologick´y ústav SAV.
equality in research:
• Kriv ´y , V. Priesum rodov´y ch sˇ ancí v SAV. (Survey
By the EU: sustain pressure on national govern-
on equal opportunities in SAV.) In: Sedova,
ments to address the issues of equal opportunities
T. (2003) Zˇ eny a veda v SAV. (Women and
and gender balance in research and research deci-
Science at Slovak Academy of Sciences.)
sion making; allocate financial resources for
Bratislava: Veda SAV.
programmes and projects aimed at exchange of
experience and good practice in promoting • Piscová, M. (ed. 2004) Zˇ eny vo vede – alebo
women in decision making.
deravé potrubie? (Women in Science – or
broken pipes?) Bratislava: Sociologick´y
By national and state political leaders: introduce
ústav SAV.
measures/ indicators for taking gender equality
into account in evaluation and accreditation pro-
• Sedova, T. (ed. 2003) Zˇ eny a veda v SAV.
cedures; introduce collecting gender-sensitive
(Women and Science at Slovak Academy
statistical data at all levels of higher education and
of Sciences.) Bratislava: Veda SAV.
research institutions; incorporate gender equality
measures into all national HE and research strategic
• Va sˇ ecˇ ka, I. Postavenie zˇ ien - vedeck´y ch pracov-
policies and action plans, establish an independent
nícˇ ok v SAV podl’a vybran´y ch statu-
national expert body (gender mainstreaming in
sov´y ch charakteristík. (Status of women
research) that will develop new policies and will
researchers in SAV.) In: Sedova, T. (2003) Zˇ
eny
monitor the progress.
a veda v SAV. (Women and Science at Slovak
Academy of Sciences.) Bratislava: Veda SAV.
By academic leaders/elites: incorporate equal
opportunities measures into institutional policies
• Annual Report on State of Art in R&D in the
and strategies; collect gender sensitive statistical
Slovak Republic and its Comparison with Other
page 60
Annex
Countries 2005; http://www.minedu.sk/VaT/
SLOVENIA
VDOC/Vyrocna_sprava_2005.doc
• Conception of the State Science and Technical
According to the available data on the EU-25, Slovenia
Policy until 2005;
is usually found somewhere in the ‘transitional mid-
http://www.minedu.sk/VaT/VDOC/vdoc_SVT.htm
dle’.There is comprehensive gender equality
legislation, but the implementation is not vigorous
• Strategy of competitiveness of Slovakia up
enough and the results consequently modest. The
to 2010;
process of integration with the EU built on some
http://www.minedu.sk/VaT/VDOC/vdoc_SVT.htm
previous (socialist system) gender equality policies
and achievements – including also the establish-
• Action Plan for Science, Research and Innovation;
ment of special governmental bodies (such as
http://www.minedu.sk/VaT/VDOC/vdoc_SVT.htm
‘Women in Science’ within the Ministry of Higher
Education, Science and Technology).
• National Programme of Reforms 2006-2008,
Ministry of Education and Science;
Among the most important limiting factors of gen-
http://www.minedu.sk/VaT/VDOC/vdoc_SVT.htm
der equality policy implementation in the fi eld of
research decision-making in Slovenia are: the per-
sisting traditional views of the social roles of
females, the self-limitation of females, the lack of
political will, insuffi cient coordination between
ministries in implementing gender equality policy,
the mass media’s predominant support of tradition-
al views. Previous evaluations of the role of women
in the research fi eld (e.g. She Figures, Enwise report,
Norface report) revealed that in Slovenia there is
still a gender-equality gap.
Although the numbers of female university staff
have increased since the 1990s (e.g. at the Univer-
sity of Ljubljana, from 26% to 38% in 1999), as well
as the proportion of female postgraduate students
(female PhD holders increasing from a pre-2000
average of 26.9% to 42.9% in 2000-2004) this has not
translated into more women at the top in research
decision-making (e.g. 11.1% of full professors are
women, and only 17.2% of council members at Slov-
enian universities and academies are women).
Slovenian issues: a signifi cant amount of public
investment into the education of females is being
lost due to “unused” talents; women entering the
labour market (de-domestication) follow the for-
mula: ‘traditional + new role’ which leads to a
“‘Spartan’ lifestyle”, thus creating unfavourable
social conditions for the creative work of female
researchers also causing a loss of research success
for research organizations; there is a gender pay
gap (on average the gap in researchers’ gross sala-
ries is between 0.7% and 11.7%, the pay gap being
the biggest in case of the highest academic title); in
academic promotion, female researchers sense
page 61
Annex
double deprivation: generational- and gender-
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biased; as research awards tend to ‘avoid’ female
researchers they create an impression of more- and
• Jogan, Maca (2001) Seksizem v vsakdanjem
less-valued research work, related to the gender of
zˇ ivljenju, Ljubljana: Znanstvena knjizˇ nica.
researchers, which does not support a creative cli-
mate; a lack of systematic, publicly available • Jogan, Maca (2006) Zˇ enske v znanosti: od izkl-
gender-sensitive data as well as a lack of transpar-
jucˇ enosti do (popolne) vkljucˇ enosti, cˇ asopis za
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and create informed policy proposals.
• Jogan, Maca (2006a) The Decomposition of Sexism
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in the Second Part of the 20th Century in Slovenia,
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which include the ‘freezing’ of one’s ‘habilitation
• Kanjuo-Mrcˇ ela, Aleksandra (1996) Zˇ enska
period’ during maternity leave; gender-sensitive
v menedzˇ mentu, Ljubljana: Enotnost.
laws, rules and job advertisements (clear indication
of validity for both sexes).
• Kanjuo-Mrcˇ ela, Aleksandra (2000) Spolna
konstrukcija menedzˇ erskih vlog: stekleni organ-
Measures that need to be taken on the national
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level: linking the planned and actual spending on
razprave, Vol. VI, (34-35), pp. 53-78.
research (1.8% in 2006 whereas the Barcelona goal
is 3% of GDP) with the needed gender-sensitive
• Kanjuo-Mrcˇ ela, Aleksandra (2006) The
research policy measures; personal engagement
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that favours the implementation of adopted policies
commissioned by and presented to the EU
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encouraging and supporting collaboration and gen-
• Kump, Sonja (2001) Hierarhicˇ na razmerja mocˇ i na
der equality policy-learning among national
univerzi, Druzˇ boslovne razprave,
research councils; support for multi-level social
Vol. XVII, (37-38), pp 109-115.
networking and programmes involving female
researchers; support for mass media projects for
• Luthar, Breda and Sˇ adl, Zdenka (2002) Skriti
the conscientious promotion of gender equality
traskripti mocˇ i: dominacija in emocije v akadem-
policy and practice (in social life, in politics, in
ski instituciji, Teorija in praksa, Vol. XXXIX, (1),
management and in science); promotion of gender
pp. 170-195.
equality through guidelines and suggestions regard-
ing the criteria for monitoring and evaluation of
• Matelicˇ , Urosˇ , Mali, Franc, Ferligoj, Anusˇ ka (2007)
organizational quality.
Kreativno okolje in uspesˇ nost mladih raziskoval-
cev, Druzˇ boslovne razprave, Vol. XXIII, (55),
Compiled by Danica Fink-Hafner
pp.71-94.
page 62
Annex
• Mladeni c´ , Dunja (2006) Enakost zˇ ensk and
SPAIN
mo sˇ kih v znanosti in raziskovanju: (pri)porocˇ ila
Evropske komisije, Cˇsopis za kritiko znanosti,
domisˇ ljijo in novo antropologijo, Vol. XXXIV,
The Higher Education and Research system in
(224), pp. 142-151.
Spain is a hierarchical structure with heavy infl u-
ence of networking to guarantee the support of
• Mladeni c´ , Dunja, (2006) Enakost zˇ ensk in
peers. The access of women to these informal net-
mo sˇ kih v znanosti in raziskovanju v Sloveniji,
works is problematic for several reasons. Gender
Central European Centre for Women and Youth
bias in selection procedures has been common but
in Science: Ljubljana.
not recognised. This adds to the socialization of
women, which does not encourage them to aspire
• Novak, Polona (2006) Ali zˇ enske v Sloveniji
to positions of power and makes them responsible
prejemajo nizˇ je pla cˇ e od mosˇ kih za enako
for family life, thus undermining their chances to
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focus on their research career. Access to higher posts
znanosti, domisˇ ljijo in novo antropologijo,
of the hierarchy takes a lot of time, effort and support
Vol. XXXIV, (224), pp. 168-181.
for anyone, but women face gender-related obstacles
that make their progress more burdensome.
• Šadl, Zdenka (2006) Iluzija inkluzije.
Znanstvenice v homosocialnem okolju,
The Spanish Higher Education and Research sys-
Cˇ asopis za kritiko znanosti, domisˇ ljijo in novo
tem is mostly public, although in the past decades
antropologijo, Vol. XXXIV, (224), pp.182-194.
a certain degree of decentralization has occurred
and the regional governments have gained some
• Analiza stanja. Podlaga za resolucijo
competencies. The main actor at state level is the
o nacionalnem programu za enake mozˇ nosti
Ministry of Education and Science. Research in
zˇ ensk in mosˇ kih (2005-2013), Vlada Republike
Spain is mostly promoted by the State and regional
Slovenije, Urad za enake mozˇ nosti, Ljubljana,
governments, with public universities as the main
februar 2005.
actors, but there are also other Public Research
Bodies. The Consejo Superior de Investigaciones
• Ministry of the Republic of Slovenia for Higher
Científi cas – CSIC (Spanish National Research Coun-
Education, Science and Technology - a special
cil) is the main public research institution. The top
sub-page on “Women in Science”, accessed at
level for staff within the CSIC is research professor.
http://www.mvzt.si/index.php?id=342&L=
University professors are divided into those with a
• Offi ce for Equal Opportunities, The Government
tenured position and those without. The highest
of the Republic of Slovenia;
degree within tenured positions is full professor-
http://www.vlada.si/?gr1=vldSlz&gr2=uem&gr3=&
ship. The number of positions for full professorship
gr4=&id=&lng=slo
is very limited. Access to decision making posts
within a university is restricted to those with tenured
• Statistical offi ce of the Republic of Slovenia;
contract.
http://www.stat.si
Women enter research in the same or higher pro-
portion as men in the lowest categories (graduate
and postgraduate students, for example), where
entrance is determined by competitive criteria (48%
of PhDs are women), but represent less than 14%
in the category of full professors in universities and
less than 17% public research centres. Only 4% of
university Vice-Chancellors are women.
Access to tenureship and thus decision making
posts can also depend on networking, which is a
male realm so women have more diffi culties in
page 63
Annex
entering the infl uential lobbies, informal in many
Research fellowships now allow one year of mater-
cases, which constitute an important element of
nity leave to women who have had, adopted or
support. The impact of networking can also be
fostered a child during that period. As regards pre-
seen in the pay-gap: although status and salaries
doctoral fellowships, the prestigious FPU (Fellowships
are similar for both sexes, when it comes to the
for the Training of University Professors), awarded
extra activities (lectures, being members of boards,
by the Ministry of Education and Science, offer
advisory committees, etc) it is usually men calling
more fl exible conditions for women who have been
upon their male colleagues.
taking care of children and take into account the
compulsory 16 weeks of maternity leave.
The Equality Act and the University Reform Act
have been recently passed in Spain and these Compiled by Capitolina Diaz
should infl uence and promote the role of women
within higher education. The Unuiversity Reform
Act introduces several measures and approaches
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equality from an integrated point of view. Specifi c
measures include: Gender Equality Units must be
• Alemany Gómez, Carme, Díaz Martínez,
created within the university structures in order to
Capitolina, and Muntañola Thonbert, Eleonora
develop the principle of equality between women
(2005) Los últimos bastiones. ¿Por qué las mujeres
and men; reports on the application of the princi-
están ausentes de los puestos de mayor responsa-
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bilidad de la docencia y de la gestión de la
produced; boards for hiring and promotion proce-
enseñanza superior?, Instituto de la Mujer,
dures and for the scientifi c evaluation of quality in
(Communication not yet published).
research must have a balanced representation of
women and men.
• Carrera Suárez, Isabel, Viñuela Suárez, Laura,
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The creation of the Unidad de Mujeres y Ciencia
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will to improve the situation of women in research.
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The UMYC aims at identifying the obstacles and the
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• (ETAN) Expert Working Group on Women and
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ability and worth. It is also in charge of promoting
Union: Promoting excellence through main-
the development of public measures to improve
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the situation of women.
Research DG;
http://ec.europa.eu/research/science-society/pdf/
The Gender Equality Plan for the National Public
g_wo_etan_en_200101.pdf
Administration states that, in order to promote the
equal access of women to public employment,
• (FECYT) Fundación Española para la Ciencia y la
selection boards must have parity (60/40). The
Tecnología (2007) Mujer y Ciencia. La situación
Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), the larg-
de las mujeres investigadoras en el sistema español
est public research body, has implemented
de ciencia y tecnología, Madrid, (11 May 2007);
compulsory sex parity in the selection and promo-
http://www.ifs.csic.es/mujeres/documentos.htm
tion boards, for the last two years. This measure
plus an increase in the number of openings and the
• Martell, R. F., Lane, D.M., and Emrich, C. (1996)
creation and infl uence of an Equity Commission
Male-female differences: A computer simulation.
have resulted in an increase of the number of
American Psychologist, Vol. 51: pp. 157-158.
women selected for the positions.
• (MEC) Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia, Unidad
de Mujeres y Ciencia (2007) Académicas en
cifras, 2007. Madrid: Ministerio de Educación
y
Ciencia.
page 64
Annex
• Merton, R. K. (1968) The Mathew Effect in
SWEDEN
Science, Science, Vol. 159: pp.56-63.
• Navas, Elisa (2002) Women and Science:
Sweden has 39 higher education institutions, includ-
Review of the Situation in Spain, Helsinki Group
ing 15 universities and 17 university colleges. Direct
on Women and Science;
state grants constitute only 46% of total research
http://cordis.europa.eu/improving/women/reports.
funding, with the remainder coming from research
htm (11 May 2007).
councils, other government agencies, private foun-
dations and companies, and sources from abroad
• Pérez Sedeño, Eulalia, coordinadora (2003)
(including EU funding).
La situación de las mujeres en el sistema
educativo de ciencia y tecnología en España
The most important actors in promoting women in
y su contexto internacional, (11 May 2007);
decision making are the universities since they make
http://www.ifs.csic.es/mujeres/
the employment decisions. However, the universi-
documentos.htm
ties are government agencies, and so must follow
the rules and regulations laid down by the govern-
• Pérez Sedeño, Eulalia, y Alcalá, Paloma (2005)
ment. New regulations introduced in 1999 state that,
La Ley de la Ciencia veinte años después. ¿Dónde
if at all possible, both sexes must be represented
estaban las mujeres?, (11 May 2007); http://www.
among the experts who are asked to evaluate the
amit-es. org/descarg/ley_ciencia.pdf
candidates for an academic position. The share of
women rectors is 39%. Among the 11 largest univer-
• Valian, Virginia (1999) Why So Slow? The
sities there are six male and fi ve female rectors.
Advancement of Women. Cambridge (Mass):
Among the heads of the more important research
MIT Press.
funding bodies there are 12 men and 7 women.
• Vicepresidencia Primera del Gobierno
The Swedish Research Council is the largest fund-
y Ministerio de la Presidencia (2005) Informe de
ing body for basic research in Sweden. In 2006 its
implementación de las 54 medidas para favorecer
elected boards had 40-50% women. The peer
la igualdad entre mujeres y hombres aprobadas
review groups, who evaluate the applications, con-
por el Consejo de Ministros el 4 de Marzo de 2005
sist of around 45% women, except the peer review
y publicado mediante la Orden de PRE 525/2005,
groups in natural and technical sciences which
de 7 de Marzo, B.O.E. No 57 del 08/03/2005.
consist of 25% women.
The general characteristics of the gender distribution
at Swedish universities are the same as in many other
countries. The share of women increases with time
in all teacher categories, but the share of female pro-
fessors is still low. The share of women among new
PhDs has also increased over time and was 45% in
2005. It should be noted that in the medical fi eld
women are in the majority in all positions except for
professors, where the share of women is only 17%.
A recent study of the more than 5000 persons that
received their PhDs in Sweden during 1980-85 pub-
lished by the National Agency for Higher Education
showed that there was a higher share of men than
of women that became professors within 18 years
of attaining their PhD degrees. An encouraging
fi nding is that the difference is smaller among those
who received their PhDs toward the end of the
study period.
page 65
Annex
Differences in salary are small between men and
to chance alone is 1%. It should be noted that the
women in different teacher/researcher categories at
peer review groups in medicine at the Swedish
Swedish higher education institutions (less than 1%
Research Council consist of about 50% women and
in all categories except for associate professors,
that the groups are informed of the council’s gender
where the 3-6% difference could be explained by
equity policy.
‘career-age’ differences between men and women,
i.e., the number of years that have passed since they
For the new large Linnaeus grants (about €1 million
achieved their PhD degrees.
annually over ten years) in 2006, the 202 female
applicants had a lower success rate (15%) than the
In 1970 Sweden abolished joint taxation and replaced
748 male applicants (21%). The probability that this
it with individual taxation. This policy decision has
difference is due to chance alone is 12%. Also, the
had a benefi cial impact on gender equality but so
share of female applicants for Linnaeus grants was
have other political reforms such as in the social insur-
lower than for other types of grants. It should be
ance system and improvements in the education,
noted that the applications were evaluated by inter-
health and care sectors. Sweden considers gender
national experts only.
equality issues to be an area of priority. Gender equal-
ity is no longer a woman’s issue – it is a policy area
Whether the above-mentioned differences in success
affecting all citizens and it requires active efforts by
rates depend solely on differences in the quality of
both women and men. Equality between women and
the applications or if they are also a result of an
men must be considered in all decision-making. The
unconscious bias on the part of the evaluators and
‘Government declaration’ is a fundamental document
decision-makers of both sexes is a subtle issue,
issued by each new government at the beginning of
which is not easily investigated. The Swedish
the term of offi ce. Every year since 1994, the declara-
Research Council’s clearly-expressed ambition is, of
tion states that a gender perspective shall be course, to avoid all bias in the evaluation of applica-
mainstreamed in all areas of policies and politics.
tions for research funding.
The mainstreaming concept was added during the
As a consequence of this study, the council has adopt-
1990s but Sweden has also used the ‘double strate-
ed a sharper gender equity policy and has decided to
gies’ concept, which means that both mainstreaming
make further follow up studies of the success rates of
and special measures are used to make the gender
women and men. These studies can then be a basis
equality work progress. From 1999 the Swedish Law
for future actions to promote gender equity in the
of Higher Education states that the universities shall
Swedish Research Council’s funding decisions.
promote gender equity in their education and research.
Similar regulations apply to the research councils and
Compiled by Carl Jacobsson
the innovation agency. A most important measure is
the Government’s very clear statements on gender
equity in its regulations and demands for reporting,
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page 66
Annex
• Statistics Sweden;
SWITZERLAND
www.scb.se
• Swedish Association of University Teachers;
The tertiary education system in Switzerland can be
www.sulf.se
divided into two groups: the ten cantonal universi-
ties along with the two federal institutes of
• Swedish Ministry of Education and Research;
technology (‘ETH’) on the one hand, and the seven
www.sweden.gov.se/sb/d/2063
universities of applied sciences (‘Fachhochschulen’)
on the other. The federal government is responsible
• Swedish National Agency for Higher Education;
for the federal institutes of technology (as well as
www.hsv.se
their annex institutes) and for the universities of
applied sciences in the fi elds of technology, eco-
• Swedish National Agency for Higher
nomics and creative arts. The cantons in turn are
Education (2006) Postgraduate study and
responsible for their respective universities and
research careers – the signifi cance of gender
some of the universities of applied sciences. There
and social origin. Report from the Swedish
is currently no position at federal level with the
National Agency for Higher Education.
mandate and the competence to promote gender
equality at universities.
• Wennerås, C. & Wold, A. (1997) Nepotism and
Sexism in Peer-Review. Nature 387, pp. 341-43.
The Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF) is
Switzerland’s leading provider of research fund-
ing. It is funded exclusively by federal sources. To
be elected for the National Research Council,
which determines the outcome of applications
through a peer-review system, one has to belong
to Switzerland’s academic elite. The proportion of
women on the Research Council at the end of
2006 was 20%, a noteworthy percentage given that
the proportion of women holding professorships
across Switzerland was 13% at the end of the same
year. A rule of preference for women in future
elections to the Council was formulated in 2003,
and an equality commission was established in
2001 along with a position to oversee equality in
research support.
Professors (Grade A) at Swiss universities com-
mand a very high social status. They are very well
paid, in line with top positions in the federal gov-
ernment. Open professorial positions are publicly
advertised. The requirements for a professorship
involve the usual evidence of excellence in the
relevant discipline (e.g., publications, mobility,
etc.); as of a few years ago, social skills and teach-
ing experience have been added as important
factors. Networks are still very important, but they
no longer hold the degree of infl uence they once
had. Rectors and presidents are usually chosen
from internal candidates, with external candidates
facing much greater obstacles to appointment.
The level of rectors and university presidents is
traditionally an almost exclusively male fi eld; in
page 67
Annex
summer 2007, however, a female rector took up
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through customary practice, i.e. also due to pres-
http://www.femwiss.ch/de/
sure from below.
• Federal Program for Gender Equality
A major project funded since 2000 from federal
at Swiss Universities;
fi nances is the Program for Gender Equality at
http://www.cus.ch/wEnglisch/beitraege/
Swiss Universities (approx. 2.4 million EUR p.a.).
chancengleichheit/index.php
This program has played a large role in support-
ing equal opportunity measures at universities.
• Staatssekretariat für Bildung und Wissenschaft
Next to mentoring (Module 2) and childcare (Mod-
SBF (Hg.): Chancengleichheit von Frau und
ule 3), both of which contribute indirectly to this
Mann und Gender Studies im Tertiärbereich –
goal, the federal program provides a measure that
Stand und Massnahmen (2007);
openly attempts to regulate the fi lling of profes-
http://www.sbf.admin.ch/htm/dokumentation/
sorships through an incentive system for the
publikationen/sbf/Chancengleichheit-de.pdf
inclusion of women (Module 1).
(German and French)
A similar program exists for the universities of
applied sciences, but it has received less funding
• State Secretariat for Education and Research SER
(6.5 million euros for four years).
(ed.): Women in Science. Review of the Situation
in Switzerland. Helsinki-Group (2004);
At the beginning of the 1980s, female academics
http://www.sbf.admin.ch/htm/dokumentation/
from all disciplines had organized themselves into
publikationen/Bildung/women-and-science-e.pdf
a group (‘Femwiss’) whose purpose was to act as
a gender-watch system at the institutional as well
• Bachmann, Ruth / Rothmayr, Christine /
as political level. They continue to keep up this
Spreyermann, Christine (2004): Evaluation
pressure ‘from below’ while simultaneously using
Bundesprogramm Chancengleichheit von Frau
their positions to apply pressure mainly in the
und Mann an Universitäten. Bericht zu Umset-
political arena. In the multiple-party system of
zung und Wirkungen des Programms 2000 bis
Switzerland this is a necessary and ongoing task,
2003. Schriftenreihe BBW 2004/1b. Bern;
with sometimes better and sometimes worse http://www.sbf.admin.ch/htm/dokumentation/
results.
publikationen/bildung/chancengleichheit-d.pdf
Compiled by Maya Widmer
page 68
Annex
• Leemann, Regula Julia (2002) Chancenungleich-
UNITED
KINGDOM
heiten im Wissenschaftssystem: wie Geschlecht
und soziale Herkunft Karriere beeinfl ussen.
Chur/Zürich: Rüegger.
Teaching and research in universities in the UK
remains a predominantly male profession. Neverthe-
• Lischetti, Barbara/Widmer, Maya (Hg.) (2004)
less, there has been a year on year increase in the
Kopfprämien für Professorinnen? Über Verfas-
percentage of women employed in both the research-
sungsmässigkeit, Opportunität und Nützlichkeit
only and research and teaching categories. Women
von Anreizsystemen. Tagungsband zum
are strongly represented in the research-only category
Symposium an der Universität Freiburg/
at a total of 37% but this is predominantly on fi xed-
CHn 18.10.2002.
term contracts. The proportion of women in
academic posts has risen to 36 per cent over a
• Michel, Christine/Bieri, Sabin/Imboden, Natalie/
10-year period. The proportion of women profes-
Seith, Corinna (Hg.) (2003) Hochschulreform,
sors has doubled over this time span – although
Macht, Geschlecht. Aktuelle Reformprozesse an
from a low starting point – from 9 per cent to 19 per
Hochschulen aus feministischer Sicht. Dokumenta-
cent. The indications are that this upward trend will
tion der Tagung des Vereins Feministische
continue. The proportion of women on science-
Wissenschaft Schweiz vom 24. Mai 2002. Bern: SBF;
related advisory bodies and boards is also rising
http://www.sbf.admin.ch/htm/dokumentation/
(from 12% in 1992 to 25% in 1999).
publikationen/Bildung/2003-2-d.pdf
The Science and Society unit of the Department of
• Müller, Barbara/Obexer, Gabriela/von Salis,
Innovation, Universities and Skills has an aim of
Katharina (Hg.) (2007) Wer sind die Besten?
increasing involvement of women in science and
Chancengleichheit in Berufungsverfahren.
its governance. This builds on the work of the Pro-
Tagung vom 23. März 2006 an der Universität
moting SET for Women Unit, which was set up in
Luzern. Referate, Studien, Diskussion. Bern: SBF;
1994, following the 1993 Science White Paper, Real-
http://www.sbf.admin.ch/htm/dokumentation/
ising our Potential, which noted that women “were
publikationen/uni/beste_web.pdf
the UK’s biggest single most undervalued and there-
fore underused human resource”. The Unit has acted
• Nienhaus, Doris/Pannatier, Gaël/Töngi, Claudia
as facilitator, developed policy based research and
(Hg.) (2005) Akademische Seilschaften.
funded pilot projects as well as helping to support
Mentoring für Frauen im Spannungsfeld
women in the science community infrastructure.
von individueller Förderung und Struktur-
veränderung. Bern/Wettingen: eFeF-Verlag.
The UK Resource Centre for Women in Science,
Engineering and Technology (UKRC) is the key
• Wiedmer, Caroline (2002) Sound Changes – an
organisation to deliver a substantial part of the
International Survey of Women’s Career Strategies
Government’s Strategy for Women in SET (2003).
in Higher Education. Universelle 4.
The Get SET Women database provides the media
and other organisations with access to thousands of
women, at various stages in their science, engineer-
ing and technology careers, who have registered
their details and can be approached for promotion-
al and work related opportunities. The UKRC is
committed to producing a series of ten Good Prac-
tice Guides by May 2007, each focusing on a
recognised gender-critical issue for SET employers.
The ATHENA project was launched in 1999. Its
aims are the advancement and promotion of the
careers of women in science, engineering and tech-
nology (SET) in higher education and research to
achieve a signifi cant increase in the number of
page 69
Annex
women recruited to top posts. An example of an
Bibliography
Athena survey is: ‘Getting On’, which concluded
that men were far more likely than women to be
• UK Resource Centre for Women in SET;
encouraged to apply for senior positions (men were
http://www.setwomenstats.org.uk/sections/index.php
also better positioned for promotion in terms of both
their internal and external activities – fellowships,
• SET FAIR – The Greenfi eld Report on Women
departmental and HEI positions and committee
in Science, Engineering and Technology;
memberships).
http://extra.shu.ac.uk/nrc/section_2/publications/
reports/R1182_SET_Fair_Report.pdf
A Gender Equality Duty has been introduced in
the UK in April 2007. This requires public authori-
• A Strategy for Women in Science, Engineering
ties, including higher education institutions, to
and Technology (April 2003);
promote gender equality and eliminate sex discrim-
http://extra.shu.ac.uk/nrc/section_2/publications/
ination. The duty will shift the emphasis from
reports/R1428_Strategy_for_Women_in_SET.
retrospective individual action to tackle discrimina-
pdf?pubpdfdload=03%2F862
tion towards an anticipatory and proactive problem
solving approach.
• Maximising Returns to Science, Engineering
and Technology careers (OST, January 2002);
All UK HEIs produce a human resources strategy
http://extra.shu.ac.uk/nrc/section_2/publications/
and implementation plan and use self assessment
reports/R1219_1_Executive_Summary.pdf
tools to monitor progress. The research councils
have had a woman as chief executive and another
• Who Applies for Research Funding? Key Factors
has had a female chairman. There are now 19 uni-
Shaping Funding Application Behaviour Among
versities with women as Vice Chancellors (~15%),
Women and Men in British Higher Education
and the Royal Society is reviewing its election pro-
Institutions (Wellcome Trust);
cedures and being proactive in increasing the
http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/assets/wtd003210.pdf
nominations of women. For example, the President
has recently written to all Vice Chancellors asking
• AUT report – The Diverse Academy – The pay and
for female nominees. The UK Research Councils
employment of academic and professional staff in
provide data on applications and awards by gender
UK higher education by gender and ethnicity;
on an annual basis and also the gender breakdown
http://www.aut.org.uk/media/pdf/5/r/
on panels and committees. Reviews of refereeing
diverseacademy_oct05.pdf
which include gender of reviewers and the appli-
cants are also undertaken on an ad hoc basis.
• SET and the UK’s ethnic minority population
(Royal Society);
The Research Councils in collaboration with the
http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/downloaddoc.
UKRC for Women in SET are working together to:
asp?id=1870
analyse diversity data on research funding and raise
issues; increase the number of women in research
• Fairness and Freedom: The Final Report of
decision-making to support the government target of
The Equalities Review, February 2007;
40% on SET-related committees; promote good prac-
http://www.theequalitiesreview.org.uk/upload/
tice on gender inclusivity and equality and diversity
assets/www.theequalitiesreview.org.uk/equality_
in the guidance and advice provided to applicants
review.pdf
and peer review for Research Council funding. They
have also produced a selection of Frequently Asked
• Selection of staff for inclusion in RAE2001 –
Questions about research grants and funding, and
HEFCE August 2006/32 Issues paper;
commonly heard myths and confusions. The issues
http://www.hefce.ac.uk/pubs/hefce/2006/06_32/
are particularly relevant to returners to SET research,
but will also be useful for women seeking to enter
• Gender & Doctorate Students’ Attitudes to SET
the fi eld or progress their career.
Enterprise;
http://www.prowess.org.uk/conference/documents/
Compiled by Rosie Beales
0761SwiszczowskiProwessPaper.doc.
page 70
Annex
• Researchers: What is the situation? Annual Report;
http://www.rcuk.ac.uk/aboutrcuk/publications/
policy/researchers.htm
• The Equality Challenge Unit;
http://www.ecu.ac.uk/
• The Athena Project;
http://www.athenaproject.org.uk/aboutAthena.htm
• The Athena SWAN Charter is a recognition
scheme for UK universities and their science,
engineering and technology (SET) departments.
It aims to assist the recruitment, retention and
progression of women in SET;
http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/athenaswan/
• The Higher Education Statistics Agency (HESA) is
the offi cial agency for the collection, analysis and
dissemination of quantitative information about
higher education;
http://www.hesa.ac.uk/index.php/component/
option,com_datatables/Itemid,121/
• RAE 2008: Updated equality briefi ng for panel
chairs, members, advisors and secretaries;
http://www.rae.ac.uk/pubs/2007/02/
• The Institute of Physics Diversity Programme;
http://www.iop.org/activity/diversity/About_the_
diversity_programme/page_25010.html
• The Royal Society of Chemistry Diversity
Programme;
http://www.rsc.org/ScienceAndTechnology/Policy/
Documents/Diversity.asp
• Equality and Human Rights Commission –
Legal Rights – Gender;
http://www.equalityhumanrights.com/en/
yourrights/equalityanddiscrimination/gender/
pages/introductiontogender.aspx
• Third Work-Life Balance Employees’ Survey
DTI Employment Relations Research Series;
http://www.dti.gov.uk/fi les/fi le38388.pdf
page 71
European Commission
EUR 23311 — Mapping the maze: getting more women to the top in research
Luxembourg: Offi
ce for Offi
cial Publications of the European Communities
2008 — 76 pp. — 21.0 x 29.7 cm
ISBN 978-92-79-07618-3
SALES AND SUBSCRIPTIONS
Publications for sale produced by the Offi
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Contact the sales agent of your choice and place your order.
KI-NA-23311-EN-C
Since the 1990s, an analysis of senior university staff reveals that women are underrepresented on
scientifi c decision–making boards in almost all European countries.
For this reason, the European Commission has invited an independent expert group, namely, the
expert group on Women In Research Decision Making (WIRDEM) to identify and review positive
actions and gender equality measures at institutional and national level to promote women into
senior positions in public research.
In the course of one year of fruitful research, the WIRDEM expert group produced the homony-
mous report which examines and describes in detail nomination procedures, obstacles, facts and
funding limitations that women need to overcome in their academic careers. It reviews the proce-
dures for evaluating and promoting research personnel to senior positions and identifi es examples
of good practice at national and institutional levels.
Based on this analysis, the report proposes recommendations to facilitate the design of a frame-
work for better targeted actions at European level, and highlights the problem of poor awareness
and visibility.
It clearly shows that transparent and fair evaluation and promotion procedures alone are not suf-
fi cient to improve gender balance in research decision-making; a change of culture is required.
The experts therefore also make suggestions as to how the prevailing scientifi c culture could
change to become more inclusive.
