Ctl Handbook07 Web
Revised 2007
The Center
for Teaching
Teaching at and Learning, Stanford University
Stanford
An Introductory Handbook
We believe it is not
only possible but vital
that we give teaching
for Faculty, Academic Staff, and Teaching Assistants
as much emphasis
and support as we
give research. As a
Stanford faculty
member, academic
staff member, or
teaching assistant,
you are already rec-
ognized for your
scholarship in your
field. We ask that you
be a leader in your
teaching as well.
John L. Hennessy
President
T H E O F F I C E O F T H E V I C E P R O V O S T F O R U N D E R G R A D U AT E E D U C AT I O N , S TA N F O R D U N I V E R S I T Y
Dear Colleagues,
Since its founding a little more than a century ago,Stanford
University has become one of the world’s outstanding educa-
tional institutions. As your colleague and the president of Stanford,
I am confident that you will continue that tradition of excellence.
In pursuit of that goal, I encourage you to explore and expand the
relationship between your teaching and your research.
At Stanford, we place a high value on collaborative learning—not only among faculty,
academic staff, and teaching assistants, but also between faculty and students. You will
find that your students and colleagues will challenge you to think in new ways, offer new
insights, and expand your perspective. Given the close interaction between faculty and stu-
dents, I hope that your dual passions—for teaching and for research—nurture each other.
Stanford is committed to being a great research and teaching university. We believe it
is not only possible but vital that we give teaching as much emphasis and support as we give
research. As a Stanford faculty member, academic staff member, or teaching assistant, you
are already recognized for your scholarship in your field. We ask that you be a leader in your
teaching as well. This handbook will provide you with support and with answers to your
questions. I hope that you approach your teaching with the same passion that you approach
your research. Not only will our students benefit, but I firmly believe that it will result in
further intellectual exploration and growth for you as well.
In Stanford University: The First Twenty-Five Years, the university’s first registrar, Orrin
Leslie Elliott, quotes David Starr Jordan: “The value of a teacher decreases with the increase
of the square of the distance from the student.” Although technological advances have given
us additional resources to work with, it is still good advice today. I look forward to seeing
what we can accomplish together.
John L. Hennessy, President
©2007 by the Board of Trustees of the Leland Stanford Junior University. All rights reserved.
Contents
T
Eff
e
ac
ective
hing
Letter from President Hennessy
inside front cover
Interactions with Students
49
Letter from the CTL Director
2
The Diversity of Our Students
49
Supporting Vulnerable Students
50
A Framework for Effective Teaching
3
Students with Disabilities
51
Teaching Goals
3
Ways to Help Students with Disabilities Achieve
Pr
Combining Teaching and Research
4
epar
C
Their Academic Goals
52
our
ation
The Ultimate Goal: Active Learning
5
se
Teaching Challenges
53
Characteristics of Effective Teachers
7
Classroom Challenges
54
Course Preparation
8
Counseling Students
57
Course Design
8
Improving Your Teaching
60
Str
T
Consider Your Audience
11
e
at
ac
Teaching Evaluation
60
e
hing
Administrative Details
12
gies
Assessing Student Learning
61
Equipment Checklist
14
Teaching Improvement
62
Teaching Support
15
Putting It All Together: The Teaching Portfolio
63
Tutoring Resources
16
The Oral Communication Program
63
Preparing for the First Class
17
E
Checklist of CTL Services for Faculty, Lecturers,
St
v
a
udent
Seven Ways to Handle Nervousness
19
luating
and Postdoctoral Teaching Fellows
64
First-Day Guidelines
20
s
Teaching Assistants
65
Teaching Strategies
21
The Teaching Assistant’s Role
65
Lecturing
21
Discussion Sections
66
w
Checklist for Effective Lecturing
28
Int
i
Reviews
67
th St
er
Discussion Leading
29
action
Labs
68
udent
Checklist for Effective Discussion Leading
32
TAing and Your Professional Future
70
s
s
Laboratory Teaching
33
Checklist of CTL Services for Graduate Students
Other Teaching Approaches
34
and TAs
72
Office Hours
35
Appendices
73
Electronic Tools for Communication
35
Impr
T
e
ac
hing
o
Technology in Teaching
36
Honor Code
73
v
i
ng
Sexual Harassment Policy
75
Evaluating Students
39
Short Bibliography on College Teaching
76
Strategies for Fair and Conflict-Free Grading
40
CTL Courses
77
Testing
41
Speaking of Teaching Newsletters
78
A
Exam Checklist
43
Award-Winning Teachers on Teaching Videos
79
T
s
e
sista
ac
Papers, Projects, and Presentations
44
hing
n
Acknowledgments
82
t
s
Academic Honesty and Dishonesty
46
Writing Letters of Recommendation
47
Contact Information
inside back cover
Appendic
e
s
Welcome to Teaching at Stanford!
CENTER FOR
TEACHING AND
LEARNING
The Center for Teaching and Learning is delighted to offer you this newly
revised handbook and to further support you in your teaching-related
Fourth Floor
endeavors. Whether you are brand-new to teaching or have many years of experi-
Sweet Hall
ence, we hope this handbook will give you a sense of how teaching at Stanford is
Stanford
CA 94305-3087
especially rewarding and challenging, regardless of your discipline. Necessarily—
phone:
because scientists, humanists, social scientists, and engineers will be reading
(650) 723-1326
this—the advice we offer is general. We urge you to address the specific challenges
fax:
of teaching in your field by talking to your colleagues, reading about teaching in
(650) 725-9580
your subject, reflecting on your own experiences, and watching carefully those
email:
TeachingCenter@
who already know how to teach your discipline well. We expect that you will find
stanford.edu
enough here, however, to get you started with confidence.
website:
We at CTL maintain that, contrary to popular belief, teachers are made, not
http://ctl.stanford.edu
born. While teaching is certainly an art, it also is a set of skills that can be learned,
just as writing or public speaking are abilities that can be developed. This means
that accomplished teachers can always improve, and every new teacher has the
chance to be great. At the least, this means that by reading about the theories and
approaches we discuss in this handbook, you can learn how to do a very good job
in the classroom—good enough to give you satisfaction and to give your students
an effective learning experience.
In time, you will go beyond this handbook to develop your own teaching
style, one that may even challenge some of the advice given here. You will learn
how to make the unusual and the spontaneous work for you and your students
and you will be able to respond to students instinctively with pedagogical insight
and variety. This is the purpose of any introductory handbook—to let you use the
experience and advice of others to help you find your own unique approach. In
the spirit of collaboration, please accept our best wishes for a productive and ful-
filling teaching experience at Stanford!
Michele Marincovich, Ph.D., Associate Vice Provost for Undergraduate
Education and Director, Center for Teaching and Learning
2
Teaching at
A Framework for
T
Eff
e
ac
ective
Effective Teac
Stanford
hing at Stanford
hing
Teaching Goals
3
Your effort and enthusiasm as a teacher directly influence
students’ commitment to your course and interest in
Combining Teaching and Research
4
your field. Great teachers inspire students by demon-
The Ultimate Goal: Active Learning
5
strating belief in their students’ abilities and by providing
the support students need to meet challenging academic
Characteristics of Effective Teachers
7
demands.
Facilitate Mastery of a Field
In choosing my area of concentration I decided to combine
Teaching Goals
two of my interests, sports and medicine, and study sports
Recall a favorite teacher from your past. Perhaps it is medicine.Initially I was just mildly curious about the
someone who helped you learn something about
field. However, after taking a class on exercise and physi-
yourself, influenced the direction of your career, or changed
ology by Dr. Anne Friedlander and talking with her out-
the way you view the world. Perhaps it is someone whose
side of class, my interest became more than just academic.
classes consistently created moments of humor, insight, and
She opened my eyes to the practicality and numerous
wonder, or someone who presented a refreshing intellectu-
applications of sports medicine. In a few weeks I will begin
al challenge at a time when you needed it.
a sports medicine internship with a grassroots organiza-
We begin this handbook with a discussion of the
tion that encourages older individuals to maintain health
highest teaching goals, to remind you that great teaching
through an active lifestyle. Thanks to Dr. Friedlander I am
is more than a handful of teaching tricks strung together
learning more about sports medicine and enjoying oppor-
with modest aims and sufficient expertise in your field.
tunities to apply that knowledge in everyday life.
Every aspect of your teaching will be shaped by the role
—Angela Markham, Human Biology
you want to play in the mentorship and development of
(Sports Medicine), ’05
your students. Every nuts-and-bolts teaching strategy
Your classroom is a training ground not only for future
this handbook suggests, even the most practical advice
study in your field but also for many aspects of life. Great
about lecturing or writing exams, serves the goal of help-
teachers help students master the fundamentals of their
ing you become the kind of teacher who has inspired you.
subject matter, which will pay off both for advanced
As we mentioned on page 2, great teachers are made, not
study in their field and for students’ everyday under-
born. These are not mysterious talents you have to be
standing of the world.
granted at birth, but skills that you can learn. Those who
make it look easy have probably worked the hardest.
Mentor Young Intellects
Consider now the following teaching goals, and
I attribute a great deal of my intellectual growth at Stan-
decide for yourself which are most relevant to the mate-
ford to my advisor’s mentorship and guidance. I came to
rial you teach and the role you want to play in your stu-
her last year as someone who was completely intimidated
dents’ intellectual and personal development. Keep these
by economics. But from the first day of my research assis-
goals in mind as you continue through the practical
tantship she pushed me to challenge myself academically
advice that makes up the bulk of this handbook.
and personally. For the first time, I began to understand
what it meant to set high goals for myself without fear.
Inspire Students
—Felicia Estrada, Public Policy, ’04
Nothing pushes students to do their best work like a pro-
fessor who takes pride not in his or her own accomplish-
ments, but in helping others realize their potential.
—Jason Dent, Philosophy, ’05
3
Long after individual facts and phrases are forgotten,
your students will carry with them the intellectual skills
hing
ective
you help them develop, from critical to creative thinking.
ac
Eff
T
e
Great teachers prepare students for lifelong learning.
Help Students Find Their Voice
Although I had been very outspoken during high school,
initially it was very hard to find my “voice” at Stanford.
I think my breakthrough came during an African history
class. The professor showed that he valued our class
participation both in the grading of the course and by
encouraging every student to speak at least once during
the quarter. He received our comments in such a non-
judgmental way that after a couple weeks I felt much
more confident speaking up in all my classes.
—Andrea Snavely, International Relations, ’04
Once you’ve helped students find something they want
to say, you need to help them find a way to say it. Great
In the best universities, education and research, teaching
teachers give students the skills to communicate effec-
and research, are but two sides of the same coin—the
tively and the confidence to express what they think.
search to know. This search to know takes place in the
classroom, as well as in the library and in the laboratory.
Help Students Articulate and Follow Their Values
Gerhard Casper, Peter and Helen Bing Professor in
It’s all too easy for students to think the learning process
Undergraduate Education and President Emeritus
is limited to lectures, readings, or problem sets. It takes a
great professor or TA to take course material outside the
your students suffer. How can you strike the right balance?
context of the classroom and remind us that we study in
Before you reconcile yourself to the idea that excel-
order to better the world. I remain impressed with instruc-
lence in teaching and research are mutually exclusive,
tors who take time to do this in traditional classes, not
consider the similarities between the two endeavors.
just those labeled as “service-learning courses.”
Presenting at conferences and fielding questions from
—Felicia Estrada, Public Policy, ’04
the audience requires the same skills as lecturing; design-
One of the main goals of higher education is to help stu-
ing an outstanding course outline and syllabus uses
dents figure out who they are and how they can be of
many of the same skills as putting together a literature
service to their community. Great teachers help students
review or grant proposal. Both teaching and research
understand the social responsibilities of their field and
help you develop insight into your field, refine your com-
the social impact of their choices.
munication skills, and draw on your ability to select and
organize content in a meaningful way. Because they
require similar skills, you will find that improvement and
Combining Teaching and Research
advancement in one feeds back into improvement and
advancement in the other.
As an academic you may at times feel the attractions
Still, new instructors’ first concern is often one of
of teaching and research as opposing forces. With
simple time management. The following suggestions
limited time it’s not easy to do both to one’s satisfaction.
may be helpful as you first establish the balance between
Promotion processes, as well as your own desire to
teaching and research:
advance your field, usually require that you devote con-
• Consider doubling your teaching load during one quar-
siderable time to research, publication, and presentation.
ter so that you have at least one quarter free for time-
Even dedicated teachers can feel pressured not to spend
intensive projects, such as major grant proposals.
too much time and energy on their teaching. Yet teaching
is one of your primary obligations as a scholar, and it is
• Invite your colleagues to give guest lectures on their
important not to focus so intently on your research that
areas of expertise (and volunteer to do the same for
4
them—it will give you a chance to practice speaking
where “we are operating at the borders of what is known
T
about your research to a nonexpert audience).
and what is not known.”
Eff
e
ac
ective
hing
• Build a teaching library of videos, class activities, and
presentations that you can draw on when you become
unexpectedly overwhelmed by other demands.
The Ultimate Goal: Active Learning
Your research program can also enrich your classes.
Ifyou needed to learn how to do something,would you
Stephen Bostock of Keele University (http://www.keele.
rather listen to someone describe the process or be
ac.uk/depts/aa/landt/links/linking_research_and_
invited to join in a demonstration of the process? If you
teaching.htm) has identified four effective ways for
had to form an opinion about something, would you
instructors to bring the process as well as the products of
rather listen to someone explain his reasoning or be
research into the classroom:
invited to analyze his reasoning along with him? If you
• Use current research perspectives, paradigms, and
knew you had to remember a large amount of new infor-
debates in the classroom to show that knowledge is con-
mation, would you rather rush through the material
tested and growing, rather than accepted fact.
without the opportunity to reflect on it or be given time
to review, connect, and apply the information as you
• Include recent research results as part of curriculum
went along?
content.
Whether you’re facing a lecture hall filled with 300
• Introduce both generic and subject-specific research
students or a seminar table with 15 students, one of your
skills and scholarly activities into course assignments,
primary goals for the class should be to actively engage
including literature review, experiment design, peer
students with the material. The research is clear: Students
review, book review, conference paper presentation,
learn more when they are asked to actively participate in
and grant application.
the process of learning, whether it’s through discussion,
• Invite students into your research community in small
practice, review, or application (Grunert, 1997). This is
ways, by requiring them to join scholarly email lists or
in stark contrast to the idea of the student as a passive
discussion boards, use online conference proceedings as
recipient of knowl-
resources for class assignments, or attend departmental
edge, absorbing infor-
talks.
mation presented by
ACTIVE-LEARNING RESOURCES
In addition, you can view your classroom as a pool
the instructor. For this
Active learning is an excellent
of potential research assistants and honor students (who
reason, active learning
way to meet all three kinds of
often contribute greatly to a research program).
is an important theme
learning goals (informational,
Undergraduate RAs bring enthusiasm, time, and a fresh
in this handbook.
idea-based, and skills-based).
perspective to your work. There are some drawbacks,
Active learning strate-
Active learning activities and
such as the training and start-up time, but the rewards
gies should be incor-
assignments allow you to inte-
are great. Many RAs who are inspired by a specific course
porated into every
grate your learning goals so that
will stay with a faculty member or graduate student for
component of your
students understand the mean-
much of their time at Stanford. Consider coordinating a
course design. These
ing and application of what they
course on current faculty research in your department,
range from short
are learning. CTL can provide you
with faculty rotating as speakers. This may count toward
partner discussions
with more information about how
your teaching requirements while helping to match
during lecture to
to design active learning activi-
ties, assignments, and exams.
interested students and faculty.
problem- or case-
Visit the CTL website (http://ctl.
Finally, there is always the possibility that ques-
based research proj-
stanford.edu) for an extensive
tions that come up in class will inspire new directions for
ects to small-group
selection of handouts and online
your research. For example, Professor Philip Zimbardo’s
critical analysis exer-
articles on active learning, as
Stanford Prison Experiment, which may be the most
cises during seminars.
well as information about upcom-
well-known research study in Stanford’s history, was
Because it can
ing workshops on how to inte-
inspired by an exercise in his psychology class. Other
take time and creativ-
grate active learning into your
Stanford professors report similar classroom inspira-
ity to develop active-
course.
tions. Psychology professor Ewart Thomas says this phe-
learning exercises, we
nomenon is particularly likely to occur in those classes
provide many exam-
5
ples in every section of the handbook, particularly in the
demonstrate why the other options are misleading
section titled “Teaching Strategies.” Some of these strate-
(Mazur, 1997). Research from cognitive psychology has
hing
ective
gies are appropriate for any subject matter, whereas oth-
shown that one of the best ways to improve under-
ac
Eff
T
e
ers provide field-specific examples of innovative
standing is to teach material to a peer; you can build
approaches. Here, we review the rationale for an active-
this into your classes through presentations, study
learning approach, as well as some sample strategies to
groups, and quick, breakout “teaching” sessions, such as
get you started.
the one described above.
Active learning promotes independent, critical, and cre-
Active learning increases student investment, motiva-
ative thinking. Students must engage with material in
tion, and performance. When you invite students to
order to practice and develop thinking skills. You can facil-
actively participate in the learning environment, they
itate this by asking students to analyze, synthesize, or apply
take more responsibility for their performance in the
material, both in the classroom and in class assignments.
course. When they have an opportunity to make deci-
• For instance, in case-based problem-solving exercises,
sions about what they learn and how they use that
students must analyze the information they are given,
knowledge, students see a course as more valuable and
generate or compare possible conclusions and solu-
more directly related to their goals.
tions, and decide on a final strategy or interpretation.
• For example, you might allow students to choose the
You can use case studies in a lecture and have students
topic of a short discussion or ask students to generate
work out their solutions independently or in small
ideas about how a concept could be applied to a prob-
groups. You can also use case studies as the basis for
lem that interests them. Involving students in classroom
major projects or exams.
activities also requires them to assess their understand-
• Another active learning technique that develops think-
ing and skill; rather than allowing them to rest com-
ing skills is debate: you can present competing view-
fortably with a surface knowledge, it forces them to
points in lecture and assign students to defend one of
develop a deeper understanding.
the viewpoints in a short (five-minute) written exercise
CTL has an extensive collection of books, articles,
or classroom debate. To further develop students’
and handouts on active learning strategies for your use,
thinking skills, you might ask students to defend and
including a number of online handouts and articles
critique a single view, to “switch” views after they have
(http://ctl.stanford.edu). CTL also offers workshops
defended one, or to find a broader perspective that can
throughout the year on how to use active learning effec-
accommodate key ideas from both views.
tively in different class settings. We encourage you to set
active learning as your ultimate teaching goal and strate-
Active learning promotes collaboration. Collaborative
gy; it can transform the learning environment into an
group work can be an extremely useful addition to a
exciting, dynamic place that both you and the students
large class.
look forward to.
• For example, small-group discussions help students
understand and retain material while also serving the
broader goals of developing their communication skills
and increasing their awareness of their classmates as
learning resources.
• Another active learning strategy is peer instruction
exercises. For instance, you can pose a question during
lecture and give students one minute to think about
and write down their answers. Then have students turn
to a classmate sitting next to them and try to convince
their neighbor of the solution. Give them a moment to
write down their revised answers. Tally their answers by
having the students raise their hands in response to dif-
ferent options. When the tally is in, use the results as a
teaching opportunity; explain the correct answer and
6
T
Eff
CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE TEACHERS
e
ac
ective
hing
The following characteristics appear again and again in
studies of effective teachers. We have classified these quali-
ties according to a scheme worked out by M. Hildebrand in
a 1971 study in which opinions on effective teaching from
both faculty and students were analyzed (M. Hildebrand,
R.C. Wilson, and E.R. Dienst, Evaluating University Teaching.
UC Berkeley, Center for Research and Development in
Higher Education, 1971).
Organization and Clarity
■ explains clearly
■ is well prepared
■ makes difficult topics easy to understand
■ uses examples, details, analogies, metaphors, and variety
in modes of explanation to make material not only
understandable but memorable
■ makes the objectives of the course and each class clear
■ establishes a context for material
Analytic/Synthetic Approach
■ has a thorough command of the field
■ contrasts the implications of various theories
■ gives the student a sense of the field, its past, present,
and future directions, the origins of ideas and concepts
■ presents facts and concepts from related fields
■ discusses viewpoints other than his/her own
Dynamism and Enthusiasm
■ is an energetic, dynamic person
■ seems to enjoy teaching
■ conveys a love of the field
■ has an aura of self-confidence
Instructor-Group Interaction
■ can stimulate, direct, and pace interaction with the class
■ encourages independent thought and accepts criticism
■ uses wit and humor effectively
■ is a good public speaker
■ knows whether or not the class is following the material
and is sensitive to students’ motivation
■ is concerned about the quality of his/her teaching
Instructor-Individual Student Interaction
■ is perceived as fair, especially in his/her methods of
evaluation
■ is seen by students as approachable and a valuable source
of advice even on matters not directly related to the
course
7
Teaching at
Course Preparation
Stanford
Course Design
8
information, competing theories about the causes of the
se
ation
Chinese Revolution as important ideas, and the ability to
Consider Your Audience
11
our
C
epar
compare modern Chinese history to other significant
Pr
Administrative Details
13
historical trends as an important skill. An instructor of
product design might identify fundamentals of descrip-
Equipment Checklist
14
tive geometry as important information, the relationship
Teaching Support
15
between form and function as an important idea, and the
Tutoring Resources
16
use of a design software program as an important skill.
Different courses may emphasize one type of learning
Preparing for the First Class
17
outcome more than others; you may have an enormous
Seven Ways to Handle Nervousness
19
amount of facts to cover in an introductory course or
you may find yourself teaching a highly skills-specific
First-Day Guidelines
20
course for advanced students. However, most courses
will have a combination of all three kinds of outcomes.
If you get lost in a sea of possible learning out-
Course Design
comes and find yourself overwhelmed, consider dividing
the outcomes into those that are essential (students must
Whether designing a new course or preparing to reach these goals in order to continue successfully in
adopt a standardized curriculum, you will find it
their program) and those that are desirable. To decide
helpful to begin your course preparation by clearly defin-
ing what you expect your students to have learned by the
end of your course or section. You can then put together
course materials, or select new ways of presenting course
materials, that serve the learning outcomes you have chosen.
Consider the topic and level of your course, and
ask yourself:
• What is the most important information students
should learn and remember from this course (facts and
other kinds of core knowledge)?
• What are the most important ideas that students should
understand after taking this course (theories, approaches,
perspectives, and other broad themes in your field)?
• What are the most important skills that students should
develop in this course (laboratory skills, problem-solving
The more you make Stanford students accountable for
skills, creative skills, writing skills, etc.)?
complex tasks, the more they rise to the occasion. The
(Some faculty also ask what attitudes they want
majority of our students enjoy the course more and value it
students to develop as a result of their course, such as
much more highly if they feel that their intellects have
love of the field; a critical, questioning stance toward
really been challenged, that they’ve been stretched and
texts; or an appreciation of cultural differences.)
have performed at a level they themselves didn’t know
Be as specific as possible. For example, an instruc-
they were capable of.
tor of modern Chinese history might identify the time-
Anne Fernald, Josephine Knotts Knowles Professor of
line of key historical events and periods as important
Human Biology
8
which outcomes are essential, you can talk to upper-divi-
activities) will give students the opportunity to rein-
sion students and to faculty members whose courses fol-
force the information and ideas of the course, as well as
low yours in a major. If the curriculum is already estab-
practice key skills?
lished, use previous syllabi or talk to previous instructors
• What should students be able to do to demonstrate that
to find out what has historically been considered essen-
they have met these key learning goals? The answer(s) to
tial in the course.
this question will be the basis for your grading structure,
Desirable outcomes, on the other hand, reflect
as well as the format and content of graded exams,
your idealistic side: What are your dream learning out-
Pr
homework, and projects. For example, if one of your
epar
C
our
comes for a student taking this course? Do you care more
essential learning outcomes is improved analytical think-
ation
se
about breadth of knowledge, imagining your students
ing, make sure that your exams and assignments require it.
fielding a broad variety of questions on your field (as an
The next step is to select the specific readings, lec-
instructor of an introductory course might)? Or do you
ture and discussion content, class activities, practice
care more about depth of knowledge, imagining your
assignments, and graded assignments that will make up
students deep in the trenches of a specific research prob-
your course. You can weed through the course materials
lem or creative project (as an instructor of a seminar
already prepared by previous instructors of similar
might)? What kinds of intellectual and practical chal-
courses, with an eye for those materials that best meet
lenges would your students ideally be able to face head-
your goals. If you are lucky (and brave!) enough to be
on and conquer? For a professor of any science, a desir-
embarking on a new course, you have the freedom and
able learning outcome might be the ability to design, run,
challenge of building your course materials from scratch.
and analyze an innovative study; for a professor of busi-
The next section provides some practical advice on meet-
ness, it might be the ability to put together a business
ing this particular challenge.
plan that a potential investor would get excited about.
You will, of course, need to take into account such
Course Outline
practical considerations as what you can realistically fit
The next step is to develop your course outline. Your pre-
into a quarter, what your department expects from your
vious work, defining your teaching goals and the most
course, whether or not it is part of a sequence, how pre-
important learning outcomes for your course, will serve
pared and committed your students are, what resources
as a guide as you make specific decisions about course
are available for the classroom and students, and your
materials and content.
own strengths and experience as a teacher. For these rea-
sons, it may take several rounds of teaching and revising
Choose the Readings A major decision will be whether
a course before you feel confident about your ability to
or not to adopt a general text. If you are like most teach-
achieve all of your desirable goals. Give yourself room to
ers, it is unlikely that any one book will meet all your
grow. Emphasize the essential learning outcomes first, with
needs. However, most students prefer some textbook that
an eye to facilitating desired learning whenever possible.
integrates the course for them, as long as it is reasonably
well-written. One solution is to make the students
Translating Goals into Course Content
responsible for mastering the text, and then use your lec-
Once you have identified the most important learning
tures to present alternative points of view or to fill in the
outcomes for your course, you are ready to assemble the
textbook’s gaps. Since students are often confused by
means that will best support your goals. In doing so, you
contradiction between textbook and lecture, be sure to
will want to focus on three questions:
explain to them what you will be doing, why it is useful,
• What materials (textbooks, articles, lecture content) do
and how they can best integrate lecture and textbook
students need access to in order to achieve your learn-
when studying. If you don’t choose a general textbook,
ing outcomes? Choose your reading and resource list
it’s even more important to consider how your readings
based on the quality of the information, ideas, and
relate to each other and your lectures. Again, make sure
training provided, and use classroom time to fill in the
your students understand how to integrate multiple
gaps between your goals and the content of those read-
readings and lecture content. From the student’s per-
ings/resources.
spective, it is also considerate to minimize the expense of
using several books or the inconvenience of placing a
• What assignments (papers, problem sets, projects) and
large amount of material on reserve. Such seemingly triv-
experiences (discussions, labs, field trips, collaborative
9
ial factors can influence whether or not a student takes
Design Class Activities How exactly do you want to
your course.
spend class time? Will you lecture throughout, or devote
Beyond the required books, readings can include
considerable time to other activities? Although lecturing
articles that further illustrate applications or offer alter-
might seem to be the natural mode, it can encourage pas-
native points of view. Your own handouts are another
sivity in students. You may want to build in other activi-
valuable resource. They can be especially helpful to sup-
ties that require interaction with the class. Does it make
plement or summarize your lectures, as long as you keep
sense to include short discussion periods in every class, or
the number of pages to a minimum. Students will also
to schedule occasional days of discussion only? Are there
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make use of recommended readings if you provide
guest lecturers or field experiences that could provide
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structure for that use. When you give a list of additional
special insight into a topic? Will role-playing help stu-
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readings, indicate which books students can consult for
dents understand certain topics? Is there a film that does
help in doing projects or solving problems, which works
a particularly good job of covering a topic? (Note that
you suggest they refer to when writing a paper, and
film use is popular with students only when the film is
which resources can benefit students who lack certain
excellent and is not perceived as merely a time-saving tool
background knowledge or
for a busy instructor.) Also consider delegating a certain
One of the difficulties of conceptu-
who wish to pursue a
amount of content coverage to peer instruction, in which
alizing a course is avoiding the
favorite subject further.
students—through careful group research and presenta-
tyranny of coverage: forcing stu-
tions—teach their classmates. Studies have shown that
dents to know everything I know
Create an Order for Your
students achieve the highest level of information reten-
in some modified form. The good
Course Topics You prob-
tion and comprehension when they have taught the mate-
news is that you know a lot about
ably have a good sense of
rial themselves. Explain to students the value of such
the subject; the bad news is that
the major topics that you
active engagement with the course content; you may also
it’s more difficult because you are
need to cover. However, to
want to devote some class time and office hours to guid-
likely to overwhelm students. Your
be thorough, you can
ing students in their explorations and preparing them for
need to impart everything you
check the major textbooks
peer instruction, so that they do not perceive peer
know may not match what they
in your field, the concerns
instruction as an avoidance of your own teaching duties.
need to know.
of the leading journals,
Russ Fernald, Benjamin Scott
and the syllabi of your col-
Plan the Course Calendar Finally, of course, you will
Crocker Professor of Human
leagues teaching similar
want to study the academic calendar and actually decide
Biology
courses or courses that
on a week-by-week sequencing of topics, readings,
precede or follow yours in a sequence. How to best order
assignments, and exams. Check carefully for school holi-
these topics? A system may immediately suggest itself—
days or other events (like “Big Game”) that might affect
such as proceeding chronologically or using the order of
student attendance or ability to complete assignments.
the textbook you adopt. You may also consider a mean-
Consider leaving some flexibility in your outline for stu-
ingful order of course topics that builds from the
dent feedback (e.g., on course topics, reading load, and
abstract to the specific, or that alternates between theory
coursework difficulty), as well as unforeseen complica-
and application, or that groups course topics by the
tions (e.g., having to reschedule an exam if the majority
kinds of approaches, skills, or methods they require.
of your students have another exam that day).
Whatever order you choose, be sure that student
Get Feedback Once you have your course outline, check
learning builds on itself. For example, you would not
it over carefully. Even better, have a colleague look it over
expect students to synthesize alternative viewpoints until
and react. Is it meaty—is there enough material to chal-
they were first able to compare viewpoints and you
lenge the students intellectually and sustain their inter-
would not expect them to compare viewpoints until they
est? Is it flexible—if students make suggestions, do you
had first learned how to analyze an argument. Nor would
have room to incorporate them? Is it coherent—is there
you expect students to design experiments that test com-
a recognizable connection between the lectures, readings,
plex hypotheses before they had first developed basic
and assignments? Do the major themes of the course
inquiry skills on more simple problems. For this reason,
stand out? Is there a sense of intellectual movement—
the order of your topics should complement and support
will students emerge with not only more information,
the development of the key ideas and skills that students
but also new skills and capabilities?
are working to master.
10
Syllabus
• Contribute to decisions about course content and activ-
Once your course outline is finished, you can prepare a
ities. You might do this by offering a choice of reading
version of it for your students. Your syllabus is both an
materials for some topics, a vote on supplemental lecture
invitation to students interested in your course and a
topics, or options for final project topics.
contract between you and the student. For these reasons,
• Take responsibility for their own learning. You can facil-
your syllabus should contain, at a minimum:
itate this by providing students with information about
• a course description, including your objectives for the
university resources (e.g., academic coaching and tutor-
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course;
ing services) as well as general study tips, a list of sup-
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plemental resources for the course, and suggestions for
• course prerequisites;
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excelling in your particular course.
• a list of assignments and due dates;
In these ways, the learning-centered syllabus
• a description of exams (exam format and topics cov-
becomes a guide for students, rather than just a summa-
ered) and their dates;
ry of course details.
• statements on your grading, attendance, and other poli-
cies, including the University Honor Code (see page 73)
and information about the Student Disability Resource
Consider Your Audience
Center (see page 51–52);
• office hours and location, your telephone number
Who are your students? What are their motivations
for taking your course? What background knowl-
and/or your email address, and the address for the
edge and skills can you expect them to have? The success
course website, if you have developed one. Similar
of your course will be determined not only by how well
information should be provided for any TAs assisting in
it meets your department’s goals, or even your personal
the course. The more you make the TAs full members of
teaching goals, but by how well you manage to match
your teaching team, the more likely they will make sig-
your course content to the goals and backgrounds of
nificant contributions to the class, the students, and you.
your students. Many things influence who shows up in
In addition, you can attract or retain interested
your classroom the first day and how they feel about
students by listing more specific details of the course,
being there. Some simple factors include the timing of
including the titles or topics of each lecture. Consider
the course (early morning versus late afternoon, fall ver-
framing each lecture in terms of questions that the lec-
sus spring), the subject matter and level of the course,
ture will answer, for example: “What does it take to win a
and whether it is required or elective. To get a general
Nobel Prize these days?” (a lecture on the modern history
sense of your likely audience, talk to students majoring in
of science) or “Why does tap water taste different at
your field and instructors who have recently taught a
Stanford than in the Bronx?” (a lecture on water quality).
course like yours. Also, try remembering yourself at your
Also consider leaving one or two days untitled, to invite
students’ stage in life: what your priorities were, what
students to choose a supplemental lecture topic or to
interests and life constraints conflicted with your aca-
allow for catch-up if necessary. Some instructors go fur-
demic priorities, and what you needed from an instruc-
ther and include short summaries of the major themes or
tor. (Remember, though, that since you chose an aca-
debates for each unit in the course.
demic career, you were not a “typical” undergraduate.
If you are interested in going beyond the minimum
Don’t rely too much on your own undergraduate experi-
requirements for your syllabus, consider the “learning-
ences when judging the needs of today’s students.) By
centered” model for syllabus design. A learning-centered
considering many factors, you can begin to imagine the
syllabus not only outlines the instructor’s goals and
needs and possible attitudes of your students.
objectives for the course, but also guides students to take
Of these factors, the most fundamental considera-
responsibility for their own learning (Grunert, 1997). For
tion is the academic stage of your students. Are you ush-
example, a learning-centered syllabus invites students to:
ering students into a field or putting the finishing touch-
• Identify their own goals for the course: What are they
es on their professional training? Can you trust that the
hoping to learn? How does this course fit into their aca-
students in your class have at least a basic interest in the
demic plan of study, their professional goals, or their
course material, or are you still trying to convince a
personal goals?
group of ambivalent but curious students of the merits
of your field? Most obviously, graduate and undergradu-
11
ate students differ in motivation, background, and
as you go along. It may become important to become
habits. Graduate students are animated by their career
acquainted with tutoring resources at Stanford that can
goals. As a group, they (usually) share a background of
help individual students fill in any gaps in background
prerequisites for the field and are familiar with its vocab-
knowledge and training (see “Teaching Support” later in
ulary. They are used to working independently and con-
this section for specific suggestions). With a group of stu-
tributing to the course. Advanced majors in your field
dents that varies widely in motivation and background,
may resemble graduate students in these attributes.
you may also want to collect work or schedule tests more
A roomful of undergraduates, on the other hand,
frequently, to gauge the progress of their learning.
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provides some interesting challenges. Some students are
These predictions and generalizations may not
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investigating various careers; your course may influence
apply to the unique set of students who walk into your
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whether someone decides to become a chemist, a lin-
classroom each quarter. Students can always surprise
guist, or an anthropologist. In introductory and lecture
you! Many professors distribute a questionnaire during
courses, it is especially important to communicate the
the first class of the quarter to find out more about their
excitement of your subject and its relevance to students’
students’ backgrounds and interests. It is important, in
goals and the world at large. This is particularly true if
any case, to continue assessing your audience’s needs
students tend to view your course mainly as a stepping
throughout the term—you will be rewarded for your
stone to other courses (for example, as a pre-med student
efforts with increased student motivation, interest, and
might view a chemistry course). In this case, put partic-
performance.
ular effort into interesting examples and applications,
and create an environment where students feel both
empowered and responsible for their learning.
Administrative Details
Students’ backgrounds may vary widely in early-
stage courses; if this is true for you, you will need to teach
Administrative details must be tended to several
months before a class at Stanford begins. Some of
the language of your field, its methods, and approaches
these details are handled by department staff, some by
professors or instructors in charge of a course, and some
by teaching assistants. Fortunately, the department staff
generally keeps you informed of the deadlines, as long as
they know your teaching plans. Here is a summary of
details to be aware of:
Book Orders and Course Readers
Bookstore forms are available through your department
staff. Completed forms are due well in advance of the
quarter in which you plan to teach—generally the mid-
dle of the previous quarter, but the first week in May for
the following autumn. Try to submit course readers early;
your students will receive a substantial discount, and it will
allow the bookstore plenty of time to obtain permissions.
Check that the books and readers have arrived before the
first class meeting, so that you can make alternative
I think that there are two goals in teaching an introductory science
arrangements or assignments if necessary.
course. One is to provide the grammar. That is, there is a certain
amount of intellectual background and there are certain skills that
The Time Schedule and Stanford Bulletin
people need to develop in order to move on in the subject and to
Plan your teaching schedule well in advance, keeping in
learn more complicated material. The second point is to provide
mind what other commitments you will have during
some sense of the big picture of the beauty and the majesty of the
each quarter. Listings for the Stanford Bulletin have a late
intellectual discipline, to provide some sense of the big picture of
spring deadline for classes that will be taught the next
what it’s all about.
academic year. Information for the Time Schedule is due
Robert Waymouth, Robert Eckles Swain Professor in Chemistry
to your department administrator about a quarter and a
12
half before the quarter during which you will be teach-
books need to be ordered. Other materials may be put on
ing. This is also the time to make decisions regarding
reserve at much shorter notice. Branch libraries’ reserve
days and times to offer your class, as well as the type of
procedures may vary. Please check directly with the staff
classroom you’ll need and grading options you’ll offer
of the branch library involved.
students. For more information, check with your depart-
ment staff, the Bulletin website (http://bulletin.stanford.
Submitting Grades
edu/), or the Registrar’s Office website (http://registrar.
Grades must be entered online by the course professor,
stanford.edu/).
using the Axess system (an online registration and gener-
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al class information resource for students), though the
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Classrooms
professor can assign his or her grading proxy to other
Room assignments—which are done through a universi-
members of the teaching team. Faculty can also use the
ty-wide system, not by your specific department—are
Axess website (http://axess.stanford.edu) to view class
generally made when the Time Schedule is drawn up.
rosters, get information about advisees, and search the
However, you can have a great deal of control over the
Time Schedule. Grades are usually due at 11:59 p.m. on
kind of room you get by letting your departmental
the Tuesday after finals week, except in spring quarter,
administrator know what classroom features you need.
when the grades for graduating seniors are due at noon
Consider whether you will need extra blackboard space,
on the Thursday immediately following the last day of
a SmartPanel for multimedia presentations, or room for
finals. A brochure containing instructions for connecting
in-class demonstrations. Over the last few years, the
to and using the Axess website is sent to all faculty mem-
Registrar’s Office has greatly upgraded its method of
bers via ID mail. The text of the brochure is also available
assigning rooms and will try to accommodate faculty
on the Registrar’s Office website (http://registrar.stan-
and TA preferences as much as possible. Visit your
ford.edu/). Your department administrator is a good
assigned room as soon as possible, both to see if it meets
source of help before you get started.
your needs and to get a sense of where you’ll be teaching.
Consider whether the layout of the room is compatible
Equipment
with your needs; for example, whether furniture can be
You will also need to plan ahead if you use any audiovi-
arranged to facilitate discussion, or whether there is suf-
sual or computer equipment in your teaching. Although
ficient laboratory work space so that students do not
all classrooms are supposed to have overhead projectors,
have to use pieces of equipment as bookshelves or stor-
few other amenities are universal. Nor does Stanford
age during experiments. If you will need a different
have a central office for making equipment arrange-
room, ask your departmental administrator to contact
ments. The best way to secure what you need for your
Room Scheduling, at reg-courses@stanford.edu or 725-
class is to let your department administrator know a
1892. After the quarter starts, room changes will be much
quarter in advance exactly what kind of classroom and
more difficult.
features you will require; when the administrator sub-
mits other kinds of course information to the Registrar’s
Reserve Material
Office, he or she will then specify what kind of equip-
Books, photocopies, audiovisual materials, lecture notes,
ment you need. The Registrar’s Office will do its best to
and old exams can be put on reserve at Green Library
assign an appropriate room. The university has a number
and at some of the branch libraries for loan periods vary-
of technologically enhanced rooms that can handle lap-
ing from two hours to three days. Green will place one
top presentations, CDs, DVDs, VHS, and other peripher-
copy on reserve per 25 students in your class. To put
al devices. To see a listing of these, check the Registrar’s
materials on reserve for a class, fill out the required form,
home page (http://www.stanford.edu/dept/registrar/),
with full citations for the requested materials, and pro-
then select ‘faculty,’ ‘classroom,’ and ‘enhanced class-
vide your contact information. It is also possible to sub-
rooms.’ If you will only need the equipment on a one-
mit your reserve list electronically; check the information
time or infrequent basis, check first to see if your depart-
on the Green Library website at http://www-sul.stan-
ment can fulfill your needs. If not, the Registrar’s Office
ford.edu/services/course_reserves/index.html. These
will pay the cost of rented equipment, that they would
forms should be submitted at least six weeks before the
usually have in a technology enhanced classroom, up to
beginning of the quarter, especially if recently published
two times per quarter for a class (but not for sections);
13
your order must be received one week in advance. See
your departmental administrator for details.
EQUIPMENT CHECKLIST
If you teach laboratory courses or need to do
Appropriateness
demonstrations in class, equipment is even more of an
■ Is the equipment appropriate to the goals you
issue. If your course will require the purchase of new
have set for the course?
equipment, plan well ahead to locate funds. You will
also need to check out the existing equipment in
Considerations when using existing equipment
advance to make sure everything is in working order.
■ Is there enough for the number of students
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Even if everything seems in order when the quarter
and type of experiments in your class?
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begins, you or your TAs should run through the
■ Is there sufficient workspace around the
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planned experiment or demonstration at least a week
equipment?
in advance to take care of any last-minute problems.
■ Is it working well?
While this advice may seem obvious, experience tells
■ Is it recent enough for your course’s purposes?
us that pre-testing equipment and dry-running “obvi-
■ Will other classes be using it?
ously straightforward” labs are among the first things
Considerations when using new equipment
to be dropped as instructors become busy. Consider
■ Will the new equipment enhance students’
this detail an important commitment to your stu-
understanding or practice enough to justify
dents’ learning, rather than a hassle. Prepare adequate
the expense?
documentation on how to use the equipment for stu-
■ Are there grants or other sources of funds to
dents and TAs. Finally, you will also have to anticipate
cover its purchase?
such related concerns as safety procedures, training for
■ Can it be set up and in reliable working order
the students, and access arrangements. Much of this
in time for the course?
will depend on the circumstances in your own depart-
■ Is all the necessary secondary equipment also
ment, but the following checklist may be helpful.
on hand?
Training/accessibility arrangements
■ Will students already be familiar with the
equipment or will extensive training be
required?
■ If training is necessary, will students have suf-
ficient access to the equipment to practice on
it as well as to do their experiments?
■ Is documentation adequate?
■ Will consultants, TAs, or you be on hand to
guide students during training?
■ Is equipment or accessibility sufficient so that
each student will have enough hands-on time?
Maintenance
■ Are supplies on hand for “quick fixes”; e.g.,
fuses, extra probes?
■ Are arrangements clear for the reporting and
repair of broken equipment?
■ Are students adequately informed of safety
Using new technologies for the first time can be challenging.
and clean-up procedures?
CTL provides assistance on how to use and integrate technology
effectively into your course.
■ If equipment breaks down at crucial times, are
there other resources for students?
■ Are adequate files being kept on equipment
specifications, vendors, repair arrangements,
etc.?
14
Teaching Support
TAs typically have a number of other academic
commitments, including a full course load and substan-
It’s easy to see the planning ofa course as an independ- tial research projects,and they may or may not be getting
ent endeavor. However, there are many resources avail-
paid for their TA work. For this reason, try to make their
able to support your teaching at Stanford, including
TA experience as rewarding as possible, and distribute
teaching assistants, administrative support, and tutoring
teaching and grading responsibilities fairly among your
services. Plan from the beginning to integrate these
TAs. Check with your colleagues and ask TAs what the
resources into all stages of your course preparation and
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norms are in your department before you design assign-
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teaching.
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ments that demand extra TA time: a course with short
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weekly papers will require much more work from a TA
Working with Teaching Assistants
than one that has only a midterm and a final.
TAs are often an underutilized resource when it comes to
Meet with your TAs on a weekly basis to talk about
course planning. Even experienced faculty frequently
how things are going and to discuss any problems or
won’t start meeting with their TAs until after the course
questions. Make arrangements to visit their classes, and
has begun. Instead, consider meeting with them a few
offer gentle but honest feedback afterward. The notes
weeks before the quarter starts (if your department
from these visits may be handy later if your TAs ask for
makes TA assignments early enough to make this possi-
letters of recommendation on their teaching. Let your
ble). Make explicit your goals for the course and what
TAs know of the services, such as videorecording or
you will expect from them. Ask each TA to think about
classroom observation, that are available to them from
how he or she can most effectively contribute to the
the Center for Teaching and Learning. To keep it a recip-
course. You may discover that your TAs have excellent
rocal relationship, ask the TAs for their comments on
ideas for supplementary materials, suggestions for
how you’re doing in the classroom. TAs may also have a
assignment instructions and grading guidelines, and
good sense of student satisfaction and concerns because
insights on how to explain difficult material.
of their frequent interaction with them. For these rea-
You will also be giving your TAs an opportunity to
sons, TAs can be an outstanding teaching resource
learn more about the art of teaching, one of the benefits
beyond their obvious support duties.
they deserve from the many hours they will be putting
into your course. Ask your TAs if there are specific teach-
Department Staff
ing skills (e.g., giving a guest lecture or designing a new
Get to know your department’s staff. They can be an
class activity) they would like the opportunity to prac-
invaluable aid—not only with book orders, equipment
tice, in addition to the more administrative TA duties.
requests, and scheduling problems, but as a source of
Encouraging TAs to take initiative also requires that you
information and assistance on all sorts of daily academic
provide them with essential support. In many cases, after
hassles. At the same time, remember that the staff mem-
all, they will be young, inexperienced, and perhaps not
bers’ experience and expertise deserve your respect. Staff
even particularly well versed in the specific area they’ve
often choose to work at Stanford precisely because they
been assigned to teach. They may have only the vaguest
enjoy faculty and student contact. You will make your
idea of what it takes to prepare a review, the introduction
own and their work more satisfying if you appreciate the
to a lab, or a lecture. If your department does not provide
importance of their assistance not just to your specific
TAs with an orientation, you can hold your own mini-
needs, but also to the higher purposes of academics. As
orientation. The Center for Teaching and Learning (723-
one administrative assistant said, “Something more
1326) is available to help you; you can also ask the more
important than money, awards, etc., is for the person
experienced TAs in your department to provide advice. If
who is dishing out the work to say, ‘Thank you—great
the TAs’ responsibilities include experiment set-up, man-
job!’ The people who take just a minute, even though
aging the course website and email lists, or setting up for
they have a busy schedule, to say thanks, I will work all
lecture, provide them with adequate instruction in these
the harder for them next time and squeeze their requests
duties. New TAs may also be unaware of the depart-
in even if I am swamped myself.”
ment’s curriculum, its grading policies, or its administra-
tive procedures; provide them with whatever informa-
tion is most relevant to your course.
15
Academic Services
Stanford offers a wide range of academic services for stu-
TUTORING RESOURCES
dents. Make sure your students are aware of them; they
CTL Peer Tutoring Program
can provide tremendous support to students who require
(http://ctl.stanford.edu/Tutoring/index.html)
help above and beyond what you or your teaching assis-
The CTL provides peer tutors in Biological
tants can provide. Connecting students to these services
Sciences, Chemistry, Computer Science,
can save you time and increase your teaching satisfaction
Economics, Engineering, Human Biology,
by maximizing the number of students who are success-
Math, Physics, Psychology, Statistics, and some
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ful in your course.
foreign languages. Contact: Amy Chambers,
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a.chambers@stanford.edu, 736-7996.
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Learning Skills Assessment and Coaching
• Residential Tutoring Residential tutors hold
(http://learningskills.stanford.edu)
a minimum of six office hours a week in their
CTL provides academic skills coaching for students who
dorms, and most are available outside of office
are experiencing academic difficulties. Each student’s dif-
hours.
ficulties are individually assessed. If the problem stems
• Drop-in Tutoring Peer tutors are available
from learning skills deficits, the learning skills specialist
during office hours, usually between 6 p.m. and
helps the student develop the skills to address these prob-
midnight Tuesday through Sunday, at various
lems, including strategies for time management, reading,
locations around campus.
note taking, test preparation, and test taking. If the
assessment points to a learning disability, initial screen-
Athletic Department Tutors
ings are provided, and, if warranted, referrals are made to
The Athletic Academic Resource Center (AARC)
the Office of Accessible Education. If an emotional or
(http://www.stanford.edu/dept/uar/advising.html)
psychological problem seems to be at the core of the aca-
hires and supervises graduate and upper-class
demic difficulty, referrals are made to CAPS. Contact:
undergraduate students to tutor athletes. Contact:
Adina Glickman, adinag@stanford.edu, 723-8676.
Duane Voigt, duane.voigt@stanford.edu, 725-
0790.
Student Peer Support
The Stanford University Math Organization
Calling on your students to take responsibility for their
(http://sumo.stanford.edu) SUMO hires under-
own and others’ learning can substantially improve stu-
graduate and graduate students who offer
dent performance and support your teaching goals.
tutoring to undergraduate math students.
Peer Study Groups
Tau Beta Pi (Engineering)
You can recommend or require that your students form
(http://www.stanford.edu/group/tbp/tutoring.
study groups. Group study has numerous advantages. It
htm) Tau Beta Pi organizes volunteer peer
increases the amount of attention each individual stu-
tutors who offer tutoring to undergraduates
dent receives and peers often best understand each
taking engineering courses.
other’s problems with the material. Group discussion
also increases the number of perspectives on the materi-
The Writing Center Writing Tutors
al that each student experiences. Moreover, work in small
(http://swc.stanford.edu/tutoring)
groups is active, rather than passive, learning. Teaching
Writing tutors who are trained and supervised
someone else is one of the best ways to test and reinforce
by the Writing Center can assist students in
one’s own learning. Moreover, group learning, because of
general writing skills or specific writing assign-
its sociable context, tends to be self-reinforcing. Many
ments. Some are also residential writing tutors,
professors advise students to discuss assignments or
providing assistance in students’ dorms.
papers together before they write them up individually.
Oral Communication Tutors
Students can also prepare and share written summaries,
(http://ctl.stanford.edu/Oralcomm/tutoring.html)
dividing the topics among the people in one group or
Oral Communication tutors are trained and
among the different groups. Each group might also give
supervised by CTL. Contact: Doree Allen at
a presentation to the full class on a certain topic.
725-4149, or Marianne Neuwirth at 736-7298.
16
Peer Tutoring
ers feel a mixture of excitement and anxiety about the
Another effective method of helping students, especially
first class of the quarter; no two classes are the same, and
in large classes, is appointing student tutors from the
each first day presents its own surprises and challenges.
class. The late Professor William Reynolds of Mechanical
Whether you are teaching for the very first time or are a
Engineering used to give a test on background material
seasoned veteran of the classroom, prepare carefully for
at the end of the first lecture and use the results to select
the initial class. With sufficient preparation, the first class
several tutors. He would then assign the tutors to spend
will take on the quality of an adventure you’ve been look-
two hours each week advising fellow students on how to
ing forward to. Your preparation and attitude is conta-
Pr
epar
C
our
solve homework problems and checking their results. In
gious: students will pick up on your excitement, be more
ation
se
addition, Reynolds gave the student tutors a few special
likely to commit to your class, and invest greater energy
lectures to broaden their knowledge of the material. The
in the class. As one student said, “When you know that
tutors were excused from turning in their homework, but
the professor cares about the class, then you’re going to
they took exams and were graded according to the same
go out and [prepare] that much better than you ever
standards as the rest of the class. Reynolds’s approach
would have before.” In this section, we discuss strategies
proved successful because it both saved the teacher time
for both the new and experienced teacher.
and gave the students a substantial amount of attention.
If you don’t want to make tutoring arrangements within
Your First Teaching Experience
your class, there are a host of existing tutoring resources
There are many things you can do before the first class of
that you can recommend to your students. CTL, as
the quarter to prepare for your first teaching experience.
noted, coordinates several tutoring programs; call CTL
If possible, observe at least one class like the one you will
for information at 736-7996 or check our website at
be teaching. Talk with the instructor about problems or
http://tutoring.stanford.edu.
successes he or she has had with the course. Ask experi-
enced faculty or graduate students in your department
for information and tips. Visit your classroom in advance
and familiarize yourself with the lighting, equipment,
and layout; it’s amazing how fast one’s technology IQ can
drop when trying to figure out new equipment in front
of a room of students.
To prepare for your first class, choose a strong
opening. There are several conventional ways to open a
course. First, you can explain what you hope to accom-
plish in the course and why you find the subject matter
important. You might begin by simply raising some of
the more fascinating questions or problems that your
field addresses to spark students’ curiosity. You can then
describe in more detail how your course might help stu-
dents address those questions or solve those problems.
In addition to the extensive tutoring services available on
Go over the topics of the course and let students know
campus, finding student tutors in your own class may be a
how your course connects with others in the discipline.
great way of helping students in need.
You will probably also hand out your syllabus and go
over it with the class. In discussing the syllabus and
course organization, you should explain how the lectures
Preparing for the First Class
and sections or labs—if the latter are part of the course—
fit together. Bring more syllabi (and any other handouts)
Acommon fear,especially for new teachers,is that the
first class will be a disaster. If you’ve never taught
than you think you’ll need; many more students may
before, perhaps you worry that you will forget your lec-
“shop” your class than will be enrolled in it on Axess. Be
ture, your demonstrations will fail, you will be unable to
ready to answer questions on grading and exams and to
answer your students’ questions, or you will have to wake
recommend alternatives if the students tell you the read-
students up at the end of class. Even experienced teach-
ings aren’t available yet.
17
You can also tell your students something about
Although many teachers devote the first day mere-
yourself that first day. If the class is small, you can have
ly to such preliminaries, we recommend that you make a
class members introduce themselves. If the class will
running start—that is, that you also begin discussing
require a lot of student interaction in discussions or proj-
material or presenting information. This signals to the
ects, you might divide the students into pairs and give
students that you are serious about making their time
each pair five minutes to interview each other (be sure to
with you worthwhile and that you expect progress to be
indicate when the time is half over). The pairs then intro-
made in every session together. Since students are also
duce each other to the rest of the group. This method has
“shopping around” for the best courses at the beginning
se
ation
the advantage of not putting people on the spot to talk
of a term, you will give them a fairer sense of your course
our
C
epar
about themselves and yet making sure everyone already
by actually digging into the subject matter and letting
Pr
knows at least one other member of the group. Also con-
them sample your approach. Many new teachers prepare
sider giving your students a minute to swap email
too much material for their first class, but if you don’t yet
addresses or phone numbers with at least one other per-
have a feel for how much time a topic requires, your con-
son in the class—this provides a safety net for the student
fidence will be better served by having too much rather
who misses a class or needs help with an assignment; it
than too little to do. For flexibility, you can divide your
also minimizes the number of trivial questions you’ll
topics into basic and optional material. Make a list of all
receive about course details.
of the basic topics you need to address and indicate the
Learn your students’ names as soon as possible,
time at which you need to move on to each topic. Leave
even in a large class; students will invest more in a class
some time for questions from the students, but don’t
when the professor knows them. If the class is small
depend on the students to fill up the time.
enough, considering taking digital photos to review later.
In general, remember this: you know more than
Former Dean of Engineering James Gibbons took
you think, and your excitement about your field will
Polaroid photographs at the end of his first class and had
carry you far in your students’ minds. Your students want
the students sign them.
to cooperate, and they want to learn. As one student put
He then used odd
it, “The main thing that made this professor really good
The teacher, as has been recognized at
moments, on planes or
was that he was so inspired and so excited about his sub-
least since Plato’s Meno, is not prima-
rily someone who knows instructing
at meals, to shuffle
ject…. That was a class I really had to work hard in, and
someone who does not know. He is
through the cards until
the only thing that kept me working hard was that I felt
rather someone who attempts to
the names and faces
he was working really hard for me too.”
re-create the subject in the student’s
were all familiar. If the
mind, and his strategy in doing this is
class is large, you might
The First Class of the Quarter
first of all to get the student to recog-
consider using a seating
Even experienced teachers benefit from thorough prepa-
nize what he already potentially
chart for the first week
ration for the first class of the quarter. Decide whether
knows, which includes breaking up the
or two. This way, not
you will be covering only preliminaries or whether you
powers of repression in his mind that
only will you learn stu-
will make a running start by covering important materi-
keep him from knowing what he
dents’ names, but they
al. Be prepared to give students some sense of the “big
knows. That is why it is the teacher,
will also learn one
picture” of the course—its content, methods, themes,
rather than the student, who asks most
another’s. In the Busi-
and goals, as described above—since this is what will
of the questions.
ness School, students all
attract many students to the course. Also remember that
Northrop Frye, The Great Code
put their names on a
many of the students’ questions at the first meeting will
placard that they set out
deal with such concrete matters as section times and
in each class. As a result, professors and students get to
locations, the availability and price of the textbook or
know each other quickly. Some teachers pass out 3 x 5
course reader, grading policies, and the dates of papers
cards and ask the students to write down their names,
and examinations. Therefore, prepare both to intrigue
addresses, and a couple of sentences about why they are
your students with the topics of your course and to be
taking this course. You might also ask students what their
clear about the commitment the course will require of
favorite class at Stanford has been and what it was about
them. Demonstrate your commitment to the students by
that class that they most enjoyed. This will give you a
making a serious effort to learn their names and their
sense of what your students expect and appreciate.
reasons for taking the course, and by letting them know
18
when and why they should visit your office
hours.
SEVEN WAYS TO HANDLE NERVOUSNESS
Professor Umran Inan of Electrical
Practice
Engineering offers two additional suggestions
Practice doesn’t make perfect, but doing a presentation
for the first class of the quarter. First, he rec-
out loud several times before the real thing will make
ommends that you begin by connecting your
you feel more confident, especially if you practice under
new material with something the students are
conditions as close to the actual situation as possible. Do
familiar with—their prior experience in anoth-
Pr
epar
C
at least one dry run in front of an audience, even if the
our
er class or elsewhere. This will lessen their anx-
ation
audience is just a friend.
se
iety about embarking on new material and
increase their interest in a subject whose signif-
Concentrate on the Ideas
icance may not yet be clear to them. Second, he
Concentrate on the ideas you want to get across, not on
suggests that you point out assumptions the
your own nervousness. Even shy people speak up when
students bring from their previous experiences
it’s something they care about. Think about your audi-
and then “violate” one of those assumptions.
ence’s needs, not your own.
For example, in a course on electromagnetism,
Make a Strong Start
he might “start by saying that in engineering we
You’ll be most nervous at the beginning of the talk, so
work with lumped linear and time invariant
start with an introduction that will be easy to remember
systems.” He then asks students to define these
and that will relax you as well as the audience.
terms, because “everyone knows what these are,
but not very clearly, it turns out.” Finally, after
Visualize
getting the students involved in clarifying their
Rehearse for your first presentation by actually visualiz-
assumptions aloud, he pulls the rug out from
ing how it will go. Imagine what you’d like to say, how
under them: he shows that when studying elec-
you’d like to say it, and a positive response from the audi-
tromagnetism, one doesn’t work with lumped
ence. Many athletes use a similar approach by imagining
systems at all but rather with distributed cir-
an entire dive or jump, in detail, before they actually do it.
cuits. Immediately, he’s piqued the students’
Use Audiovisual Aids or Multimedia
curiosity and drawn them into the subjects he
Particularly if you have lots of technical information to
wants to cover.
cover, it can be reassuring to have much of it already
Techniques like these, and others you
written on transparencies or PowerPoint slides. Even just
may discover in talking with your colleagues
an outline on the board can reassure you that you won’t
and students, should help the quarter begin
forget what you want to say. Be sure to look at your audi-
successfully. Remember, however, that even if
ence as much as possible, however, and not at your out-
the first session does not go as well as you had
line or PowerPoint slides.
hoped, your future with the class is far from
Assume a Confident Attitude
doomed. Stanford students are amazingly for-
To a large extent, you can control your own reaction to
giving as long as they can see that you are mak-
sweaty palms or a beating heart. Tell yourself you’re “psy-
ing a serious effort. You will also find them
ched,” not nervous. Remember that to an audience, nerv-
willing to make suggestions on how you could
ousness can seem like dynamism or energy. Your attitude
change things for the better, if you decide this is
will probably determine what the audience thinks.
necessary. You can ask them for their ideas
directly, or use one of several evaluation tech-
Breathe
niques that the Center for Teaching and
Right before your presentation, take a few moments to
Learning makes available. See page 60 for more
regulate and deepen your breathing. When it comes to
suggestions on evaluating and improving your
public speaking, your breath is your main support. The
teaching.
moment you start to feel a case of nerves building up,
take a deep breath. You will start to feel better immedi-
ately and your voice will convey your relaxation and
confidence.
19
FIRST-DAY GUIDELINES
To Get Ready
■ Check out location and appropriateness of
assigned room
■ Arrange well in advance any audiovisual,
multimedia, or experimental equipment
required
se
ation
our
■ Order and verify arrival of textbooks at
C
epar
Pr
bookstore/reference materials in library;
make arrangements for any other reading,
photocopying
■ Meet with teaching assistants, if applicable
■ Prepare a syllabus, including all or most of
the following:
• Your name, office location, office hours,
phone number, and email address
• The same information on your TA(s)
• Course description/course objectives
• Lecture-by-lecture or weekly topics
• Readings and their location
• Course requirements/prerequisites
• Scheduling of exams, papers, or other
assignments
• Grading policy, including any penalties
for late or missed work
• Discussion of academic honesty/dishon-
esty and such issues as what constitutes
plagiarism
• Sources of assistance with course materi-
al such as tutoring resources, manuals for
equipment, etc.
On the First Day: Basics and Beyond
■ Introduce yourself/have the students
introduce themselves or each other
■ Discuss syllabus and/or course goals
■ Explain choice of textbook/readings, rela-
tionship of readings to lectures and/or
reviews
■ Ask the students questions, get them to
ask questions—establish a give-and-take
atmosphere
■ Introduce material that gives the flavor of
the class and connect it with courses or
experiences that students have already had
20
Teaching at
Teaching Strategies S tanford
Lecturing
21
lecturer, even highly motivated listeners lose concentra-
tion periodically and must find ways to reengage them-
Checklist for Effective Lecturing
28
selves with the lecture.
Discussion Leading
29
The best lectures, like any good talk, invite students
to think imaginatively and conceptually about a signifi-
Checklist for Effective Discussion Leading
32
cant theme or problem. They do more than “cover the
Laboratory Teaching
33
material.” Professor David Kennedy of History reminds
Other Teaching Approaches
34
us that a good lecture always offers a point of view and
Str
T
an entry into a field of study. It is not, however, the ideal
e
at
ac
Office Hours
35
e
platform for a complex scholarly argument or a massive
hing
gies
Electronic Tools for Communication
35
transfer of data. The goal is to illuminate a topic, not to
baffle students with its nuances or to overload them with
Technology in Teaching
36
information. You should also try for a relaxed, conversa-
tional tone; allow yourself to think out loud, and engage
with the material as you present it. It’s usually a mistake
to rely extensively on a verbatim text, which can result in
Great teaching occurs both in traditional classroom the kind of mind-numbing performance often parodied
settings and outside the classroom. In this section,
in television and movies. Professor Kennedy adds, “to the
we offer some practical advice specific to a variety of
extent you can present the message in a narrative form,
teaching contexts, from lectures to laboratories to office
you are taking advantage of a natural feature of cognitive
hours. This advice is just a sample of teaching strategies
receptivity.” So the successful lecturer is, above all else, a
that will apply to instructors in any field; for more
good storyteller. If you think back to the most memo-
detailed advice, or for strategies developed by instructors
rable lectures or academic talks you have heard, you will
in your field, consult the many resources available at the
probably agree.
Center for Teaching and Learning library or website
(http://ctl.stanford.edu).
Preparation
Thorough preparation of a lecture will increase your
confidence, improve your delivery style, and enhance the
Lecturing
effectiveness of your presentation. When preparation
For centuries, the lecture has been one of the principal
time is limited, focus on the following:
features of life in the university. At Stanford, most lec-
• Craft an introduction that will set a clear and engaging
tures run for at least fifty minutes, but the attention span
agenda.
of a typical student is considerably less than that. Tradi-
• Create an outline of your main points, examples, or
tional lecturing can be an effective way of communicat-
demonstration.
ing information and demonstrating processes; however,
• Prepare and practice a short conclusion that will tie the
it’s always a challenge to maintain the active interest of an
strands of the lecture together and place the lecture in
often sleep-deprived audience for such a long period.
the wider context of the course.
Even if it’s been some time since you were an undergrad-
uate sitting through a large lecture, simply consider what
• If you plan to use technology aids, prepare backups in
it takes to sustain your interest at an academic talk—then
case of technological difficulties.
imagine being tested on the talk afterwards! While the
• Be sure that any materials you need for lecture are
lecture material may seem inherently fascinating to the
organized and working properly, and rehearse any
demonstrations.
21
Basic Presentation Skills
pauses as a chance to catch up on their notes or reflect
You don’t need to be a charismatic showman to deliver a
on previous material.
strong lecture; begin by refining your basic presentation
• Try out a new lecture room ahead of time by talking to
skills.
a friend in the back row to make sure you can be heard
• Avoid reading your lectures verbatim; if you must refer
clearly. Recognize that in a full room, people “absorb”
to your notes frequently, combine this with lots of eye
sound, which means you may need to speak even loud-
contact.
er (or use a microphone).
• When making eye contact, actually look at specific indi-
• Try taping your lecture on a tape recorder and listen to
viduals while you make a point; don’t just continually
yourself. Better yet, have yourself videotaped by the
scan the room. Avoid the “drive-by” strategy of eye con-
Center for Teaching and Learning so that you can both
tact—throwing glances randomly around the room,
see and hear yourself.
hoping that some eye contact “sticks.” Individuals seem
For more help developing your presentation skills,
most comfortable with about five seconds of sustained
the Oral Communication Program (page 63) provides
eye contact.
workshops, classes, and one-on-one consultations.
hing
gies
e
• When you lecture, speak clearly and not too rapidly. If
ac
at
T
e
Str
students are busy taking notes, go even slower.
Structure and Pace
• Face the students as much as possible, rather than fac-
How you structure a lecture can make all the difference
ing the blackboard, projection screen, or laptop.
in whether students retain the material or understand it in
the first place. Whereas you may have thought about
• If you lose your train of thought, pause to think rather
your material for a long while, your students are hearing
than chattering aimlessly. Students often welcome
it for the first time. They only get one chance to make
sense of it, and their attention is divided between think-
ing about what you say and deciding what to write down.
Therefore, it is crucial that you do not try to say too
much and that you indicate—by emphasis, repetition,
and summaries—the major points and how they con-
nect. You could probably state your main points in just
ten or fifteen minutes, but students need time to under-
stand and reflect on each point. A good lecturer spends
the majority of his or her time on examples, analogies,
restatements, and questions. Use the following guidelines
to improve the structure and pace of your lectures:
• Your lecture topic should require no more than three to
five major points for its adequate development. If you
have more than five main points, you have more than
one lecture.
• Tell them what you’re going to tell them, tell them, and
then tell them what you’ve told them. Proficient lecturers
often begin by briefly outlining the points they will
If you have been successful in a lecture, you have done three
cover or raising questions that the lecture will answer.
things. First of all, you have imparted some useful information.
They then develop the points through examples and
Secondly, you have guided your auditors into some future (we
discussion. Finally, they conclude by reviewing the
hope) long-term engagement with a subject that’s dear to your
main ideas.
heart. And thirdly, you’ve left some food for thought on the
table. You haven’t presented such a completely closed circle of
• Repetition, while deadly in print, is essential in an oral
knowledge and data that there is no purchase on it other than
context. Repeat your points with interesting variations
simply to digest it. That I think is essentially the measure of a
in examples and demonstrations.
successful lecture.
• Most students can concentrate intently for only five to
David Kennedy, Donald J. McLachan Professor of History
ten minutes at a time. You can’t take commercial breaks,
22
but you can present the central concepts in brief, concen-
assignments and making sure students understand how
trated doses during these five to ten minute periods, and
lecture content relates to written assignments, problem
then offer a mini-summary to keep students caught up.
sets, or labs. Homework problems should give the stu-
• Follow each mini-summary with a clearly signaled tran-
dents the opportunity to apply information they have
sition to the next section. You can structure discussion,
just received.
Q and As, or even pauses, around these major blocks.
• Conclude a lecture by anticipating questions that will
Research has shown that two-minute silent pauses spaced
be answered or topics that will be addressed in the next
between lecture points improves student learning.
lecture.
• Consider spacing demonstrations, student participa-
• Cohesiveness among the parts of the lecture is equally
tion activities, and multimedia clips throughout your
important. When you compose a lecture, begin by iden-
lecture, to wake up students’ attention. The ten-minute
tifying the theme or topic of the lecture and why the stu-
rule works well for spacing interactive elements.
dents should learn about it. This practice focuses, and
• Pay attention to your audience! Puzzled looks are a
provides an overall structure for, the lecture. Or, try writ-
good indicator that you need to restate an idea more
ing down the things you have to cover. Go over them
Str
T
e
at
ac
simply, provide an example, or ask for questions.
until a unifying theme or organizational framework sug-
e
hing
gies
Furious scribbling is a sign to slow down and summa-
gests itself.
rize recent points.
Dr. Robert Wilson, formerly an educational researcher at
• Remember that a lecture, like great theater, is lost after
UC Berkeley, passed along another approach from a
the moment. Students need time to think, since they
physics professor on his campus. This professor left time
can’t replay or reread parts of your lecture. Pause after
at the end of each of his lectures for what he called a one-
complicated ideas, strive for simplicity in speech, and
minute exam, though it was in fact ungraded. Students
expand on one new idea at a time until it becomes
used the sixty seconds to respond to two questions—
familiar.
what was the most important point or theme of the day’s
lecture and what was the most important question left
Cohesiveness
unanswered. In this economical way, the professor got
If you’ve thought a great deal about your material, you
feedback on how well his lectures were hanging together
can probably articulate the key themes of your course, as
for the students and what points he might need to cover
well as how they develop from the beginning of the
again or still needed to cover.
course to the end. Your students want this same clarity:
they want the direction of the course to be apparent as
Putting Your Material in Context
they proceed, and they want to understand how each lec-
As one student put it, it’s important that “class doesn’t
ture relates to the whole. To help students see the under-
exist in a vacuum.” Students want professors to relate the
lying structure of the course, focus on creating cohesive-
material to other courses, to ideas in other fields, and to
ness between your individual lectures. The following
real-world examples and problems.
suggestions can help you increase the cohesiveness of
Students want to know how they might eventually
your course:
apply the ideas they’re studying. To you, the material may
have intrinsic appeal, but don’t count on students shar-
• Begin a lecture by making a connection to the previous
ing your appreciation for its innate value. Particularly in
session’s topic.
introductory classes, you need to show the point of
• Coordinate lectures with the textbook. Make sure stu-
understanding a law of physics or the cultural origins of
dents understand the connections between lecture and
Pop art. Consider:
readings (even if the content does not match perfectly).
• Can what you’re teaching explain a phenomenon that
Your lectures can enliven textbook material with
students may have wondered about?
demonstrations, multimedia, anecdotes, and discus-
sion; expand the range of the subject matter or focus on
• Has what you’re teaching been used to solve a modern
one important topic; reinforce textbook perspectives or
or historic problem?
provide a different perspective.
• Could what you’re teaching be used to solve a previous-
• Coordinate lectures with assignments by making sure
ly unsolvable problem?
students receive the information they need to complete
23
• Does what you’re teaching contradict ideas that stu-
• Short activities that require student volunteers for
dents may have about how the world works?
demonstrations, role plays, challenges, or debates.
• Can students use what you’re teaching to interpret their
• Case studies or experimental designs that require stu-
everyday experiences, or cultural phenomena?
dents to make a prediction before you reveal the out-
• Is there a famous example of what you’re teaching,
come.
which students may now think about in a new way?
• Multimedia, including music, video clips, or computer
• Is there an interesting anecdote that describes how an
simulations.
idea was discovered, presented, or challenged?
• Dramatic readings (in a science class, for example, you
As well as putting theory in the context of its appli-
can follow an explanation of a theory with a dramatic
cations and history, you can also spark students’ interest
reading of a story from the scientist’s memoir about the
by showing the relationship of your course material to
theory’s discovery or the research that disproved a com-
other disciplines. One student likes professors to “bring
peting theory).
in examples from different fields, because then you
A few exciting examples, problems, or demonstra-
understand that you’re not only learning x, but you have
tions can be particularly helpful for times when students’
hing
gies
e
the background to work on something else if you wish
energy or concentration is low. One student remembers
ac
at
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e
Str
later on.” For example, Emeritus Professor Robert Helli-
a professor who brought up stimulating examples when
well shares with his students two different applications of
he noticed that students were looking out the window. In
a principle, one from biomedical engineering, the other
addition to keeping students interested in the material,
from planetary astronomy. “The techniques and theory
these techniques also give students a chance to use what
behind the measure-
they have learned and give the lecturer feedback on what
When you start teaching and you’re
ment of the rings of
students think and understand.
dealing with undergraduates, and you
Saturn,” he says, “are
look out there and you see that con-
precisely the same as
Handling Questions
fused look, the chances are that the
those used in medical
You should go out of your way to encourage questions,
context isn’t there. Because if the con-
electronics to measure
although instructors have different preferences for how
text is there, [students] can follow all
blood flow in veins
they take them. Some instructors believe that students
kinds of…arguments, if they see
without going inside.”
learn more effectively if they can interrupt the lecturer
roughly where you’re going.
Not only will such
with questions, whereas others find interruptions dis-
James F. Gibbons, Professor (research)
examples motivate
tracting. Let your students know if they can interrupt
of Electrical Engineering and former
your students, but they
with questions or should save them for the end of the
Dean of the School of Engineering
will encourage your
period. In either case, avoid going overtime, so there is a
students to find the
reasonable chance for students to formulate and ask
connections between the content of all of their courses.
questions. Students have other classes (and sometimes
And, as one student points out, the ability to generalize
lunch) to go to, and attention is usually minimal toward
principles from one field to another is in itself an invalu-
the very end of class. Here are some tips for encouraging,
able skill. It can also lead to the kind of scholarly or sci-
and responding to, questions:
entific insight that great advances depend on.
• When asking if there are any questions, don’t simply ask
“Any questions?” with your back turned to the audi-
Variety of Presentation
ence. Phrase it as a genuine invitation, such as “What
A lecture format can accommodate a wide range of pres-
parts of this are still a little unclear or confusing for
entation styles and classroom activities. Besides ques-
you?” or “What do I need to explain again?” or “What
tions from the audience, you may want to enrich your
are you wondering about that I haven’t yet addressed?”
lecture with:
or simply “I’d like to hear your comments and ques-
• Mini-problems that students work on independently or
tions now.”
in pairs.
• Make sure you understand the student’s question before
• Short discussions, either as a full class or by having stu-
launching into a long explanation. Restate the question
dents turn to face the students sitting near them.
and let the student clarify, if necessary.
24
• In a large class, repeat a student’s question so that all the
Personalizing Lectures
students know what question you’re answering.
The best lecturers, even when they speak to 300 people,
• Consider reserving two-to-three-minute blocks for
give the sense that they are talking to a few friends. Their
questions at transition points in your lecture. Let stu-
personality comes through, revealing aspects of them-
dents have the full time to think, even if nobody asks a
selves that their friends and colleagues enjoy—such as
question. This reinforces your commitment to answer-
humor and their passion for their field. The lecturers give
ing questions and will encourage students to review the
the feeling that they are participating in a pleasurable
material recently covered.
interaction with people they respect. They are engaged
• If you don’t know the answer to a question, don’t bluff.
with the audience, not just the material. Here are some
You can let the student know that the question goes well
suggestions for creating the kind of informal and engag-
beyond what you can address in lecture, volunteer to
ing atmosphere that puts students at ease, keeps them
find the answer and report back, or ask the student to
interested, and makes them more willing to participate:
investigate and report back to the class. Or, consider
• Plan your lectures so that they include examples and
trying to work out an answer with the students, if the
material that you find interesting, as well as those that
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question seems solvable.
you think may especially appeal to college students
e
hing
gies
• If a student seems embarrassed about asking a basic ques-
(many instructors make effective use of popular cultur-
tion, say that you’re glad the student brought up some-
al references or recent campus events).
thing that probably a lot of people are confused about.
• Talk directly to the students and take cues from the
audience as you lecture. Watch their body language and
other indirect responses. Do they appear attentive,
amused, puzzled, distracted, or bored? Are they taking
notes, asking questions, or yawning?
• Respond to their responses—if they laugh, or wince, or
look confused, you can comment on their response or
whatever elicited the response. This often wins laughs
and shows that you care about their reactions to the
material.
• Be willing to shift gears if students don’t respond to, or
don’t understand, the material you prepared. Improvise
based on the needs of the situation. For example, you
may need to focus on the basics or ramp up the level of
challenge in your lecture.
• It’s appropriate to occasionally bring in your own rele-
vant interests and experience. Students are curious
When I did begin to allow more time in the middle of lec-
about their instructors, and if you can share a topical
tures for interaction and questions from students, I discov-
personal story, students may become more interested in
ered …that I got the chance …to either think out loud on
the material and invested in the class.
my feet or to bring in material that I had really wanted to but
• If the students react particularly positively or negative-
for some reason hadn’t. I learned what [the students] knew
ly to a part of your lecture, take time after the lecture to
and didn’t know. I learned how much I was overextending
note what evoked the strong responses.
and how much I was going over stuff too much.
To keep students engaged, focus on these broad
Estelle Freedman, Edgar E. Robinson Professor in U.S.
practices: teach what you love, or find something you
History
love about what you teach; let your lecturing style reflect
your personality, rather than trying to replicate another
successful lecturer; stay connected to what is actually
happening in the classroom, rather than what you hoped
or expected would happen; and above all, as one student
put it, “don’t give up on your students.”
25
Audiovisual Aids
before you first use them in class; stand toward the back
Many lecturers routinely use one or more audiovisual
of the room to see if you can read them easily.
aids to organize, enliven, diversify, or strengthen their
• Transparencies can easily become an excuse for over-
presentation of information and ideas. To make a choice
loading students with information. Prepare and follow
of which, if any, you might use, consider which aids will
a careful lecture outline, organizing the material around
help you achieve the clearest, most active presentation
your key points. Make sure that each overhead has only
for your subject matter. Also consider how audiovisual
a few important (and related) ideas or facts on it.
aids can influence how much time students spend active-
• If you simply read what’s on the overhead, student
ly thinking about the material (versus passive listen-
attention will wander. They will start to read the over-
ing/watching or uncritical, rushed note-taking). Below
heads on their own and forget to listen to you. Leave
are some of the benefits of the most frequently used lec-
room for surprises, additional commentary, changes,
ture aids, as well as tips for their use.
and things students have to add, fill in, or watch for.
• Pay attention to whether you look at the transparencies,
Blackboard Using the blackboard allows you to interact
the screen, or the students. Too often, a speaker using
dynamically with the audience and to create a visual
hing
gies
e
audiovisual aids concentrates on the aids and not the
ac
at
record of your lecture. You can use the body language the
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audience. Set up the projector so that you are facing the
blackboard necessitates—walking, pointing—to show
students and can glance comfortably back and forth
enthusiasm for the subject and to point out connections
between them and the material on the overheads.
between ideas. Writing on the board is also a good way to
demonstrate processes, such as derivations. Moreover,
Multimedia and Computers Presentation software
carefully worked-out use of the board can help students
packages (such as PowerPoint) offer a flexible and
visualize, as well as hear, the shape of your lecture. For
sophisticated way to make overhead projections and slide
example, you can put up major divisions of the talk in
shows. They also involve greater risk, since so many
outline form before class begins, leaving room to fill in
things can go wrong with the equipment. If you are using
important sub-points, facts, and formulas as you lecture.
digital presentations, make some real transparencies, or
• When writing on the board during a lecture, avoid talk-
at least a lecture outline, as a backup. In designing your
ing with your back to the students. Not only may your
presentations, many of the tips for overheads also apply.
voice not carry, but loss of eye contact dampens the stu-
In addition, consider the following suggestions:
dents’ interest.
• Steer clear of gratuitous design elements (moving text,
• Do not stand in front of what you have just written!
sound effects every time you change slides, etc.). Save
• Do not erase anything, especially new material, before
your bells and whistles for meaningful elements, such as
you have to.
digital video or audio clips, interesting images, or well-
• At the end of a class, go to the back of the room and see
designed graphs.
if you can reconstruct the important points of your lec-
• Use title slides or spacer slides (images or a blank
ture from what you have written.
screen) between sections of your lecture, to remind you
to spend some time talking directly to the students or
Overhead Projector Overhead projectors have become
taking questions. Reading off the screen is a surefire way
popular for the presentation of detailed or technical
to lose your connection with students.
material. With them, you can put long equations, graphs,
• Upload important or information-dense slides to the
diagrams, and detailed computations on transparencies
course website.
ahead of time, freeing you during class to concentrate on
For further information on the pluses and minus-
the clear explanation of material rather than on its accu-
es of using technology in the classroom, see “Technology
rate representation. Students often find that the material
in Teaching” at the end of this section. For an interesting
is better organized and easier to follow as a result.
critique of PowerPoint in particular, see Edward Tufte,
Overheads have their pitfalls as well, however. There are
The Cognitive Style of PowerPoint, 2003.
several points to keep in mind:
• Transparencies can be hard to read unless they’re care-
fully prepared. Check your overheads on the machine
26
Handouts Students appreciate clear and well-chosen
handouts. One student commented that good handouts
show that the professor “cares about the students and
wants to help them understand things.” There are many
reasons to use handouts in class. Here are just a few exam-
ples you may wish to incorporate into your teaching:
• You can hand out summaries of your lectures to the class.
These may be copies of your overheads, PowerPoint
slides, or even your own (clearly written) lecture out-
lines. This allows students to spend more time thinking
than frantically copying down what you say. However, it
is a good idea to leave wide margins and other white
space so the students can add to the handouts.
• If you give out copies of your lecture slides or notes, go
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out of your way to make sure students are actively
at
ac
e
hing
gies
engaging with the material. Use the note-taking time
you have saved to build in student participation and
other active learning exercises. Otherwise, it is all too
easy for students to passively watch you lecture.
• Handouts can be particularly effective for presenting
Professor Vijay Pande, of Chemistry and Structural Biology,
complex data, detailed material, examples, and diagrams.
finds that preparing for lectures clarifies his understanding
Focus on material you think there is a good chance stu-
and refines his communication skills, both of which feed
dents will need to review, especially if they need to apply
back constructively into his research.
it in an assignment. The use of handouts guarantees that
students will have accurate study aids for material that
student participation in her large lecture classes. For
might be difficult to absorb fully in one lecture.
example, when she senses that student interest is flag-
• Some professors pass out lecture notes to the class after
ging, she asks students to turn to their neighbors and
the lecture. This allows you to add material to parts that
take a minute to discuss the concepts she’s just gone
students had questions about.
over. She might ask them, for example, to come up with
five mechanisms for neurons to communicate with
Other Good Lecturing Ideas
axons. She finds that the active participation and imme-
• When Professor Kathryn Moler of Applied Physics
diate content review enhances student learning.
plans a lecture, she first identifies the main concepts
• Professor Richard Zare
that she wants the students to understand. Usually she
Now a lecture is not, in my opinion,
of Chemistry uses lec-
has four to five concepts per class. She starts by explain-
intended to be an unaccented accumu-
tures to inspire and
ing a concept in the traditional lecture format, using
lation of factual data that you fire at
motivate students, not
graphics and equations as well as words. After a five-to-
the heads of the young. Properly
just to convey informa-
ten-minute mini-lecture, she then poses a brief prob-
speaking, it’s a personal statement of
tion. One of his strate-
lem that the students can’t answer unless they under-
how a lecturer feels about a period or
gies is to incorporate
a problem or an individual.
stand the basic concept. As part of the process, she asks
vivid, simple demonstra-
her students in pairs to convince each other of their
tions into his lectures to
The late Gordon A. Craig, J.E. Wallace
own answers. She often doesn’t move on until almost all
arouse students’ curiosi-
Sterling Professor of Humanities
of the students get the main concept. She finds that ask-
ty and challenge their
ing the students to explain or defend their answers to
expectations. For example, when he combines water and
their neighbor engages the mind of each student and
cornstarch in certain proportions, he produces a sub-
solidifies their understanding. It also gives her the
stance that dramatically challenges student notions of
immediate feedback that she needs to pace the class.
what is liquid and what is solid.
• Professor Susan McConnell, the Susan B. Ford Professor
of Biological Sciences, makes an extra effort to encourage
27
• The late Gordon Craig, Professor of His-
tory, stresses the importance of having your
CHECKLIST FOR EFFECTIVE LECTURING
own point of view in a lecture. Even a talk on
Be Prepared
“The Wool Trade in 13th Century England”
■ Outline clear objectives for your lecture—both what
can captivate students, but only if you’ve
students should know after the lecture and why it is
found a theme or perspective on it that has
important.
excited your own imagination. Share the
reasons for the importance of your topic, as
■ Develop a lecture outline and any audiovisuals.
well as your own passion for the material, at
■ If you are nervous about the lecture, write out your
the beginning of your lecture.
introduction and rehearse it.
• When designing his lectures, Professor
Keep Your Focus
Terry Winograd of Computer Science and
■ Limit the main points in a lecture to five or fewer.
Linguistics uses his knowledge of how
■ Create effective visuals, analogies, demonstrations, and
students learn. He urges, for example, that
examples to reinforce the main points.
gies
you first present complex ideas in a sim-
hing
e
■ Share your outline with students.
ac
at
plified form, stripped of qualifications
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■ Emphasize your objectives and key points in the begin-
and conditions. Once students under-
ning, as you get to them, and as a summary at the end.
stand the general idea, they are prepared
to make sense of all the details and quali-
Engage Your Audience
fiers.
■ Focus attention early on using a quote, a dramatic visu-
al, an anecdote, or other material relevant to the topic.
• Professor Estelle Freedman of History has
found that students are much more intel-
■ Integrate visuals, multimedia, discussion, active learning
lectually involved in her lectures when she
strategies, small-group techniques, and peer instruction.
makes the lectures somewhat informal
■ Link new material to students’ prior knowledge, such as
and loosely organized. Her aim now is for
common experiences or previous coursework.
a combined lecture/discussion format
■ Show enthusiasm for the topic and information.
that gives more responsibility to students
Remember, you are modeling your discipline.
to raise and answer questions.
■ Give students time to think and genuine opportunities
• Professor David Kennedy of History sug-
to respond.
gests that the end of a lecture should be
■ Plan for diverse learners. Use verbal, visual, and kinesthet-
punchy, memorable, and concrete. Since
ic approaches such as hands-on exercises and simulations.
he also suggests that you should take an
Get Feedback
“accordion” approach to writing the lec-
■ Observe students’ non-verbal communication: notetak-
ture—that is, prepare beforehand to be
ing, response to questions, eye contact, seating patterns,
able to expand or condense material as
and response to humor. Are they “with” you?
you go through your talk—you should
have the time to reach your conclusion.
■ Use the “minute paper” or other assessment techniques.
Ask students to respond in one or two sentences to the
• Vice Provost for Undergraduate Educa-
following questions: What stood out as most important
tion John Bravman stresses the impor-
in today’s lecture? What are you confused about? Do
tance of preparation for a successful lec-
this every few lectures—it will take you about 15 min-
ture. He estimates that when he was first
utes to review the responses and you’ll learn an enor-
developing his lectures he put six to ten
mous amount about your students.
hours into each one. He also targets each
lecture to the specific students in each
■ Give quizzes periodically on lecture objectives, not
class. For example, if he concludes that
obscure material. Are they getting it?
most students are in a class only to fulfill
■ Conduct midterm teaching evaluations or simply ask
a requirement, he goes out of his way to
the students for suggestions and comments at the mid-
arouse their interest and enthusiasm.
point of the quarter.
28
• Professor Umran Inan of Electrical Engineering has sev-
• Do you want students to apply newly learned skills,
eral techniques for keeping students involved in his lec-
mull over new subject matter, learn to analyze argu-
tures. He’ll solve the same problem two different ways,
ments critically, practice synthesizing conflicting views,
for example, not only because this shows the students
or relate material to their own lives? These goals are not
different problem-solving strategies, but because they
mutually exclusive, but they require different types of
stay interested in whether he’ll get the same answer each
direction.
time. He stresses, as well, the importance of reminding
• Share your planning decisions with your students. Let
students of the assumptions they make when solving
them know what your focus is, and why it is important;
problems. He sometimes polls students on which
also invite students to contribute suggestions for dis-
assumptions they think are the correct ones, adding the
cussion topics and formats.
excitement of competition to the class.
• Decide whether to be highly directive—that is, to ask most
• At the start of class meetings, Emeritus Professor David
of the questions yourself and intervene to prevent digres-
Halliburton of English and Modern Thought and
sions—or to be relatively nondirective and let the stu-
Literature asked students to summarize the main points
dents’ interests and questions determine what is covered.
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covered in recent lectures. He then made explicit con-
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• Whichever style you choose, be consistent. If students
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nections between that summary and the new lecture.
are responsible for setting the agenda or acknowledging
This strategy can help students understand the rela-
the next speaker, do not suddenly take over the section
tionship between new material and previous material,
if it doesn’t go in the direction you would like. Similarly,
while reinforcing what they have learned.
if you normally decide what is said next, don’t be sur-
prised if students don’t follow up on one another’s
comments.
Discussion Leading
• Make sure the assigned material is discussed in section;
When jazz musician Pat Metheny gave the keynote
if the students don’t come prepared with questions and
address at the 2001 International Association of
responses, do not let the discussion wander. Bringing in
Jazz Educators Conference, he said, “One of the great
specific quotes, problems, or other samples of the
beauties of jazz is its almost unlimited capacity to allow
assigned material can ensure that even underprepared
human beings to find out things about themselves and
students will have something to talk about.
the culture that they live in, through the process of rec-
• Distributing study questions in advance demonstrates
onciling their own personal experiences with the experi-
your own interest and helps focus their preparation.
ences of others.” Like jazz, with its reliance on improvisa-
Consider asking students to email you their thoughts to
tion and cooperation, an academic discussion is a collab-
one question. This will also give you insight into the
orative enterprise that invites students to integrate their
students’ thoughts while you plan the discussion.
experiences and ideas about the world with the new
insights and perspectives provided by the course materi-
Asking Questions
al and other students. Similar to a great jazz jam session,
a good discussion depends on the virtuosity of all the
Experienced instructors learn to prepare a mix of ques-
participants, not just one excellent musician! As a discus-
tions—those that are easily answered, slightly challeng-
sion leader, you are dependent on the group: its level of
ing, or highly complex—that they can draw on as the dis-
preparation, its enthusiasm, its willingness to participate.
cussion develops.
However, as the instructor, you often prepare the direc-
• Begin with material students are familiar with or feel
tion, structure, and motivation for the discussion; for
comfortable with. This might be a question that can be
this reason, leading a consistently lively discussion sec-
answered with information from general experience or
tion is probably one of the most difficult challenges for a
from basic data in the subject area.
teacher.
• Once students are warmed up, ask questions requiring
students to explain relationships among the units of
Setting the Agenda
information and to form general concepts.
The most important thing to do at the beginning of the
• Let the discussion peak by asking questions that require
quarter, as well as in each class session, is to establish
students to apply concepts and principles they have
your objectives for the discussion.
developed to new data and different situations.
29
For example, suppose you are discussing Plato’s
—What reasons did you have for using that procedure?
Republic. You might begin by asking questions such as:
Was it in the lab book? Did you see it in a demon-
What are the basic components of Plato’s ideal state?
stration?
What are the characteristics of a good ruler? Why does
—What are your thoughts on Thoreau’s Walden? Is he
Plato ban poetry from his republic? After establishing
putting nature up against civilization or the individ-
that students understand the material, you can begin to
ual up against society?
explore relationships with questions like: How does the
—What are some of the basic rules about misting
allegory of the cave fit into the rest of the work? What are
plants? Do you mist the ones with the fuzzy leaves?
the criticisms of Athenian society that Plato is making?
• Encourage students to sit at the table or in only one row
Finally, you can ask the students to apply the material to
of a circle, so that they can all see each other as well as
themselves and their own lives: Is Plato’s republic an
you. Some students like to hide behind others; try to
attractive place to live? How would Plato criticize a con-
bring them out. Look around the whole group after ask-
temporary American university?
ing a question, making eye contact with each student;
Choosing what questions to ask is only half the
ask students sitting in all parts of the room or places
battle, however. How you ask them, whom you ask them
hing
gies
e
around the table for their responses during a section.
ac
at
of, and when you ask them can also influence their effec-
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tiveness with the group. Pay particular attention to the
• After a response has been given, ask another person to
following aspects of group dynamics:
comment on it rather than commenting on it yourself.
This indicates that you want the whole group to be
• Decide whether to ask questions of a particular individ-
involved and want your role to be minimal.
ual or the whole group. Sometimes calling on an indi-
vidual may help to get a slow class going, but it can
release the other students from the responsibility of for-
mulating answers for themselves. It also puts students
on the spot, which can decrease goodwill and intellec-
tual risk-taking. Directing questions to the entire class
may mean waiting longer for an answer.
• Leave sufficient wait time after asking a question before
answering it yourself, repeating it, rephrasing it, or
adding further information. Wait at least ten to fifteen
seconds before making any change in your question.
(You might want to practice asking a question and wait-
ing ten to fifteen seconds in silence by yourself, just to
see what it feels like.) Leaving sufficient time between
asking and rephrasing gives students time to think, and
it shows that you are more concerned with their learn-
One of the things I try to do with discussion courses is to
ing than with being reinforced by quick responses.
encourage what I call ‘controlled spontaneity.’ And by that
• Avoid rapid reward for responding. Rapid reward
I mean that if something bubbles out of the discussion,
means calling immediately on the first person who
even if it’s not directly related to the main agenda, you
indicates an answer or approving immediately of a cor-
have the ability to go with that idea, to send off sparks if
they fly….
rect response that a student has given. This prevents
other students from evaluating the response for them-
Harry Elam, Olive H. Palmer Professor in Humanities
selves and interrupts their thinking process.
• Avoid programmed answers. Programmed answers
• Positively reinforce students for responding, whether
turn discussion sections into guessing games as stu-
the answer was correct or incorrect. This helps create a
dents try to give the section leader what he or she wants
safe environment for students to speak out and try new
rather than thinking critically about the material. Below
ideas. Reinforcing correct responses can be done with
are some questions with answers programmed in. By
verbal comment or facial expression; reinterpreting
asking only the original question and leaving off the
incorrect responses is more difficult. If you asked an
“hint” questions that follow, you can avoid this pitfall.
informational question, e.g., “In what year did World
30
War I begin?” you must simply acknowledge the answer
reassemble the class and have the small groups report to
as incorrect without disparaging the person who
each other.
offered it.
• Use material “in hand” to stimulate discussion. You can
• Ask students to elaborate answers rather than immedi-
pass out poll results, historical documents, pictures, etc.
ately correcting them yourself. If you ask an analytic
Material in hand is easier to discuss than readings done
question, e.g., “What themes do you think dominate in
and perhaps forgotten.
Thoreau’s Walden?” and the response is “The impor-
• Begin the class by giving students five to ten minutes to
tance of society for human fulfillment,” you can ask the
write on a topic relevant to the discussion. This will give
student to elaborate on what he or she means by “soci-
them time to gather their thoughts, particularly with
ety” or redirect the response by asking a follow-up
complex material. It will also reinforce the utility of
question such as “Do you think Thoreau views some
writing for sorting out one’s thoughts.
people as more valuable than others?”
• Consider asking one student each week to take notes on
the major points covered in section. He/she is then
Increasing Class Participation
Str
responsible for bringing enough copies for everyone to
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By asking good questions in an appropriate way, you will
the next class. You and the students should take a few
e
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gies
have gone a long way toward fulfilling your responsibili-
minutes to go over these and make any necessary
ties as discussion leader. Your other main goal is to
refinements. Such a technique can overcome the sense
increase student participation and improve the quality of
that nothing happens in a discussion.
participation. Here are a few suggestions:
• Pose an either/or question, e.g., “Is the frontier or the
• Have students nominate topics for discussion at the
industrial revolution more important for an under-
beginning of a section. These can be problems, confu-
standing of American character?” Have the class divide
sions, interesting points, or basic ideas in the text. List
physically into those who favor each side and those who
the nominations and let the group pick those they want
are undecided. Have the pro and con sides debate the
to cover.
issue, with the undecided free to contribute at any time.
• If you assign discussion questions before each section,
Instruct students to move to the other group if they
students can sign up to be responsible for leading the
change their view during the debate. This kind of
discussion on one or more questions.
debate can encourage intellectual flexibility and help
• If the material for the section lends itself to open-ended
students clarify value positions and levels of argument.
questions in which a variety of ideas can aid under-
If you are uncomfortable having students move around,
standing, have a brainstorming session. During the first
use the blackboard to set out the two sides of the con-
part of the session, list every idea that students come up
troversy and to keep track of points relevant to each
with in response to the question you have set. During
argument.
the second part of the session, evaluate, compare, and
• Give students a chance to develop ideas. Rephrase ques-
synthesize the ideas, as you approach a solution.
tions and “near misses” and throw them back to stu-
• As an icebreaker, ask a question for which there is no
dents. Use the Socratic method as long as it is produc-
single correct answer and go around the table with it.
ing insight. However, if you can’t pull out a usable
(Example: What is the first adjective that comes to mind
answer from students, don’t go on a fishing expedition;
when you think of the protagonist of this story? Or: On
answer the question yourself.
a scale of 1 to 10, rate the effectiveness of Allied military
• A graphic display helps students keep track of an argu-
leadership in 1916.) With this strategy, you can begin
ment and think schematically. For example, put a cer-
the discussion with 100 percent participation, and you
tain outcome or viewpoint on the board and ask the
can subvert the usual hierarchy by inviting two or three
students to work backwards through the most plausible
of the more passive students to explicate their answers.
causal chains or logical defense. Let students explore
• If the discussion group is large, divide it into smaller
multiple pathways.
units, each one dealing with the same or separate prob-
Once a few questions have focused the discussion,
lems in the reading. Float from group to group, giving
students may begin discussing among themselves and
guidance and answering questions when needed. When
you may become moderator, mediator, and summarizer.
the period is nearly over, leave about twenty minutes to
Some groups can keep the discussion going with little
31
difficulty; others will need guidance
and more frequent redirection on
CHECKLIST FOR EFFECTIVE DISCUSSION LEADING
your part. You will get a feel for each
Be Prepared
particular group.
■ Carefully consider your objectives for a discussion. What do you
hope to accomplish? What topic(s) would you like discussed?
Creating a Good Climate for
What might be considered a tangent? Do students know enough
Discussion
about the topics to discuss them?
You can also significantly increase the
quantity and quality of participation
■ Use discussion to help students link concepts to their own lives;
simply by creating an encouraging
to encourage students to evaluate material critically; and to
environment for discussion.
address topics that are open-ended, have no clear resolution,
and/or can be effectively addressed through multiple approaches.
• Know and use the students’ names.
In addition, make sure that the stu-
■ Provide students opportunities to “warm up” through brief (one
dents know one another’s names.
to five minute) in-class writing exercises on the topic, three-to-
five-person mini-discussions, or a homework exercise prior to
hing
gies
• Arrange the room to maximize stu-
e
ac
at
the session that focuses students on the topic(s) to be covered.
dent-to-student eye contact; e.g.,
T
e
Str
chairs around a table or in a circle.
Facilitate, Don’t Dominate
You might vary where you sit from
■ Provide clear guidelines for participation. Discuss them before-
time to time, to break students’
hand, stick to them, and enforce them during the discussion.
habit of staring at the front of the
■ Maintain an atmosphere of safety and respect.
room.
■ Use open-ended questions and ask students for clarification,
• Arrive at section a little early and
examples, definitions.
stay briefly afterwards to talk infor-
■ Summarize student responses without taking a stand one way
mally with students and answer
or another.
questions.
■ Invite students to address one another and not always “go
• When students ask questions, try to
through” you.
help them find the answers for
■ Pause to give students time to reflect on your summaries or
themselves.
others’ comments.
• If arguments develop, try to resolve
■ Stimulate and challenge, don’t intimidate or threaten. Don’t
the disputes by appeal to objective
dwell on one student for too long. Deal openly with conflicts,
evidence rather than authority of
don’t ignore them. Listen to your students, and learn from
position. If the dispute is over val-
them.
ues, help students clarify their val-
■ Control the “talkers” and call on the “non-talkers.” But, if a
ues and respect each others’, even if
“non-talker” isn’t ready to contribute, don’t persist.
resolution is not possible. Disputes
can often form the basis for interest-
■ Consider taking notes of main points on a chalkboard or over-
ing writing assignments.
head, but, if you do, write everyone’s ideas down.
• Be as relaxed and unselfconscious as
■ Toward the end of the discussion, review the main ideas, the
possible. Many students enjoy dis-
thread of the discussion, and conclusions.
cussion groups when they sense the
Evaluate
leader’s spontaneity and excitement
■ Notice how many students participated in the discussion.
about learning. This does not mean
■ Notice who did and who did not participate (look for gender
that a discussion section should not
and racial biases).
be well thought out in advance; sim-
■ Check the tone of the discussion—was it stimulating and
ply leave room for flexibility as the
respectful?
class progresses.
■ Ask students about their reactions to the discussion session.
32
If you show respect for students in both your
ships, and to acquaint them with essential equipment.
demeanor and language, and encourage the group to
Note, also, that several of the above goals involve higher-
engage in a common learning enterprise, you can make
order thinking skills that cannot be attained without the
the students in the group feel comfortable and ready to
direct, creative involvement of the student. If, as content-
share ideas. Students often reflect toward each other the
matter experts, we routinely structure the learning to
attitude that a teacher shows toward them. Therefore, the
“make sense,” or to ensure a certain result, we short-cir-
establishment of “favorites” in a discussion section
cuit the processes that inquiring learners might follow
should be avoided, as should any harsh criticism or teas-
and the skills they would develop in the process. Clearly,
ing. Your primary responsibility is to help all the students
a balance must be struck. Projects driven fully by student
in the group learn.
inquiry require time, careful planning, and close, interac-
tive support. The payoff for such effort is the increased
level of student engagement and the development of
Laboratory Teaching
analytical and problem-solving skills.
The laboratory is a place where abstract concepts
Str
T
Integration with Theory
e
at
ac
become concrete and theory is both tested and
e
hing
When planning the course schedule, it is essential to
gies
applied. In each lab, students will hopefully reach a deep-
coordinate the teaching of concepts with their laborato-
er understanding of the course material by putting it to
ry applications. Theory should be closely linked to rele-
work. For this reason, the lab can be an exciting place for
vant practice; time lags and intervening material can
the instructor and the students, as students commit to
dilute the intended effects of the lab work. As you
the processes of investigation, analysis, and reflection.
attempt to “blur” the line between lecture and lab, think
However, designing and supervising effective lab sections
broadly about the real constraints and accept as few arti-
requires thoughtfulness and strategy. The processes of
ficial disjoints as possible. What bridges can you build
investigation don’t always run smoothly, and students
between the two? Are there aspects of your lab course
need guidance to make sense of their results.
that can be brought into the lecture room and vice versa?
Coordinate lectures, assigned readings, and supplemen-
Course Planning
tal references, which you can make available in the labo-
Planning a laboratory course involves making several
ratory, on reserve, or on the course website.
kinds of important decisions:
• What projects/experiments will you assign?
Group Work
Small groups appear to be even more
• How can you best integrate the teaching of theory with
Many laboratory projects
important for the sciences than for
the related labs?
are conducive to group
courses in any other field. Whether or
• How will you balance and organize cooperative and
learning, which can take
not students work together in small
independent study in the lab?
place both inside the lab
study groups outside of class is the
single best predictor of how many
• What equipment will you need?
and outside of class, dur-
ing post-lab discussions or
classes in science they will take. Those
As a first step in making all of these decisions, con-
small-group study ses-
who do work in small groups take
sider both the content and the inquiry skills that you
more science courses.
sions. Early in the course,
want students to master. While your content goals clear-
you may want to divide
Richard J. Light, Harvard professor
ly indicate what to cover, your inquiry goals direct how
your students into lab
and author of Making the Most of
your students will interact with this material and which
and/or study groups of
College: Students Speak their Minds
skills they will take from your course.
two to four partners. The
number of partners per group will depend on the class
Choice of Projects
size and the quantity of available equipment. Because
Base your choice of projects on the stated goals of the
different experiments require different numbers of appa-
course’s lab component. In general, appropriate goals are
ratus, some weeks you may have to consolidate two of
to help students understand theory by observing and
these small groups or otherwise reorganize things, but
verifying concepts, to have them go through research and
keep in mind that four is a good upper limit if you want
design processes, to help them improve their powers of
each student to actively participate. Besides offering stu-
reasoning by manipulating cause-and-effect relation-
dents the benefits of learning from each other, group
33
work readies students for conditions in the outside
Other Teaching Approaches
world, where most scientific or technical projects involve
teams of people. It is especially useful to ask the students
We have covered only the most common teaching
formats: lectures, discussions, and laboratories. At
to divide complex projects into parts and to coordinate
some point in your career, you may want to consider
individual tasks. If needed, a lab assistant can help with
other instructional approaches that push the boundaries
the coordination. With this approach, students can take
of traditional teaching methods. Creative approaches can
responsibility for one part of the project while maintain-
be designed to meet your specific teaching goals; below,
ing an appreciation for the design and concepts of the
we give just a few examples of unusual, but also unusual-
whole project.
ly effective, methods that can be introduced into a single
class session or used to shape an entire course.
Appropriate Equipment
Professor John B. Taylor of Economics frequently
Select the most appropriate equipment for each experi-
injects a touch of drama and humor into his popular
ment and make sure that it is in working order, with clear
“Principles of Economics” course. On occasion, you can
instructions for its use available to students. The equip-
even see him arguing with the ghost of Adam Smith
ment should be neither so complex nor so rudimentary
hing
gies
e
(Professor Taylor himself with a lower tone of voice and
ac
at
as to undermine the point of the procedure. A fancy,
T
e
a Scottish accent, taped prior to the lecture) about the
Str
expensive box may distract the students’ attention from
merits of economies of scale. He covers as much materi-
the concepts the experiment aims to demonstrate. On
al as he would in a traditional lecture style, but in a more
the other hand, antiquated, inadequate instruments can
memorable way that draws students into economics. Any
encourage the practice of “dry labbing” the results. The
touch of drama you can bring into a traditional class for-
more suitable the apparatus and measurements are to the
mat will capture your students’ interest by surprising
concepts they teach, the more effective and educational
them, and sustain their attention by entertaining them
the laboratory experience will be.
(even if it’s not Academy-Award-winning material!).
Planning and Reviewing Each Experiment
Simulation Games
To ensure that lab exercises run smoothly, the professor
Simulation games—in which students solve problems in
and lab assistants or TAs should rehearse the procedure
situations modeled on the real world—are growing in
before the lab sections and review the results afterwards.
popularity; almost every academic field now has them
Faculty can avoid problems by preparing lab assignments
freely or commercially available. Simulation has been
at least a week in advance and trying out each experi-
used at Stanford to enhance Professor Scott Sagan’s
ment or having a TA try it out before giving students the
Political Science course on arms control and security
assignment sheet. Make sure that the requirements are
issues. Students are divided into teams and assigned a role
feasible and clearly stated and that the specific numbers
based on actual figures in the negotiations. True to their
chosen produce the desired results. The trial run will
role, they write and exchange position papers, then con-
ensure that the students are not hindered by ambiguous
duct rounds of talks based on a schedule of plenary ses-
directions or computational difficulties. Your lab sched-
sions. Faculty and TAs act as consultants but otherwise
uling should include time for the instructor and/or TA to
keep their interventions to a minimum. Class time is also
review the results of each laboratory exercise with the
used for reflective discussion of the simulation, since
class. This step is essential to help the students check their
research indicates that games are effective only when
individual conclusions and understand the results in rela-
combined with thorough debriefing. Course evaluations
tion to the theories of the course. Class discussion will also
from the students involved are highly positive. Although
enable you to identify any problems with the lab proce-
students put much more time into the course than they
dures, so that you can correct them for the next session.
anticipate will be necessary, they feel that actually doing
the negotiations gives them an unusual mastery of this
Nuts and Bolts
aspect of international relations. Simulation games can
In most cases, you will be leaving the direction and
also be used to supplement a more traditional course. For
supervision of the actual lab sections to a TA or lab assis-
example, the Introductory Economics Center created a
tant. If you are teaching the lab yourself, consult the sec-
variant of simulation games in which students participate
tion “Labs” on page 68.
in synchronous online games from their own computers.
34
Other courses may take students directly into the
assignments, graduate school, research opportunities, or
real world, to explore course topics hands-on. In one
careers in your field. It’s also a good idea to put a map on
such innovative psychology course, called “Exploring
the syllabus if your office is not in the same building as
Human Nature,” Professor Philip Zimbardo’s students
your classroom; it may seem a bit silly, but it will signal
participate in three “experiential projects,” such as
to students that you really do want them to stop by.
observing firsthand the social persuasion strategies of a
Some instructors go further and actually require
local organization. An important feature of such courses
students to come to office hours at least once in the quar-
is the rigorous preparation students receive to handle
ter. Although this can be time-consuming for you and is
and interpret their experiences in the real world.
only practical if your class is fairly small, instructors who
do it are enthusiastic about the results. They report that
it provides them with a much better understanding of
Office Hours
their class, and that they get to know otherwise quiet or
shy students much sooner. They also find that students
Both professors and teaching assistants can accom- are more likely to repeat a visit or to ask questions after
plish some of their most rewarding teaching in the
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T
class, because the instructor has become less intimidating
e
at
ac
office. Office hours are valuable both for highly motivat-
e
hing
to them.
gies
ed students and for those with difficulties, for those who
You can expect more business when students are
are shy as well as those who are eager to talk. Students
putting projects together, studying for exams, or writing
often say that they want to work harder for teachers with
papers. TAs should be willing to adjust their office hours
whom they have gotten acquainted; getting to know your
according to the changing needs of the students. It can be
students can also increase your own motivation for
particularly hard for TAs to limit office hours in a chal-
teaching the course. Moreover, contact and candid dis-
lenging course; a class full of anxious students can make
cussion with even just a few students can provide a great
unreasonable requests on a TA’s time. In this case, you
deal of insight into how the course is going.
may want to require office-hour sign-ups and limit
Instructors generally are expected to keep at least
meetings to fifteen minutes each. Also plan to be avail-
two or three office hours a week during a teaching quar-
able after class to arrange appointments and to answer
ter. TAs will probably need to schedule more time at cer-
simple questions that otherwise might absorb office hour
tain points in the quarter and should check with the pro-
time.
fessor about how the time can best be used. Laboratory
assistants in particular can expect to spend about ten
hours a week helping students during regular hours and
Electronic Tools for Communication
arranged appointments, and will probably want to hold
some of their office hours in the lab to answer procedur-
Surveys have shown that Stanford instructors who
al questions. Plan your office hours well in advance, to
include electronic communication as part of their
avoid scheduling conflicts. Try to choose a combination
teaching have greater student participation and receive
of times when your students are likely to be free and add
more student feedback. The most popular forms of com-
“and by appointment” to the listing of hours; otherwise,
municating with students outside the classroom are
a person who wants to come in but can’t make your reg-
email (sent individually or to the entire class as part of an
ular hours may not tell you. Finally, be consistent about
electronic mailing list) and online discussion forums.
keeping the hours you schedule.
Implementing one or more of these electronic tools lends
However consistent you are, you may find your
an air of accessibility to the professor and the TAs.
office hours slipping by without a single student stop-
Although students may still choose to visit during office
ping by. How can you encourage students to take advan-
hours, the fact that they are able to make contact elec-
tage of the opportunity to talk with you informally? The
tronically, at their convenience, improves the students’
friendlier you are in class, and the more accessible after a
impression of their instructors’ availability. The use of
lecture—a good time for making appointments—the
electronic mailing lists and web discussion forums has
more likely students are to come around. Invite your stu-
also paved the way to freer and lengthier discussions
dents to drop by, and repeat the invitation several times
among students, who have more time outside the class-
during the quarter. Suggest the kinds of things they
room to reflect on their responses. Even students who are
might want to discuss, such as questions about projects,
characteristically shy in class may come alive online. One
35
of the features of online discussion forum software is
essential components of scholarly life. These skills have
that it can automatically append students’ pictures to
likewise become a major part of students’ lives, and their
their discussion postings; this multimedia aspect of the
academic training requires an introduction to scholarly
forum helps to forge a virtual classroom community,
uses of technology. Technology has also entered the class-
which helps diminish the anonymity students frequently
room: faculty and TAs are increasingly using tools from
feel when they are enrolled in a class of hundreds.
multimedia presentations to computer simulations to
Mailing lists, discussion forums, and course web pages
enhance their teaching. Instructors are no longer just
are easy to set up at Stanford; you can request these tools
experimenting with different ways of using technology;
directly at http://courses.stanford.edu, and you may also
they are focusing on how technology can allow instruc-
want to consult About Computing at Stanford: A Guide for
tors and students to reach educational goals more effec-
Faculty and Students, available online at http://computing.
tively and efficiently.
stanford.edu/.
The flip side of electronic communication, of
Pedagogical Goals
course, is the burden it can create for instructors: students
What technology should you include in your teaching,
may expect immediate responses to their questions, and
and how should it be incorporated into the rest of the
hing
gies
e
ac
at
the decreased barrier to communication often means that
course structure? As with most teaching decisions you
T
e
Str
an instructor is inundated with last-minute emails about
make, you should begin by considering your goals for the
exams or assignments. It is always good to set clear guide-
course. If those goals are already being met well, invest-
lines at the beginning of the quarter about the role of
ing time and energy in computer-related development
electronic communication in your course, not only what
may not be wise. There may also be simpler ways of
you expect from your students in terms of electronic par-
achieving your pedagogical aims using more convention-
ticipation but also what they should expect from you in
al teaching strategies. Just because your students are
terms of turnaround time or moderation of discussions.
comfortable using computers does not mean they neces-
sarily want their time in and out of the classroom tied to
a computer. You may find that technologically-savvy stu-
dents are more excited by hands-on work, stimulating
discussion, small-group interactions, or field experiences.
In fact, much of the courseware (software and
hardware designed to assist you in your courses) that has
been developed at Stanford and elsewhere is used prima-
rily for work outside the classroom. For example, online
discussion boards and course websites that contain inter-
active demonstrations, exercises, and background mate-
rial can complement classroom instruction. Supple-
mental multimedia resources (websites, CD-ROMs,
DVDs, etc.) make it easier for students to seek informa-
tion and construct knowledge in ways that best suit their
Technology can be used to improve communication inside the
interests, abilities, and background. Course websites, dis-
classroom too. The personal response system shown in the photo
cussion boards, and computer simulations can encour-
allows students to participate actively even in classes with hun-
age interactions among students that go beyond the
dreds of students.
classroom and even beyond the end of the course.
Such technology can be effectively used in all fields,
Technology in Teaching
from the sciences to the arts. Some examples from Stanford:
• Anthropological Sciences Professor John Rick devel-
oped a “virtual field site” of Chavín de Huántar in Peru
For many faculty and TAs,the computer has dramati-
cally changed the way they conduct scholarship.
using extensive data and measurements collected over
Searching computerized databases, using statistical pack-
several summers with teams of Stanford students. The
ages to analyze data, conducting research on the web, and
project, available at http://www.stanford.edu/~johnrick/
communicating with colleagues across campus or across
chavin_wrap/chavin/index.html, allows students to
the country through email—all of these have become
36
view the archaeological site and its labyrinthine pas-
other pedagogical goals, such as increasing participation
sageways through virtual reality panoramas.
and assessing student understanding. For example, stu-
• Professor Russ Altman of Genetics and Medicine had
dents in Professor Kathryn Moler’s Physics class can
his students in a project-based Bioinformatics class take
answer questions using individual transmitters. The
advantage of the new classroom technologies available
simultaneous signals are received and processed by a
in Wallenberg Hall to compare alternative models of
computer, and the instructor can use the results to give
visualizing proteins. While Professor Altman used a
feedback to her students and tailor the lecture according
Webster board to display one model, a student “sent”
to the answers received. Using class time or sections to
another model onto an adjacent screen. Webster
teach students how to use a new technology may also be
boards—“smart” digital white boards that show web
worthwhile, especially in introductory courses that
pages, class notes, or the instructor’s drawings and writ-
require field-specific computer programs (for example,
ing—allow teacher and student to collaborate and share
statistical programs for the sciences or design programs
their work with the entire class as it evolves.
for engineers and artists).
Whether it is designed for inside or outside the
• Vered Shemtov of the Language Center used both the
Str
T
classroom, good courseware is developed with active
e
at
ac
technology and the physical spaces of Wallenberg Hall
e
hing
learning in mind, often with an emphasis on making stu-
gies
to address varying levels of understanding in an intro-
dents aware of the process of learning. Marcia Linn, a
ductory Hebrew course. Shemtov employed multiple
professor of Cognition and Education and former direc-
Webster boards to allow her students to break into
tor of UC Berkeley’s Instructional Technology Program,
groups and work as teams. While an advanced cohort
suggests that thoughtful multimedia courseware, like
wrote on lightweight white boards and saved their work
thoughtful teaching, can achieve three important goals.
to the class website via classroom web cameras, begin-
It can:
ning students used breakout spaces to access the project
reading materials Shemtov had posted online.
• encourage students to think like experts, by requiring
them to solve problems and critique others’ solutions to
• Consulting Professor Ed Carryer of Mechanical
problems;
Engineering uses a tablet laptop in his Smart Product
Design course to make the lecture component of the
• make thinking visible, so that the process of learning,
course more interactive for students. While Carryer dis-
not just the result, is emphasized;
plays a partial outline of a schematic circuit diagram,
• scaffold knowledge, building on what students already
students break into groups and decide how the circuit
know, so they can understand and form general princi-
should be completed. As the groups report back,
ples from new information.
Carryer sketches their solutions onto his slides in real
By designing courseware that encourages students
time and the whole class discusses the results. The lec-
to make predictions and test them in experiments, for
tures are recorded as video presentations and made
example, you help students build a knowledge base in
available to students to replay the problem-solving
your discipline. Linn cites an interactive program in
experience.
physics that requires students to solve problems that in
Technology in the classroom can also serve several
the past might have been the basis for laboratory experi-
important purposes. Multimedia or Internet technolo-
ments: “We’ve seen a transformation of the laboratory in
gies may allow you to present more information more
physics. It used to be that people mostly went in and did
effectively. Multimedia presentations may allow students
calculations and ran apparatus. Now there’s an alterna-
to see and hear events that otherwise would only have
tion between labs that are done using interactive physics
been described in a lecture or textbook. For example,
courseware and those that are done using apparatus. I
digital video clips of historical events can easily be
think that the faculty have come to believe that this is a
embedded in a PowerPoint presentation (and later
very useful way to teach physics ideas and that students
uploaded to a course website). Multimedia presentations
are more engaged in the process of making predictions
can also document and demonstrate concepts that
and constructing views of the phenomena when they
couldn’t easily or safely be demonstrated in a lecture hall
have this kind of environment than when they work only
or classroom, whether an experiment, a natural disaster,
in the lab.”
or a visit to another country. Some particularly innova-
tive uses of technology in the classroom can advance
37
Getting Started
• Appreciate the multiplicity of agendas. Technology can
Introducing new technology into your courses may
certainly be used to improve the quality of instruction. It
require help, as well as a familiarity with Stanford’s aca-
can also be used to increase its cost-effectiveness by
demic and computing resources. Because many of the
expanding the audience. As educators, we need to under-
campus offices involved in technology change names and
stand what forces are driving the decision to use technol-
functions frequently (perhaps because the technology
ogy and when the goals of quality and cost reduction
itself is always changing), we will not try to provide you
conflict.
with a list of people and telephone numbers. Instead, you
• Maintain a realistic assessment of the life-cycle costs of
may want to consult About Computing at Stanford: A
educational technology. Developing good instructional
Guide for Faculty and Students, distributed once a year in
technology is not easy and cannot be done by faculty as
the fall, or the quarterly Speaking of Computers (both
a background activity. Maintenance and redevelopment
produced by Academic Computing; for an online version
costs, particularly for software-intensive tools, are also
of these publications, check out http://computing.stan-
high.
ford.edu). Mailing lists, discussion forums, and course
web pages are easy to set up at Stanford through http://
hing
gies
e
ac
at
courses.stanford.edu.
T
e
Str
The Center for Teaching and Learning can help
you with technology in teaching and learning or we can
assist you in figuring out where the most appropriate
help may be. Please contact us! You may also find that
students are excellent resources for designing new course
materials. You may be able to use the technological savvy
of TAs, work-study students, or current students to
develop new materials.
Most faculty members who have worked on course
websites or multimedia courseware have emphasized the
importance of talking with colleagues already engaged in
such work. They recommend building on the ideas of
others who have developed successful, innovative
instructional techniques and tools, even if they’re not in
your discipline. According to UC Berkeley Professor
Marcia Linn, this conversation is an important addition-
al benefit of working with technology: “One of the things
that technology is supporting in a way that is very desir-
able is partnerships across campus—multidisciplinary
interactions that were not as common in the past.”
Some Cautions
It would not be fair to cover the topic of technology in
teaching without giving you some warning of the potential
costs as well as the benefits. Professor Eric Roberts of Com-
puter Science shares the following “cautionary thoughts”:
• Understand that good teaching involves much more
than the simple transfer of material or specific skills. In
teaching the major challenge is to convey excitement
and to provide students with the psychological incen-
tives they need to work hard. Roberts is not convinced
that greater reliance on educational technology furthers
these goals.
38
Teaching at
Evaluating Students S tanford
Strategies for Fair and Conflict-Free Grading
40
important to consider what learning outcomes you are
measuring; if your main course learning goal was simply
Testing
41
for the student to learn facts, definitions, and concepts, a
Exam Checklist
43
well-written and clear multiple-choice exam may suffice.
If you emphasized application in class and ungraded
Papers, Projects, and Presentations
44
assignments, and then present students with a fact-based
Academic Honesty and Dishonesty
46
multiple choice exam, you will both disappoint the stu-
dents and not fairly assess their learning. For perform-
Writing Letters of Recommendation
47
ance-based evaluation (papers, presentations, projects,
or classroom contributions), be sure that you have given
students clear instructions, grading guidelines, and if
Grading can be a major challenge for teachers.Grades possible examples of previous students’ outstanding
inevitably reflect personal philosophy and human
work. This way, students’ performance is more likely to
E
psychology, as well as our well-intentioned efforts to
represent their actual skill level and commitment, rather
St
v
a
udent
luating
measure intellectual progress and performance with
than a misunderstanding of the assignment. If your
standardized, objective criteria. New teachers may be
grading system also evaluates a student’s effort, it is
s
harsh at the beginning to prove that they are not
important to be clear at the beginning of your course
pushovers. Others, afraid of discouraging or alienating
what steps students need to take to demonstrate serious
students, are lenient. Even those who have managed to
effort in the course (be it visiting your office hours, meet-
strike a balance between stringency and leniency may
ing with TAs to review assignments, revising papers and
find grading to be their least favorite academic task.
projects, attending all class meetings, or speaking up in
Grades cause a lot of distress for undergraduates; this
class). Many instructors who believe that grading “effort”
concern often seems to inhibit enthusiasm for learning
is unfair or imprecise nevertheless end up unconsciously
for its own sake (“Do we have to know this for the
rewarding students who participate fully or visit office
exam?”) and may result in unpleasant grade challenges
hours. Therefore, it is better to set clear standards than to
and negotiations. Whatever your personal philosophy
ignore the influence such student behavior can have on
about grades, their importance to your students means
grading decisions.
that you must make a constant effort to be fair and rea-
sonable. To reduce the amount of time and energy you
and your students spend worrying about, or negotiating,
grades, it is vital that you provide clear grading guide-
lines and enforce them fairly.
When we assign a grade to a student, what are we
evaluating? Teachers vary in what they consider “fair
game” for grading, but most often a grade represents a
combined assessment of each student’s learning achieve-
ment (testing what the student knows or knows how to
do), general performance (the quality of work that the
student produces for the course), and effort (how hard
the student worked in the course). Exams are the most
common way to evaluate student learning achievement.
Setting clear guidelines in advance is essential for achiev-
When designing exams and graded homework, it is
ing conflict-free grading.
39
STRATEGIES FOR FAIR AND CONFLICT-FREE GRADING
Create a Grading Plan
packages can help you not only plot your grade distri-
Make a plan for evaluating the students and stick to
butions but manage your recordkeeping. If, for
it. Evaluation procedures should be decided on when
instance, you are giving a numerical grade from 0 to 50
the course is in the planning stages. If you are work-
on an assignment, you can plot a graph of how many
ing with teaching assistants or colleagues, meet with
students received a grade between 1 and 10, 11 and 20,
them and decide what kinds of evaluation methods
all the way to 50. This graph will tell you at a glance
are to be used. Then decide how the students’ work
how the students are doing. It will also allow you to see
should be graded and what proportion of the final
the most frequent scores and the middle of the scoring
mark each assignment, quiz, etc., will comprise. This
range. These statistics are informative for students who
is also the time to set out a policy for missed or
are concerned about how they are doing with respect
failed midterms and late assignments. For example,
to the rest of the class. Distributions will make it easier
consider giving students two days of grace (or what-
for you to see how good your evaluation method was.
ever length of time seems appropriate for your class)
Uneven or badly skewed distributions suggest a poor
that they can use any way they’d like in assignment
testing method. If you plot similar distributions for a
due dates. Without penalty, if they need to, they can
number of assignments or quizzes, you will be able to
then turn in one assignment two days late or two
see how consistent your marking has been and also if
assignments one day late each. This gives students
there is (one hopes) a trend toward improvement in
some flexibility from the start, but it allows you to
the students’ performances. An individual student’s
s
insist that there will be no other exceptions.
grades can also be plotted this way, making it easier to
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assign a final letter grade. Save copies of the exam dis-
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Communicate Your Plan to Students
tributions for your future reference and for the use of
Once all of these things have been set out explicitly,
future teachers in the course.
take the earliest opportunity to make your students
aware of these policies. Tell the class what you expect
Responding to Grade Challenges
from them and how you plan to measure their
Occasionally students will dispute a test score or a final
progress in achieving the goals of the course. Explain
grade. In that case, it’s important to give the student a
how the evaluations, marking procedures, and poli-
courteous hearing. You may have added incorrectly,
cies will help both to achieve these goals and allow
overlooked work, or not been able to decipher the
you to evaluate the students’ progress fairly. Good
writing on a test. If, on the contrary, the grade should
planning and clear explanations will prevent student
still hold, most students appreciate an explanation of
confusion—and possibly anger—later on.
how the grade accords with the policies you set forth.
The clearer your records, the easier it will be to reex-
Keep Records
amine and justify your grades. You’ll find it easier to
Keep accurate records of your evaluation of each stu-
handle grade challenges if you do not attempt to
dent throughout the quarter. Such records will make it
regrade exams or projects with the concerned student
easier for you to justify and/or reevaluate a student’s
looking over your shoulder. Have students explain
final grade if necessary. Keep track of all elements that
carefully whatever problem they see in the grade, then
will be included in the final grade, including atten-
ask them to leave the graded work with you. Not only
dance, participation, and out-of-class meetings, as well
does this give you time to look it over on your own
as grades for any exams and assignments. You should
and recheck your records, but it also gives the often-
also keep your records for several years since students
times upset student a chance to calm down. TAs also
may come back later to question a grade, finish an
need to be careful not to get caught between professors
incomplete, or ask you to write a recommendation.
and students on regrading questions. TAs should find
out beforehand if the professor expects to decide grad-
Consider the Distribution of Grades
ing disputes or if the TA is supposed to settle the mat-
It’s a good idea to make a graph of the distribution of
ter with the student.
grades on each quiz or assignment. Software grading
40
Testing
• Math and science exams generally consist of problems
to be solved. Numerical or logical problems primarily
Testing not only lets you and your students know how
test the ability to apply material; introducing familiar
much they have learned, it also provides a chance for
versus new problem types (which require extending
more learning to take place, by reinforcing course mate-
what students have practiced to new applications) can
rial or by requiring students to use or think about what
vary the challenge of the exam.
they have learned in a new way. Tests should be designed
• Multiple-choice exams are the most difficult to con-
with primary course objectives in mind and should cover
struct well, but can be used to measure both information
material from all components of a course (sections, lectures,
recognition and concept application. If you use this for-
textbooks, etc.). If you are taking over a course, go over the
mat, consider writing questions throughout the quarter,
old tests carefully to see what was covered and how.
while the lectures and material are fresh in your mind.
Students should be told in advance, preferably at
the beginning of the quarter, what kinds of exams will be
• Completion questions test for recall of key terms and
given in a course. Since some students may have access to
concepts. If you use completion questions, be willing to
old exams, it is probably fairer to give all students sample
accept reasonable alternative answers that you had not
copies of at least one previous exam. The nature of the
considered prior to giving the exam.
exam will directly influence how students prepare, study
• Matching questions are useful for testing recognition of
and learn. For this reason, the format and frequency of
the relationships between pairs of words or between
your testing will directly influence what and how much
words and definitions. Supply enough answer choices
students learn. If students have reason to believe that you
so that students cannot guess simply by the process of
will mainly stress recall of information, for example, then
elimination.
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• Short-answer questions help test information recall and
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concepts and the synthesis of material (and they may also
analytic skills. They achieve similar goals as multiple-
s
be more likely to cram at the last minute, which makes it
choice questions, but require students to recall, not just
less likely they will remember the material very long after
recognize, correct answers. If you use a short-answer for-
the exam). On the other hand, if your tests will demand
mat, make questions specific enough that students can
a deep knowledge of the ideas discussed, students are
confidently answer the question in the allotted space.
likely to respond accordingly. Frequent testing can
In recent years, take-home essay exams have grown
enhance learning as well as provide information on stu-
in popularity. Although they may seem an ideal format,
dent progress. In this case, returning exams promptly
by providing students with a calmer environment and
and going over the exams with students will maximize
more time to think through answers, they have draw-
the benefits of frequent testing and feedback.
backs. You can minimize the drawbacks with some basic
precautions. You can put word limits on each essay, for
Choosing an Exam Format
example, so that students with other tests do not have to
Your choice of exam format should be based on the
compete unfairly against students with no other
learning outcomes you want to test. Below are some pos-
demands on their time. However, following the proce-
sible exam formats that can be combined to create a well-
dures of the Honor Code, there should not be a specified
balanced approach to testing, along with some basic
time limit less than the full period between the distribu-
guidelines for using each format.
tion of the exam and the due date. There should also be
• Essay tests give students a chance to organize, evaluate,
explicit instructions about whether or not students can
and think, and therefore often have the best education-
talk to each other about their answers and whether they
al value for many subject matters. They are, however,
have unlimited access to materials (course materials
the hardest to grade. Make sure you, or your graders,
only? library resources? talking to people outside the
have the time and stamina to grade essay exams well.
class?). An alternative strategy is to give out the exam in
You should discuss the criteria for their evaluation with
advance and allow consultation among students, but
the students and with any fellow graders before the test
have them write the test in class without notes.
is given.
41
Writing Good Exams
Once the questions are written, consider the more
Certain standards apply to all exam formats. Good exams
practical concerns of arranging the exam on the page.
are written in clear, straightforward language, so that all
Aim for a stylistically simple, clean, and uncrowded lay-
students can understand what you are asking for. Good
out. If you leave space for short answers or essays, realize
exams do not require skills, knowledge, or vocabulary
that the amount of space you leave is often interpreted by
that are not central to the
students as the length of the answer you want.
One of my basic principles about
course. Good exams are an
After constructing any kind of exam, ask an expe-
exams is that they should test—and
appropriate length for the
rienced colleague or your TAs to look it over. Someone
encourage—a wide range of types
exam period. Directions are
else can often point out ambiguities and typos that you
of knowledge and thinking, from
clearly stated on the exam
do not see. Poorly written questions and typos are dis-
factual information to the views of
(and reviewed in class
couraging to students, who trust that you have put careful
experts, analysis of the subject
before students begin the
thought and attention into how they are being evaluated.
matter, and more personal interpre-
exam). The point value of
Always take the exam first yourself. For most exam
tation and opinion.
each part of the exam is
formats, you should be able to finish the exam in no
Paul V. Turner, Paul L. and Phyllis
given so that students can
more than a quarter of the time the students will have.
Wattis Professor of Art, Emeritus
prioritize their time.
For exams that use a problem- or case-based for-
mat, construct most problems so that they resemble the
ones given in exercises during the quarter. You can make
the problems more interesting by describing a “real”
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application for the concept or technique or by combin-
ing two concepts in a single problem. Problems should
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be of graduated difficulty. The first problem, at least,
should be one that builds confidence, so that nervous
students do not become ruinously flustered at the outset.
Avoid “double jeopardy” (when the solution to one prob-
lem depends on successfully solving a previous one).
Finally, avoid long, detailed computations. Concentrate
on ideas, not endurance.
After writing the rough draft of your exam, classi-
fy the questions according to what skills they require of
the students: information recall, translation, interpreta-
tion, application of principles, analysis of concepts, syn-
thesis of ideas, or evaluation. Make sure that your ques-
tions adequately cover the kinds of skills you want to
The nature of your exams impacts the depth with
assess. Particularly for multiple-choice exams, small
which your students attempt to learn.
changes to questions can demand a higher level of
thought and more closely match the learning goals of the
course. For example, instead of asking a student to rec-
Grading Exams
ognize the correct word for a given definition, you might
Problem Sets, Short-Answer Questions, and Multiple
ask the student to choose the concept/term that best
Choice Although these evaluation methods usually take
matches a novel example that you provide. This requires
longer to make up than others, they are also the easiest to
the student not only to know the definitions of the terms
grade. Multiple-choice exams can usually be graded by
but also to interpret events using those definitions. Also
one or two people in about an hour if you use a scanner
check that your exam fairly represents the material of the
and software to grade and analyze the exams. With other
testing period. It’s easy to fall prey to “primacy” and
formats, it is often a good idea to divide the exam ques-
“recency” effects, where we overemphasize material from
tions among graders. This is more likely to provide grad-
the beginning and end of a given testing period and
ing consistency and make it possible for a grader to spot
underemphasize what was covered in the middle.
patterns of deviation for a single question or problem.
42
For multiple-choice exams, Scantron grading software
EXAM CHECKLIST
provides a number of test analysis options, including
item-by-item analysis of question responses. If students
Are students prepared for the exam?
are doing worse than chance on a particular question, it
Make old exams available to students, if possi-
is likely that the question was poorly worded. In this case
ble. Make clear before any test what material
you should either give credit for more than one answer
you consider important. Make sure students
or toss the question out (by giving everyone credit). For
have practice with the kinds of questions/prob-
all exam formats, you may think that you have written
lems on the exam.
the perfect question with only one correct answer, but
Does the exam reflect your goals for the
always be prepared for alternative answers. Consider
course?
allowing students to submit regrade petitions justifying
Compare material in the test to the major topics
their solutions.
listed in your syllabus, lecture outlines, and the
textbook, to make sure you’ve been consistent.
Essay Exams Usually the challenge is how to wade
through all those essays while remaining both consistent
Is the exam of reasonable length?
and sane. When there are a number of instructors
Take the exam yourself. You should generally
assigned to a course, this is easier, because you can divide
be able to finish in one-fourth the time it will
the workload. If each instructor has a section and all of
take the students. Keep time-consuming num-
you have covered the same basic material, then you may
ber-crunching to a minimum.
prefer to mark the entire exams of just the students in
Are the directions and the format clear and
your section. (The problem here, of course, is that objec-
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well organized?
tivity may be harder to achieve since you may be partial
Ask a colleague or TA to read over the instruc-
toward your own students. Grading question by ques-
s
tions to help you spot any ambiguities or mis-
tion, rather than student by student, may improve grad-
leading statements. Make sure the print is clear
ing consistency.) This will allow you to give credit for
and that if there’s space left for problems/
material that you presented in section and it will give you
essays, it is of suitable length.
feedback on whether the ideas you have emphasized have
actually registered. At the same time, you should be guid-
Is it clear how much credit each question is
ed by a grading standard that has been mutually agreed
worth?
upon by all instructors. If each instructor has dealt with
Make sure that the value of each question is
specialized topics in lecture and section, then it is proba-
clear, so students can decide how much time to
bly better to split the exam questions up so that each
spend on each part of the exam.
teacher covers the area he or she taught. Dividing the
Is it free of double jeopardy?
exam questions in this way ensures that each question
Do students need an answer from one part of the
will be marked consistently across all students, even if
exam in order to understand or solve another?
one grader turns out to be more stringent or lenient than
Does it begin with questions or problems that
other graders. However, reading 200 answers to the same
will build, rather than undermine, student
question one after the other has its drawbacks; it can
confidence?
affect your mental health and your grading range. This is
Have compassion for students’ test anxiety and
less likely to occur if you pace yourself, grade questions
start an exam with questions that are reason-
that you are interested in, and switch questions every
ably easy for a prepared student.
once in a while if you are grading more than one ques-
tion. After grading has begun, consider having all graders
Are the questions/problems interesting?
share a sample of their A, B, and C essays to compare and
Try to include interesting applications or combi-
sort out any inconsistencies developing among graders.
nations of material that show the value of the
Grading essay exams involves a lot of subjective
material students are being tested on. Make sure
judgment, and your judgment may be influenced by
to challenge, but not to confuse, your students.
things like fatigue, boredom, or rushing to finish. In par-
ticular, you are more likely to be stringent with the first
43
few essays you read than with the rest and you are less
Papers, Projects, and Presentations
likely to be careful about comments when you are tired.
To avoid such problems, read a few essays before you
Papers, projects, and presentations are excellent
opportunities for students to demonstrate their
actually start grading to get an idea of the range of qual-
learning and investment in a course. Students typically
ity. Stop grading when you get too tired or bored. When
welcome such assignments when they come with clear
you start again, read over the last couple of essays you
guidelines as well as room for some flexibility in topics
graded to make sure you were fair.
and creativity in content.
After the Exam When the exams have been marked, get
Creating Interesting and Effective Assignments
together with the other graders to discuss and resolve any
Because papers, projects, and presentations allow stu-
problems you have encountered. Then add up the total
dents to spend a significant amount of time preparing
scores, check your addition (this saves a lot of trouble
the end product, these kinds of assignments can focus on
later), and plot the distribution. Discuss the grade distri-
the highest-level goals for the course. For example,
bution and what you think it says about student learning
assignments may require analysis and synthesis of com-
and test construction.
peting perspectives, application of theory to real-world
For maximum learning from an exam—and out of
problems, or creative extensions of course material.
respect for the students—tests should be returned to stu-
When you choose a topic or format for this kind of
dents as soon as possible. Unless you intend to discuss
assignment, make sure that it challenges students to meet
them in class, hand tests back at the end of a period in
these kinds of high-level goals. Otherwise, exams and
order to avoid students being preoccupied while you try
homework are usually a simpler assessment tool. Several
s
to cover something else. Provide a grade distribution to
approaches can make a basic assignment more interesting.
students to help them make sense of their numeric or let-
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Consider adding the following angles to your assignment:
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ter grade. Do not post students’ grades publicly. They are
E
legally entitled to confidentiality in this matter.
• Have students target their paper, project, or presenta-
Consider having an official “regrade” policy in
tion for a specific audience, other than the instructor.
which students have a limited time (say, one week) to
Target audiences might include a review board or fund-
review their exam, request a regrade, and justify their
ing agency (for research papers), a judge or jury (for
request with a full written explanation. This policy has
logical arguments or analyses), the general public (for
the benefits of encouraging students to review their
informational reports), or a historical figure. The for-
exams in a timely manner, discouraging arbitrary grade
mat of the assignment can be tailored to the audience,
complaints, and requiring students to examine their
for example a proposal to a review board or a letter to a
responses carefully.
historical figure.
After the exam has
• Require students to use experiential resources alongside
An examination is not just a grading
been graded and returned,
traditional library resources. For example, students can
device, but a useful tool for learn-
place a copy of it in your
conduct an interview or engage in observer-participa-
ing. The challenge is to craft exami-
files along with a note to
tion at a relevant site or event.
nation questions that require stu-
yourself indicating which
• Invite an expert to discuss students’ work at the end of
dents to use their knowledge, not in
questions were most com-
the quarter. For example, you might invite a colleague
the linear sequence in which they
monly missed, whether any
in academics, industry, or service to oversee a presenta-
may have learned it, but in applied,
parts unnecessarily con-
tion of student projects and select the most innovative
non-linear ways…. The most impor-
fused students, and the
project, or discuss in class how the process students
tant thing that I want them to know
grading distribution. This
went though to produce the project relates to profes-
is how to establish
file will be helpful for writ-
sional or real-world activities.
a conceptual framework in a vast
ing future exams, as well as
body of information and how to
• Allow for some aspect of collaboration or peer feed-
helping you focus on mate-
decide what’s important and what’s
back. For example, students can respond to drafts of
rial that you know students
trivial.
another student’s work. Or, you can assign students to
will have trouble with.
different aspects of a single topic and reserve some class
Robert Waymouth, Robert Eckles
time for discussion among students working on the
Swain Professor in Chemistry
same topic.
44
When writing your assignment instructions, rec-
you would for essay exams: read a few papers before you
ognize that introductory students (especially freshmen)
actually start grading to get an idea of the range of qual-
appreciate specific assignment topics and instructions,
ity. Stop grading when you get too tired or bored. When
whereas advanced students often prefer more freedom. If
you start again, read over the last couple of papers you
you decide to allow for a wide range of topics and for-
graded to make sure you were fair.
mats, make sure that your instructions are still specific
enough to ensure that students produce high-quality
work. For example, you might allow students to choose
their own topic, but provide specific instructions on how
to produce a good literature review, grant proposal, or
informational website (whatever the format is); or, you
might let students choose the format, but still give spe-
cific requirements about the number and quality of
resources they need to use. For all students and assign-
ments, it is helpful to:
• give clear grading guidelines;
• make samples of previous students’ work available;
• break the assignment into stages (i.e., outline, draft,
revision, final project) to prevent procrastination or
misunderstanding.
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Grading Papers
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There is nothing more arbitrary to a student than a paper
passed back with a grade but few comments. When grad-
ing papers, write comments judiciously and legibly. Do
not obliterate the text—use the margins, the back, or
The teaching process is not over when students hand in
append a note. Try to be specific enough with your sug-
their papers. Your prompt and thorough feedback is key to
gestions so that the student has a good chance of doing
student learning.
better next time. If you find that you are saying similar
things to several students, prepare a handout on whatev-
er the students are stumbling over—how to write a
Grading Projects and Presentations
review, for example, or how to develop an argument.
Projects and presentations can present special grading
Even better, give such a handout at the time an assign-
challenges because of their unique formats. Make sure
ment is announced, so students are prepared.
you have given students explicit guidelines for the assign-
A paper should be judged on its content, organiza-
ment and consider preparing a grading checklist or
tion, and style. It is useful to the students if you evaluate
“score sheet” based on these guidelines. You can include
the paper in each of these areas; however, students
anything from assignment length to use of sources to
should understand that the overall strength of a paper’s
overall creativity in these guidelines. Whether or not you
“content” (ideas, analysis, or insights) cannot really be
return this score sheet to your students is up to you; how-
separated from the execution (organization, mechanics,
ever, students always appreciate (and deserve) some
and style). After all, language is the medium through
comments explaining the grade.
which students must present and arrange their thoughts.
Some teachers have had good success with asking stu-
Grading Group Assignments
dents to write papers twice. The first draft is submitted
While group assignments can achieve learning goals
and subjected to constructive criticism on these areas of
(such as improving students’ collaboration skills) not
content, organization, and style. The second draft is
easily addressed by traditional coursework, they are
graded and usually shows the kind of improvement that
notoriously difficult to grade fairly. Work is often distrib-
is satisfying to both the student and the teacher.
uted unevenly among group members. For this reason,
Follow the same strategies for grading papers as
some instructors allow members of a group to individu-
45
ally suggest a grade for “effort” for each of the group
1. The Interpretations and Applications of the Honor Code,
members, including themselves. In addition, because col-
enacted by the Board on Judicial Affairs, supplement
laboration limits the ability of any one student to “con-
and clarify the Honor Code. The Board on Judicial
trol” the final product, group work may not perfectly
Affairs does not presume, nor is it possible, to elimi-
reflect the true abilities or effort of either a struggling
nate all ambiguities or uncertainties. It is the responsi-
student or an outstanding student. For this reason, con-
bility of each instructor to define what type of aid is
sider implementing both individual and group account-
and is not permitted in his or her course. The effec-
ability. For example, each student might be individually
tiveness of the Honor Code depends ultimately upon
responsible for a certain topic or section, as well as
the good faith and conscientious judgment of all indi-
receive a holistic grade for the group’s performance. In
viduals concerned. You can get further information on
this case, be sure to provide some classroom time or
the Honor Code by talking to the judicial advisor at
other structured instructions for group coordination and
725-2485.
discussion, so that the group does not splinter.
2. The Honor Code was not imposed upon the students
Also recognize that some projects do not lend
by the administration or faculty. The students origi-
themselves well to collaboration; traditional or scientific
nally assumed its responsibilities at their own request.
papers, for example, are almost always “divvied up” by
3. Those who suffer most from students’ academic dis-
students, with little discussion, feedback, and integration
honesty are not administrators or faculty but the hon-
of perspectives. Assignments that work well with collab-
orable and conscientious students. Hence it is in their
oration often result in “products,” such as films, comput-
interest to make individual and collective efforts to see
er programs, and physical inventions, or “proposals,” pre-
that the highest standards of honesty are always main-
s
sented in class or in writing, based on a problem-solving
tained. The code specifically enjoins students, in the
assignment or case study.
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honesty by drawing attention to violations, talking
with offenders, or—if all else fails—initiating formal
Academic Honesty and Dishonesty
procedures. The judicial advisor has pointed out that
Academic honesty and dishonesty are both moral and
because students too rarely take such actions, faculty
administrative concerns for a teacher at Stanford.
are tempted to question the code and resort to other
Stanford University’s Office of Judicial Affairs (within
means to prevent cheating.
the Office of the Dean of Students) administers the stu-
For questions about appropriate procedures in
dent judicial process for Stanford and works toward an
particular cases or ambiguous areas, the judicial advisor
honest and responsible community. Under the process,
may be consulted. TAs, students, and faculty are all
students are held accountable for adhering to established
encouraged to use the services of the judicial advisor
community standards including Stanford's Fundamental
with regard to the Honor Code. If you are TAing, you
Standard and the Honor Code. The Fundamental Stan-
should discuss the Honor Code and academic honesty
dard states: Students at Stanford are expected to show both
with the faculty member in charge of the course at the
within and without the University such respect for order,
beginning of the quarter. Make sure your interpretations
morality, personal honor and the rights of others as is
are compatible and you agree on what to do if violations
demanded of good citizens. Failure to do this will be sufficient
occur. This will ensure that all students in a course are
cause for removal from the University.
treated fairly.
The Honor Code with Interpretations and Appli-
Not only should you inform students about the
cations is quoted in full in the Appendixes (and is avail-
Honor Code and procedures in regard to violations, you
able on the web at http://honorcode.stanford.edu).
should also try to create a learning environment that will
Spend some class time at the beginning of the
reduce the temptation to cheat. Make sure students know
quarter discussing the code, as well as the broader topic
your grading criteria, what kinds of exams they will be
of academic honesty. Your discussion of academic hon-
given, and what materials they are responsible for. If you
esty should presume the integrity and honesty of your
assign any term papers, you ensure higher quality work if
students and be used to clarify expectations as well as
you regularly check on students’ progress on their papers
answer any questions students have.
during the quarter. You may ask them to submit their
Three main points should be emphasized in dis-
first draft early on or to turn in rough copies along with
cussing the Honor Code with students:
46
the finished version. This reduces the likelihood of
receiving “file” or purchased papers. The issue of plagia-
rism should be discussed in some detail, particularly in
introductory or writing-in-the-major courses, since not
all forms of plagiarism are understood and recognized by
students.
Effective learning does not occur in an atmosphere
of suspicion. You have an obligation under the Honor
Code not to proctor exams or to take unusual measures
to prevent cheating, and to treat students as if they are
honest, until proven otherwise.
Writing Letters of Recommendation
One ofthe most satisfying evaluation tasks is writing
letters of recommendation for your students. When
Writing letters for students you have helped nurture and mentor
you write letters of recommendation, you are not just
can be a very rewarding experience.
evaluating the students’ performance in your class, con-
tribution to your research, or potential for future work;
you are also directly helping them achieve their personal
• Have the student give you the name and complete
E
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and professional goals.
address of the person you’ll be writing to, along with
a
udent
luating
You may be asked to write a letter of recommenda-
the date by which the letter is needed.
s
tion for graduate school, a summer job, or full-time
• Try to write the letter as soon after this meeting as pos-
employment. First ask yourself if you know the student
sible, while the information is still fresh in your mind.
well enough to write a helpful recommendation. What
You’ll be surprised how quickly you can forget the
are your impressions of that student? Can you be honest
important details necessary for a strong letter.
in writing a letter? If you have reservations, be straight-
• Use a standard business letter format on your depart-
forward with the student and explain why it would be
ment stationery or the form provided by the Career
better if the student requested a letter from another
Development Center (if the student is opening a place-
source. If you have a positive opinion about the student,
ment file). The Office of Undergraduate Advising and
put in the effort to learn as much as you need to about
Research (UAR) provides a list of guidelines for writing
him or her in order to write a compelling letter.
recommendations for students applying to graduate
Here are a few points to remember when writing a
programs. Letters are generally one typed page and con-
recommendation:
tain the following information:
• Set up an appointment to meet with the student, asking
—Your relationship to the applicant and length of time
him or her to bring a resume, a transcript, and any out-
you have known him or her.
standing work from your class. If the student is apply-
—Specific details about the applicant’s skills; past work
ing to graduate or professional school, you might ask
for you or present job responsibilities; strengths or
him or her to bring the personal statement, even in
weaknesses; any unusual aspects that might con-
rough draft form. The resume and transcript can pro-
tribute to or hinder the applicant’s performance; and
vide you with information about the student’s back-
motivation. Be vivid and concrete, but do not exag-
ground, in addition to insights into his or her interests
gerate or inflate. You want to make the student stand
and activities outside your class.
out to the degree he or she deserves, but you also have
• Use the appointment time to question the student more
to preserve your credibility as a recommender.
about his or her specific purpose (e.g., “Why are you
—Comments on how the above information relates to
going on to graduate school?” or “How does a full-time
the student’s choice of graduate program or job
job as a newspaper reporter relate to your long-term
opening. When writing to a prospective employer,
career goals?”)
translate academic skills into business skills (e.g., a
47
student’s ability to use library facilities for
independent research demonstrates curiosi-
ty, initiative, and the capacity to work inde-
pendently). Stress the potential of the indi-
vidual and why that person is qualified for
the job or admission to a graduate program.
—Your title and telephone number or address
where you can be reached.
Keep a copy of the letter for your files.
Employers may call to clarify information, the
same student may come back to ask for another
letter, or it may help you get started when you
need to write a letter for another student. Also
ask the student to keep you up to date on his or
her application status and final employment or
school decision. Although the results will not be
a clear indication of whether your letter helped,
good news will keep up your motivation; the stu-
dent will also appreciate your interest.
Writing letters of recommendation can be
s
time consuming, but with practice you will soon
luating
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develop your style and system. Remember that to
v
a
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be where you are, others went to the same trou-
ble for you; this is your chance to reciprocate.
48
Teaching at
Interactions w
Stanford
ith Students
The Diversity of Our Students
49
students, while learning more about the varied back-
grounds and experiences your students bring into your
Supporting Vulnerable Students
50
classroom. This is the best way to ensure that all students
Students with Disabilities
51
will feel comfortable, and supported, in rising to the aca-
demic challenges you set for them.
Ways to Help Students with Disabilities
Achieve Their Academic Goals
52
Examining Assumptions
Teaching Challenges
53
We all have generalized notions about Stanford students,
Classroom Challenges
54
including both positive and negative stereotypes. This
extends not just to Stanford students as a whole, but to
Counseling Students
57
different populations within the Stanford community.
Often these assumptions are not even based on our own
direct experiences with students; they may be shaped by
conversations with colleagues, our own college experi-
When you ask a teacher what the best part of teach- ences,and general cultural ideas about different groups.
ing is, the response almost always describes some
It is important to examine these assumptions, as they
aspect of the teacher-student relationship. Whether it’s
influence your expectations of, and interactions with,
the one-on-one conversations in office hours or the joy
your students. The most helpful attitude you can take
of seeing a classroom discussion come alive, positive
toward your students is one of general, undifferentiated
interactions with students remind us why we became
positive expectations, paired with a willingness to pro-
w
Int
teachers and scholars. As described in previous sections,
i
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vide extra help to any student who demonstrates the
er
you can maximize positive interactions with your stu-
action
udent
need and a desire to accept it.
dents though your use of electronic communication,
In the classroom, you can encourage students to
s
s
office hours, and classroom teaching strategies. In this
examine their own assumptions, especially if stereotypes
section, we address teacher-student interactions, from
or other negative comments come up in class discussion.
valuing the diversity in our student population to sup-
You can help your students become more informed,
porting academically vulnerable students to handling
more sensitive, and more conscious about ethnic, racial,
conflict in the classroom.
and gender issues, as well as other issues unique to a col-
lege population (for
example, attitudes about
I think there’s nothing better in a
The Diversity of Our Students
student athletes, nontra-
classroom than to find somebody
As you walk around Stanford,you will note that one ditional students,and stu- hasbroughtsomething newto a
of its strengths is the diversity of its students. Even
dents in different majors).
text that I’ve read ten or twelve
beyond the diversity that you can observe from the out-
One way to deal with big-
times. And being open and recep-
side, Stanford students carry with them rich and diverse
oted or insensitive com-
tive to that as well as being able
backgrounds that shape their experiences inside and out-
ments made in class is to
to provoke them, to bring that
side the classroom. It is not possible to tell when you
ask the student to repeat
out of them, and to allow a space
walk into a classroom what varied backgrounds your stu-
the comment—and to
in which a variety of views can
dents bring to the current learning environment.
be heard: it’s a challenge and it
take responsibility for it.
Therefore, it is important not to make assumptions
remains a challenge each time
You can then ask the stu-
about your students based on superficial characteristics
we enter the classroom.
dent why she or he holds
or your ideas about the “typical” Stanford student.
that assumption, what
Harry Elam, Olive H. Palmer
Explore ways to foster an open, safe environment for all
evidence there is for it,
Professor in Humanities
49
and what other factors might be involved. In certain
work. However, many of these students perform at the
cases, you may want to discuss the issue further with the
highest levels of academic achievement at Stanford. It is
student outside of class, or invite the other students to
true that some of these students do not come from a
think about the issue and email you responses that can be
home or neighborhood with role models for university-
discussed in the next class meeting. Both of these strate-
level academic achievement, and in the beginning they
gies encourage careful reflection, rather than heated
may ask themselves, “Do I really belong here?” However,
defensiveness. You can also sharpen students’ awareness
you cannot always tell which of your students come from
of their biases by discussing your own learning experi-
such a background, nor is self-doubt limited to students
ences. For example, if you have changed your course
without role models. Most Stanford students go through
materials in some way (to be more inclusive or to repre-
a stage of believing that they were admitted by mistake.
sent the work of certain communities), you can discuss
It is important for you to assume that yes, all of your stu-
your reasons for doing so.
dents belong here, and it is important that each of your
students knows you believe this. Professor John Rickford
of Linguistics sees confidence as particularly crucial to
Supporting Vulnerable Students
success in academics. “It takes guts to take an original
position, to challenge—the secure and self-confident are
There are two kinds of academically vulnerable stu- more likely to do so.”It is crucial that you not allow your
dents: those who are genuinely struggling with mate-
own assumptions about students to compound students’
rial and those who believe that their instructors and peers
self-doubts. Rickford suggests that faculty and TAs chal-
doubt their abilities. It is important to recognize both
lenge students to their limits by holding them to
threats to a student’s achievement and to construct an
demanding standards while also building up and sup-
environment where students who need help are comfort-
porting their abilities to meet those standards. For exam-
able asking for it and students do not feel pressure to dis-
ple, you might encourage a student to rewrite a paper
pel stereotypes about their race, ethnicity, age, or gender.
and give clear guidelines on how to approach the revi-
Students in academic trouble may feel reluctant to
sion; this is demanding, but supportive. You can also get
show weakness, and they often conceal their problems
undergraduates involved in your research, an effective
until an exam or deadline passes. One way to identify
s
way to motivate and inspire promising students who may
s
students in need of extra help is an ungraded back-
not yet feel that they belong at Stanford. In addition,
udent
ground knowledge quiz the first week of class. You can
action
instructors should emphasize the positive and avoid
er
also introduce graded assignments or exams early in the
Int
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harsh remarks whenever providing criticism. Students
quarter. Students who do poorly can be given supple-
often trust an instructor’s judgment about their ability;
mental material or advised to meet with a tutor. It is
this is why a simple encouragement can launch a stu-
important not to discourage these students from taking
dent’s passion and a simple criticism may devastate a stu-
the course, unless there is a good reason to. You may want
dent. The idealized notion of an excruciatingly critical
to invite struggling students to your office hours. When
yet brilliant and inspiring professor is more fiction than
meeting with them, take the time to find out why the stu-
reality. You will best inspire your students with a balance
dent thinks he or she is struggling. There may be extenu-
of encouragement and constructive criticism.
ating circumstances, such as family or personal prob-
Psychology professor Claude Steele’s research has
lems; at the least, students may have insight into their
found that certain groups of students are vulnerable to
study habits. Remember that your primary role is to help
the consequences of stereotypes, even when they know
students learn, and you do not need to solve all of the
the stereotypes aren’t true or don’t believe the stereotype
students’ extenuating problems to help them do better in
applies to them individually. For example, members of a
your course (see “Counseling Students” later in this sec-
stereotyped group may feel an extra burden to disprove
tion for more advice on this matter). In addition to help-
the stereotype, resulting in increased anxiety during
ing students who clearly are struggling, make a habit of
exams or in other classroom situations. He believes that
offering clarification, feedback, and assistance to all of
this “stereotype vulnerability” may help explain why
your students.
many talented women and minorities drop out of math,
One common assumption held by instructors is
science, and engineering programs, and why the African
that students from low-income households, and some
American college dropout rate nationally is higher than
students of color, may be underprepared for college
50
for other groups (though at Stanford the African
Legal Obligations
American dropout rate is not higher than that of other
Two federal laws prohibit colleges and universities from
groups). To counter stereotype vulnerability, Steele rec-
discriminating against qualified students with disabili-
ommends that instructors demonstrate their confidence
ties. The first, Section 504 of the 1973 Rehabilitation Act,
in students’ abilities through challenge, mentoring,
applies to institutions that receive federal assistance
research groups, and peer advising. Recent research has
(grants, contracts, etc.). More recent federal legislation,
shown that when faculty and TAs can create learning or
the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), passed in
mastery-oriented classrooms, students focus more on
1990, extends the prohibition against discrimination to
developing their understanding of the material rather
areas not covered under Section 504, such as private
than on how they are being evaluated in comparison to
businesses, non-governmental-funded accommodations,
their classmates.
and services provided by state or local governments.
Modeled on other civil-rights legislation, these laws are
designed to eliminate discrimination in any program or
Students with Disabilities
activity on the basis of disability. The spirit of both these
As an instructor,one of your primary goals is to help laws is not to guarantee students with disabilities equal
students discover the power and freedom that ideas
results or achievement, but to afford them the equal
can bestow. This is particularly true for students who
opportunity to achieve equal results.
have faced any significant challenge in their life, includ-
ing physical and learning disabilities. Working with such
students provides you the opportunity to make the
learning environment more effective; you will become a
better teacher for all students by increasing the variety of
your instructional approaches. Students with disabilities
are as diverse as any other group of Stanford students.
They are bright, talented, motivated, positive, enthusias-
tic, goal-oriented, and academically prepared. It is
w
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important to remember to focus on their individuality,
i
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er
not their disability. All disabling conditions occur on a
action
udent
spectrum, so generalizations about a particular type of
s
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disability are seldom accurate or constructive. Each stu-
dent with a disability will have a different level of func-
tioning, even within the same disability category.
Additionally, compensation skills will vary widely from
Reasonable accommodations for students with disabilities
can be made for a wide range of teaching situations. Stan-
one student to another.
ford’s Office of Accessible Education and Student Disability
Resource Center have a rich set of resources and ideas to
Who Is a Person with a Disability?
support this effort.
As legally defined, a “person with a disability” is someone
who (1) has a physical or mental impairment that sub-
Handling Student Disability-Related Requests
stantially limits one or more major life activities (e.g.,
The Disability Resource Center (DRC) at Stanford is
eating, caring for oneself, learning, etc.); (2) has a record
responsible for administering the policies and proce-
of such an impairment; or (3) is regarded as having an
dures for disability-related needs of undergraduate and
impairment. The disabling conditions themselves are
graduate students who have documented disabilities.
numerous: the disability can be visible or invisible; con-
Students are responsible for initiating the process by
genital or the result of disease or traumatic injury; pro-
requesting academic accommodations from the DRC. As
duce formidable challenges to everyday living or cause
an instructor, it is important for you to refer students
relatively minor inconveniences.
who ask about disability accommodations in your course
to the DRC. A DRC staff member will meet with the stu-
dent, review professional documentation submitted in
support of the need for academic or other accommoda-
51
WAYS TO HELP STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES ACHIEVE THEIR ACADEMIC GOALS
Students with disabilities, faculty, and the Disability
other handouts in large print, on computer disk, or on
Resource Center staff share a collective responsibility to
audiotape. The Disability Resource Center can assist
ensure that adjustments made in a particular class
students with taped texts, large-print software, readers,
accommodate the student’s disability, without altering
and adaptive computer equipment.
academic standards or course content. The following
Lectures and discussions
suggestions can enhance the general teaching environ-
Students who are hearing impaired and read lips can-
ment while helping students with disabilities achieve
not follow the lecture or conversation when the speak-
the academic goals of your course.
er’s back or head is turned. Be aware of the direction
Early identification of required textbooks and read-
that you are facing and try to face the class. Speak slow-
ing assignments
ly and clearly without shouting; don’t exaggerate or
Whenever possible, complete syllabi at least three weeks
overemphasize lip movements. Refrain from chewing
in advance of the beginning of the quarter. When this is
gum or otherwise blocking the area around your
not feasible, instructors are encouraged to identify the
mouth with your hands or other objects. Try to avoid
required reading assignments for the first three weeks
standing in front of windows or other sources of light.
of the quarter. Early identification of textbooks and
The glare from behind you makes it difficult to read
assignments allows the DRC the lead time necessary to
lips and other facial expressions. In group discussion,
prepare course materials in alternative formats such as
ask one person to talk at a time so that the student will
braille or audiotape, as is required by law.
not miss out on information. The Disability Resource
Center can assist students who are deaf or hearing
Statement for course syllabi
impaired with notetakers and sign-language inter-
Include the following statement on the class syllabus
preters or stenocaptionists. If an intermediary is used,
and review it during the first class meeting: “Students
look at and speak directly to the student, not the inter-
with documented disabilities: Students who have a dis-
preter/stenocaptioner. This is more courteous and
ability that may necessitate an academic accommoda-
s
s
allows the student the option of viewing both you and
tion or the use of auxiliary aids and services in a class
udent
the interpreter to more fully follow the flow of conver-
action
must initiate the request with the Disability Resource
er
sation. When using slides, movies, or overheads, leave
Center (DRC). The DRC will evaluate the request with
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enough light so the student can see the interpreter. If a
required documentation, recommend appropriate
written script is available, provide the interpreter and
accommodations, and prepare a verification letter
student with a copy in advance.
dated in the current academic term in which the
request is being made. Please contact the DRC as soon
Notetakers and laboratory assistants
as possible; timely notice is needed to arrange for
From time to time, you will be asked by the DRC staff
appropriate accommodations. The DRC is located at
to identify potential notetakers or laboratory assistants
563 Salvatierra Walk (723-1066; TDD 723-1067).”
to facilitate academic accommodations for a student
with a disability. All such assistants receive payment for
Class handouts and writing on the board
their services and the DRC appreciates your assistance
Handouts and writing on the board are barriers to stu-
in the recruiting efforts.
dents who are blind or who have visual impairments.
Read what you write on the board as you write it and
Classroom accessibility
verbally describe visual aids. For example, you might
Access is one of the major concerns of the student who
say, “The five-inch-long steel rod,” rather than “this” or
uses a wheelchair or has a mobility impairment. In the
“that” (which are basically meaningless phrases to not
event that the classroom you are assigned is inaccessible
only a visually impaired student but to any student
for a particular student, contact the DRC. It is this office’s
who is focusing on taking notes). Acknowledge stu-
responsibility to work with the student and the academic
dents by name during discussions so the students know
department to remedy issues of classroom inaccessibility
who is participating. Offer to provide your syllabus and
or modifications that are needed in a laboratory setting.
52
tion(s), and then prepare an “Accommodation Letter.”
ous of these teaching challenges—conflict with students
This letter, which the student will bring to you, details the
—and then discuss some common classroom challenges.
recommended accommodation plan.
Preventing Conflict
What Is a Reasonable Accommodation?
A sensitive approach to your work with students can save
Under both the ADA and Section 504, educators and
you from many problems. If you phrase questions and
service providers must analyze in detail which accom-
criticism carefully, you can generally avoid defensive or
modations are feasible and effective for particular indi-
hostile responses. If you are supportive, encouraging,
viduals. This involves a case-by-case analysis of the stu-
and respectful of student ideas in class, then you can cor-
dent and the requested accommodation. The regulations
rect wrong answers or point out weaknesses without dis-
do not preclude or interfere with the right of institutions
couraging your students. Always show students the cour-
to impose and enforce acceptable criteria and standards.
tesy of listening to and responding to their answers when
Essentially, the law requires institutions of higher educa-
they offer an idea. Rather than dismissing a weak or inac-
tion to make those reasonable adjustments necessary to
curate idea immediately, ask the student to clarify it
eliminate discrimination on the basis of disability. In all
using the material for the session. Often, students can
instances, the requested accommodation needs to be
talk their way into a more thoughtful response. You will
directly linked to the underlying disability. For example,
also want to be careful about teasing or sarcastic humor,
a student with a learning disability who presents profes-
since these are all too easily misinterpreted.
sional documentation substantiating a slow reading rate
You are also less likely to run into conflict with
is likely to be granted the accommodation request for
your students if you resolve any mixed feelings you have
extended time on a reading-intensive history examina-
about your authority as a teacher. Students are confused
tion. In this example, the accommodation of extra time
by and often alienated from a teacher who acts first as a
allows the instructor to measure the student’s achieve-
friend or peer, then as a stern authority figure. Students
ment in history, not his or her impaired reading rate
expect you to set clear boundaries and to hold students
(except when this skill is the factor being measured).
to their academic responsibilities.
As a rule of thumb, for an accommodation to be
considered reasonable there are two key questions: (1) Is
Managing Conflict
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the accommodation necessary in order for the student to
Sometimes serious conflicts do arise between teacher and
action
udent
enjoy equal opportunity? (2) Is the accommodation rea-
student—charges of poor instruction, irregular or unfair
s
sonable in the context of the student’s course of study? In
grading, deviation from announced procedures about
s
the context of postsecondary education there are four
course requirements, and the use of nonacademic crite-
types of accommodations that are not considered rea-
ria in computing grades. Although you may assume such
sonable: (1) It is not a reasonable adjustment if making
problems are rare, in fact they are not. Concerns about
the accommodation means making a substantial change
academic performance (including grade disputes, Honor
in an essential element of a specific course or curricu-
Code violations, credit and registration issues, and con-
lum; (2) It is not a reasonable accommodation if making
cerns about faculty conduct) are among the most fre-
the accommodation poses a direct threat to the health or
quently registered student complaints to the ombuds-
safety of others; (3) It is not a reasonable modification if
person’s office. Ideally, such problems can be avoided by
making the accommodation means making a substantial
carefully formulating, communicating, and following
alteration in the manner in which the university provides
classroom policies, especially regarding grading. How-
its services; and (4) It is not a reasonable accommodation
ever, if a problem does arise, there are steps you can take
if it imposes an undue financial or administrative burden.
to resolve the conflict.
• First try to resolve the conflict through discussion with
the student. If you are the TA, you will also want to
Teaching Challenges
involve the professor early on. Fortunately, most con-
flicts can be worked out cooperatively at this stage. If
you anticipate the discussion being particularly difficult
Even the most carefully prepared instructor cannot
anticipate the unique consequences of each combi-
or confrontational, you may want to invite (with the
nation of instructor and student personalities, back-
student’s permission) a colleague (e.g., the depart-
grounds, and goals. We begin by discussing the most seri-
53
ment’s student services officer) or another member of
Classroom Challenges
your teaching team (e.g., the student’s TA) to ensure
that the meeting serves everyone’s interest.
Sometimes,particular students may cause you prob-
lems in class, without warranting major negotiation
• For those conflicts that cannot be addressed through
or intervention. A few common situations, and ways to
informal discussion, the university has a formal griev-
work with them, are discussed below.
ance procedure, outlined in the Stanford Bulletin.
• An alternative to the formal grievance procedure is to
Arguments in Class
go to, or refer the student to, the ombudsperson’s office.
When arguments erupt in class, or when a student makes
As a mediator, the ombudsperson can talk with all the
an inflammatory comment, your role as the instructor is
parties involved to try to find a mutually satisfying res-
to preserve the learning environment. This task is
olution. The ombudsperson can only offer advice; he or
twofold: first, you need to maintain a safe environment
she does not have the authority to impose solutions.
for your students, which means preventing the debate
Nevertheless, meetings with the ombudsperson often
from turning into a prolonged attack on either individ-
are effective.
ual students or groups with whom a student might iden-
Conflicts can also arise when teachers are attracted
tify. It also means keeping your cool and staying respect-
to their students or vice versa. To avoid such potential
ful if a student challenges you; this preserves students’
clashes, the university very strongly discourages such
trust in you. Second, you need to look for the learning
relationships. Stanford has an explicit policy on sexual
opportunity in the experience. What is the value for stu-
harassment and has committed itself to creating an
dents in hearing opposing viewpoints or challenging
atmosphere “free of sexual harassment and all forms of
commonly held stereotypes? Is there a way to use the
sexual intimidation and exploitation.” See the Appen-
content of the argument to serve your teaching goals? Or
dixes for the summary of this policy, or refer to the web-
is student learning best served by defusing the tension
site http://harass.stanford.edu/.
and swiftly refocusing students?
When a discussion between students becomes
more heated than you would like, you can use the fol-
lowing strategies to transform arguments into produc-
s
s
tive debate:
udent
action
• Take a deep breath and try to assess what is happening.
er
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Is a student voicing frustration? Is a student enthusias-
w
tically expressing a heartfelt opinion? Are two students
misunderstanding each other?
• Whenever possible, encourage students to discuss ideas,
not individuals, in the classroom.
• If a student attacks another student’s idea, ask that stu-
dent to restate what he or she thinks the other student
meant. Make sure that the interpretation is accurate
and allow both students to clarify their statements.
• Ask the students to generate all possible evidence for
both sides of a debate as a way of suspending judgment
and encouraging reflection. Ask students to find coun-
terexamples as well as examples.
• Offer to continue a discussion after class or ask interest-
ed students to email you their thoughts, if the topic of the
argument is not central to the goals of the class session.
For the most part, Stanford students express their opinions
politely and debate respectfully; however, a positive learn-
When a student challenges or criticizes you, take
ing climate can be lost if inflammatory or insensitive com-
the following steps to stay calm and find some value in
ments are allowed to dominate. Keep your cool and help
the exchange:
maintain the focus on ideas, not individuals.
54
• Again, take a deep breath, and try to understand the
that you want to distribute participation more evenly,
content of the student’s complaint or challenge. Ignore,
and invite her to be your “collaborator” (e.g., by not
for a moment, any rudeness; if you respond to the con-
answering a question right away to give others an
tent, the student’s attitude and approach may soften.
opportunity, or by phrasing comments in a way that
• Remain calm and nonjudgmental, no matter how agi-
encourages others to respond).
tated the student becomes. Your emotional response will
• If a student dominates by asking too many disruptive
only become further fuel for the student’s anger. This is
questions, you can ask the full class how many students
especially true if a student makes a personal attack.
would prefer that you spend class time answering a spe-
• Don’t use your authority as a teacher to simply claim
cific question. If the class does not vote yes, let the stu-
superior knowledge or logic; while in some cases it may
dent know that you can answer his question after class
be true, it will almost never convince your students, and
or in office hours.
it discourages their active engagement with the ideas.
Recognize that talkative and even disruptive stu-
• Use evidence when disagreeing with a student and ask
dents often think they are displaying enthusiasm and
students to provide evidence for their positions. You
thoughtfulness; show appreciation for their commitment
may ask other students to evaluate the evidence that
to the class, even as you help them find an appropriate
you, or the student, provide, if the argument is related
way to demonstrate it.
to course content.
When Students Remain Silent
• Never get into a power struggle with a student. As the
Some days, the silence in a classroom can make you long
teacher, you already have power; any retaliation to a stu-
for a little heated debate. If you have students who never
dent’s provocation is likely to be viewed as an abuse of
answer a question, offer an opinion, or participate in a
power.
demonstration, try these strategies for involving them in
• If a student is agitated to the point of being unreason-
the classroom:
able, ask him or her to carry the grievance to a higher
• Make sure that you know the names of your students
authority. Do not continue trying to reason with a stu-
and that all the members of a class know each other by
dent who is highly agitated.
name.
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In general, make your response as calm as possible
Int
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• Create a safe environment by responding positively to
er
and avoid making an issue out of a small incident. Try to
action
udent
all student feedback, even if you need to correct a state-
use any conflict in the classroom as an opportunity to
ment. Thank each student for his or her contribution
s
s
further your teaching goals: it may be possible to use an
and try to find the seed of a correct or more developed
argument to clarify material, model critical thinking
answer in the student’s response. Give students the
skills, foster open-mindedness, and enhance students’
opportunity to revise or clarify their response.
trust in you.
• Prepare students for full-group discussion by having
When One Student Dominates the Classroom
them first discuss the topic in pairs or by spending a few
Overtalkative or disruptive students can derail a class. If
minutes writing out their response to a question. This
a student dominates the classroom, try the following
can make it easier for a shy student to open up.
strategies to refocus the class and involve other students:
• Do not put a silent student on the spot unless you have
• Ask other students to comment on the dominant stu-
established a norm of calling on students who have not
dent’s ideas and to propose an alternative perspective.
volunteered. A student’s embarrassment at being sin-
gled out may make it even less likely he or she will want
• Try participation strategies that involve the whole group,
to participate in class.
such as taking a vote, breaking up into pairs, or doing a
“round robin,” where every student gives a brief response
• If you decide to establish a norm of calling on stu-
to a question, problem, or thought-provoking quote.
dents who have not volunteered responses, begin with
questions that do not have a single correct answer or
• If the dominant student seems to be well-intentioned,
questions that ask students to make a choice between
you might meet with the student privately, thank her
options. This makes it more likely that students will be
for her enthusiastic participation, and ask for advice on
able to answer your question without feeling embar-
how to involve other students. Let the student know
rassment or resentment.
55
• Require all students in your class to stop by your office
ments but not so harsh that it discourages students
hours at the beginning of the quarter. Getting to know
from turning in work at all (one-half of a letter grade
each student may encourage them to participate in class.
per day late is probably just right).
• Consider asking quiet students to email you their
• All excuses related to other courses, athletic travel, or
thoughts before or after class. Some students will read-
other events that students know about in advance need
ily accept this invitation. If they email before class, you
to be discussed before the due date/exam.
will have an opportunity to draw them into the conver-
• Recognize that not all students feel comfortable giving
sation at an appropriate point. If they email you after
excuses, even for valid and serious problems. You might
class, they have the chance to put together a thoughtful
invite your students to include a note with each major
response without the pressure of being in the classroom.
assignment or exam if they think that the work is not a
Talking with the student privately can also help.
reflection of their abilities or preparation. Let them
Reasons for being silent vary. One silent student may
know that it won’t influence the grade they receive for
simply enjoy listening. Another may lack the confidence
that assignment or exam, but it may be taken into
to contribute. Some students have quiet personalities;
account in the final grading.
others may be undergoing personal difficulties that
Sometimes a student’s excuses push the bound-
inhibit their speaking in class. Some may be unprepared
aries of plausibility or pile up one after the other as each
and embarrassed to admit it. Others may come from an
due date comes around. In these cases, have a conversa-
educational background that discouraged active partici-
tion with the student about your concerns. You can
pation. Even after you gently encourage them to speak,
require some reasonable evidence for their excuse; often
they may remain silent. This is their right, and ultimate-
this is enough to dissuade malingerers. If it’s a matter of
ly you must respect their privacy.
too many excuses, have a discussion about accountabili-
ty, time management, and fairness. Particularly if the
Student Excuses
excuses are not compelling, let the student know that
I was locked out of my dorm all night. I had to visit my
other students have had similar difficulties but have not
grandmother, who was having surgery. I slept through my
required special accommodation.
alarm clock because I was up all night studying. I had the
Above all, have compassion for your students.
s
s
flu, then I had bronchitis, then I had a bad reaction to the
Life’s little and big disasters do get in the way, especially
udent
antibiotics they gave me. I had two other exams the day the
action
for students, whose lives are densely scheduled. You don’t
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paper was due. I need to miss the exam in order to go to a
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need to give students grades or credit they didn’t earn,
Int
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national Scrabble tournament.
but you should empathize with their situation and help
Which of these excuses would you allow? Does it
them formulate a plan for the rest of the course.
depend on who uses the excuse and how many other
excuses you’ve heard from him? Deciding how to
Grade Complaints
respond to students’ excuses can be a major challenge,
Inevitably, some students will complain if you give them
especially for new instructors. No single policy is perfect
a lower grade than they expected. Many faculty and TAs
—inevitably, some deserving students will be unfairly
report that they have had even As vigorously contested—
punished for life’s inconveniences and some manipula-
for not being A+s! Keep in mind that this generation of
tive students will be unfairly rewarded for creative excus-
students is under pressures you may not have had as an
es. The best you can do is have a policy, let students know
undergraduate. Because grade inflation is common at
about it at the beginning of the quarter, and retain the
many top universities, and because family pressures can
right to be accommodating if the situation merits it.
be overwhelming, many students believe they need to
Some policies you might consider:
maintain a near-perfect GPA in order to achieve their
• Offer all students some flexibility to use at their discre-
personal and professional goals. You will have more suc-
tion, e.g., one “grace day” for a single major assignment
cess handling grade complaints if you listen to and
or one missing assignment if you have frequent assign-
respond to their anxieties. In addition, there are ways to
ments. Students don’t need to provide an excuse, but
minimize the likelihood of grade complaints:
they get only one free pass.
• Make it clear from the beginning exactly what you
• Have a standard grade penalty for late assignments. It
expect in papers or tests.
should be strict enough to encourage on-time assign-
56
• If possible, hand out guidelines for a good essay or
Counseling Students
examples of a superior exam answer.
• When you return a graded assignment, note in some
Whether you are a professor,instructor,or graduate
student, many students will look up to you. At
detail the weak or strong points of the work and make
times, you may find yourself in the position of counsel-
suggestions for a better performance next time.
ing a student about matters beyond the scope of your
• Give students the option of handing in a first draft of an
official academic relationship. For some teachers, this is
assignment that you will not grade but will critique.
an uncomfortable role, with murkier boundaries than
• Save examples of student work or exams that represent
intellectual mentorship. For all teachers, it is a challeng-
the full grade distribution; this will help you explain to
ing balance between respecting the limits of your posi-
students why they did not receive the grade they hoped for.
tion and wanting to offer as much support to a student
When students contest their grades, let them know
as possible. The following suggestions are offered as
that when you reconsider their marks, you retain the
guidelines for effective counseling.
right to adjust them up or down. If you are the TA, advise
students that in difficult cases the professor will make the
Know Your Limits
final decision. (Be sure to discuss this with the professor
Although you are not expected to act as an amateur psy-
beforehand, however.) When no resolution is possible, let
chologist, you can function as a concerned and under-
the student know which office (such as the ombudsper-
standing support person. In cases where you are uncer-
son) will help him or her pursue an appeal.
tain about your ability to help a student, however, it is
best to be honest about this. Trust your intuition when
you think an individual’s problem is more than you can
handle and the assistance of a professional is warranted.
You can consult Counseling and Psychological Services
(CAPS) (see next page) for advice or help in your efforts
to assist a student. Call CAPS at 723-3785.
Clarify Your Role
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When you assume or are placed in the counseling role,
er
action
role conflicts are possible. Some students will see you as
udent
an authority figure, which may make it difficult for them
s
s
to be totally straightforward. It may also give your advice
or opinion added “baggage,” if a student thinks it will
influence his or her outcome in your course. Other stu-
dents will see you as a friend, complicating things when
you need to evaluate their performance in your class. If
you feel role confusion or conflict, address it clearly by
letting your student know how you see your role.
Listen
Listening has frequently been called an art, but it is also a
skill that can be acquired with practice. While a student
shares a problem or questions, refrain from immediately
imposing your own point of view. Withhold advice
unless it is requested; concentrate instead on under-
standing the feelings and thoughts of your student
(rather than your own). Allow the student enough time
and latitude to express thoughts and feelings as fully as
possible.
57
Help Clarify Concerns
relationship distress, low self-esteem, procrastination,
Sometimes students simply need the opportunity to fig-
sexual concerns, or family problems. Special services are
ure out what is bothering them without being directly
available for minority-group members, women students,
advised. You can help a student clarify his concerns by
and gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender students from
“mirroring” the feelings and thoughts you heard
staff members who focus on the concerns of these
expressed and by helping him define the area of concern
groups.
as precisely as possible. Once both you and the student
understand the nature of the problem, you may then
Making Referrals to CAPS
want to provide honest and considerate feedback, if it is
Referring a student to CAPS should be neither difficult
desired by the student.
nor intimidating. It is the natural course of action when
you recognize that your help may not be enough and that
Offer Support
a student needs professional assistance. The following
Offer support by directly expressing concern, under-
information is provided so that referrals, when necessary,
standing, and empathy, and conveying an attitude of per-
can be made with confidence and understanding.
sonal acceptance and regard for the student. Support
Each year, about 10 percent of the student popula-
does not mean you have to endorse every action,
tion makes at least one appointment at CAPS. The aver-
thought, or feeling that a student shares with you; it sim-
age number of visits is five, and half the students seen
ply shows that you care about her well-being.
come for four or fewer visits. These students come with a
variety of issues, including anxiety, depression, uncer-
Suggest Alternatives for Action
tainty about career or vocation, difficulty in sexual and
Students will often generate the best plans of action
romantic relationships, questions of identity, difficulty
themselves, but you can help a student assess and use
with interpersonal relationships, and other personal
both personal resources and outside support for solving
crises. The stereotype that one must be “sick” or serious-
problems. If requested, you can also suggest alternatives.
ly disturbed in order to seek counseling is simply not the
Try to do so, however, only after the person in need has
case for Stanford students. Referring a student for pro-
exhausted his or her ability to generate ideas. However, if
fessional help, then, need not be a monumental or trau-
s
s
the problem is merely a need for information, provide it
matic undertaking.
or point the student to someone who can.
If you decide referral is appropriate, discuss your
udent
action
thoughts with the student involved. You can make the
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Follow Up Your Efforts
process of referral a comfortable one by expressing your
If a student has made a decision or approached a conflict
concern and letting the student know that going to CAPS
with your help, politely and nonintrusively check back a
is neither complicated nor atypical. If a student turns
few days or weeks later to get feedback on what has hap-
directly to you for help, be aware that a referral can feel
pened. Such information can be rewarding if your help
to a student like a personal rejection. If a student choos-
has been useful, and corrective if it has not.
es to confide in you, it reflects a degree of trust in you and
your judgment and possibly is an expression of a desire
Become Acquainted with the Resources of
to know you. Too quick a referral in such cases might
Counseling and Psychological Services (CAPS)
well be felt by the student as a lack of interest on your
CAPS (723-3785) has a staff of professionally trained
part instead of a show of your concern. To prevent this,
psychiatrists, psychologists, psychiatric social workers,
hear the student out, show understanding and empathy,
and counselors whose help is available to students with-
and let the student know explicitly that in making the
out charge (except for long-term treatment and special
referral you are not turning her aside.
services such as biofeedback or medication manage-
In referring students, it is also important to be sen-
ment). The staff works with individuals, couples, or
sitive to differing attitudes toward seeking professional
groups of students and offers consultation, counseling,
help. These attitudes range from strong resistance to def-
psychotherapy, and referrals to other mental-health pro-
inite acceptance and vary according to the student age,
fessionals. CAPS can assist students with personal prob-
sex, cultural and family background, and geographic ori-
lems and difficult concerns or situations they encounter
gin. While attitudes toward seeking help have changed in
while at Stanford, including stress, anxiety, depression,
the direction of general acceptance, prejudices and stig-
58
mas based on inaccurate information still persist.
Discussion of such reservations can reduce fears and
misgivings.
The first step in a referral, then, is to go over such
issues with a student. Attempt to demystify the process.
Explain that seeking help in time of need may be a valu-
able learning opportunity and is a sign of strength rather
than an admission of failure or weakness. If possible, it is
most helpful to have students arrange their own appoint-
ments, which requires only a brief phone call or visit to
CAPS on the second floor of Vaden Student Health
Service at 866 Campus Drive. People who seek psycho-
logical help voluntarily generally benefit more than those
who are coaxed, forced, or threatened into doing so.
You can be certain in any referral that confidential-
ity is guaranteed. CAPS records are kept separately from
other medical records and by law cannot be released
without the student’s written consent. If confidentiality
becomes an issue, discuss it frankly so that misgivings
and misunderstandings can be removed. Keep in mind
that for purposes of confidentiality CAPS cannot verify
or inform you that a student did or did not use the serv-
ice. When you recommend CAPS to students, follow up.
Let them know that you would like to hear how things
went with the appointment, such as if there were any dif-
ficulties getting an appointment and how they felt about
the counselor they saw. However, do not push for such
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feedback; some students will want to keep their experi-
action
udent
ences private, even if they initially turned to you for help.
s
If you are unsure about the nature of the problem,
s
or if the student who is seeking your support is ambiva-
lent about accepting a referral to CAPS, you can refer the
student to CTL’s learning skills specialist. The learning
skills specialist coaches students experiencing a broad
range of problems and helps them develop pragmatic
strategies for achieving academic success at Stanford.
For more information about CAPS, please call the
director at 725-4120.
59
Teaching at
Improving Your Teac S
hing tanford
Teaching Evaluation
60
For a copy, call CTL or check the CTL website faculty
resources section (http://ctl.stanford.edu/Faculty/index.
Assessing Student Learning
61
html).
Teaching Improvement
62
Moreover, there are other often more timely ways
to evaluate how well your course is going. You can
Putting It All Together: The Teaching Portfolio
63
arrange some of these methods yourself; others are avail-
The Oral Communication Program
63
able through the Center for Teaching and Learning.
Checklist of CTL Services for Faculty
64
• Midquarter, pass out your own carefully thought-out
questionnaire for students to fill out anonymously.
Focus on those issues that are of most interest or con-
cern to you. Follow up on the students’ feedback; con-
We began this handbook by stating our conviction
sider discussing the feedback in class and letting the
that great teachers are made, not born. The key to
students know what changes you will be making.
becoming a great teacher is taking the time to reflect on
• Talk to some students informally after class or during
your teaching, seeking and making use of the feedback
your office hours about how the class is going. Ask them
you receive about your teaching, and observing changes
what’s gone well and what hasn’t worked. Choose stu-
in your students’ performance over time. CTL provides a
dents who you think will be comfortable giving you
number of services that can help you evaluate and
feedback. Even then you will have to be careful that they
improve your teaching throughout your career.
don’t feel “on the spot.”
• Ask a friend, a colleague, or a consultant from the
Center for Teaching and Learning to observe your class.
Teaching Evaluation
CTL has trained consultants who have learned specific
In May 1977,Stanford’s Faculty Senate approved a res-
observational techniques and have considerable teach-
olution calling for universal evaluation of courses by
ing experience. If you invite a friend or colleague in,
students at the end of each quarter. Since then, course
brief them carefully on what specifically you would like
evaluations have become a standard fixture of teaching
them to look for. Colleagues, especially, tend to focus
life at Stanford. And, indeed, they can be a source of
v
ing
exclusively on content unless you also ask them to
o
hing
ac
essential feedback to teachers on how a course has gone
attend to how ideas are presented and how students
Impr
T
e
and how it might be strengthened. However, a vast liter-
respond.
ature on student evaluations of teaching also indicates
• Be videorecorded. This is the only evaluation method
that these evaluations in and of themselves—while gen-
that lets you see your teaching more or less as your stu-
erally valid and reliable in their data—do not necessarily
dents do. Although teachers generally feel great anxiety
lead to improved teaching. Alone, the questionnaire data
about having it done, most feel reassured and motivat-
do not seem to motivate teachers to change. Instead,
ed afterward. You can arrange free videorecording
change is more likely to occur if teachers discuss their
through the Center for Teaching and Learning by call-
evaluations with a sympathetic and knowledgeable col-
ing 723-1326 approximately a week before you’d like it
league or teaching consultant. At Stanford, the Center for
done and arranging a time, or submitting a request via
Teaching and Learning will provide you with such a con-
our website. We will send out a technician who will
sultant if you call 723-1326. For faculty teaching in the
record your class with a minimum of disruption.
the Schools of Humanities and Sciences, Earth Sciences,
Consultation is available and encouraged during view-
Education, Engineering, and Law, an online brochure is
ing of the recording. A copy of the video is available to
available to help interpret end-quarter evaluation results.
you for personal use.
60
• Have a small-group evaluation conducted by the Center
knowledge to the novel situations created for exams;
for Teaching and Learning. At your request, CTL will
they’ve learned how to follow the textbook examples with-
send a consultant to your class during the last twenty
out understanding larger principles of problem solving.
minutes of the period. Once you have left, the consult-
In recent years, instructors in a variety of fields
ant will divide your students into groups of six (or
have developed techniques of in-course assessment (also
fewer if it is a small class). Each group is given ten min-
called classroom assessment). In-course assessment tech-
utes to select a spokesperson and agree on what they
niques systematize the process of getting useful and time-
value about your course, what areas need improvement,
ly feedback on student learning. Because these assessment
and what specific suggestions they would make for
techniques are designed to gauge the effectiveness of the
change. At the end of the allotted time, the consultant
teaching and the quality of the learning taking place (and
canvasses each group and makes a record of their com-
not simply to see who is or isn’t studying), they are usu-
ments. He or she then summarizes the results, identify-
ally anonymous. These anonymous assignments typical-
ing patterns of agreement and clarifying areas of dis-
ly can be completed quickly, and focus on three areas:
agreement. The information is given to you later in a
(1) students’ academic skills and intellectual develop-
private consultation.
ment (e.g., do students have sufficient background
knowledge or academic skills to move onto the next
Course Evaluations for TAs
topic?); (2) students’ assessments of their own learning
The same course evaluation services that CTL provides
skills (e.g., do students feel prepared to learn new materi-
to faculty are available to TAs, and increasingly, depart-
al from the textbook, without classroom review?); and
ments and schools provide formal course evaluations for
(3) student reactions to various teaching methods, mate-
TAs. TAs who want formal feedback, but who do not
rials, and assignments (e.g., do students believe the exams
have access to evaluation through the department or
fairly cover the material stressed in class?). Based on this
school, can develop their own forms or use resources
feedback, faculty can adjust their teaching to help stu-
provided by CTL. The latter are available free of charge
dents learn. The following are some examples of assess-
by visiting the CTL website or by calling 723-1326.
ment techniques you might consider using:
• Documented problem solution: Rather than simply
requiring students to do a number of problems for
Assessing Student Learning
homework, the instructor asks students to solve a prob-
How do you know ifyour students are achieving your
lem and also to write down step-by-step what they were
specific learning goals for a course? Class evalua-
thinking at each stage of the problem-solving process.
tions and observations provide excellent feedback about
Reading through these solutions gives an instructor a
student satisfaction and teaching style, but they don’t
sense of how well the students are developing their
provide the important detail of how much your students
problem-solving skills and can help the instructor
Impr
T
e
are learning. Changing the way you assess student learn-
determine how much class or section time should focus
ac
hing
o
v
ing can dramatically improve your teaching effectiveness,
on improving this academic skill.
i
ng
as it provides immediate feedback on what works and
• Studies of time spent learning: This technique asks
what doesn’t.
students to estimate, check, document, and reflect on
Traditionally, many teachers have evaluated their
how well they use study time. Using one assignment or
students’ knowledge by giving examinations and papers,
activity, students estimate how much time it should
often only at the middle and end of the quarter. As a result,
take to finish the task and then monitor themselves as
a professor lecturing to a large introductory class might
they complete the assignment. Afterward they write a
not recognize until final exams are finished that students
brief account of the process and the results. In reading
consistently confused two important and closely related
these accounts, teachers can gain a sense of how well
ideas. Other professors, who track their students’ work
students use their time and whether students’ learning
more regularly—through problem sets, for example—
skills are developed sufficiently to handle the course
might assume that such written homework is helping
load. Students become much more aware of their habits
achieve a major goal of the course, such as to develop stu-
regarding study time and this awareness usually encour-
dents’ general problem-solving ability. Yet students who
ages them to use their study time more effectively.
do well on homework might be unable to apply their
• One-minute papers: The teacher ends class a few min-
61
utes early and asks one or two questions that students
from 60 to 90 percent. In this case, turning to the collec-
answer, on index cards or notebook paper, and hand in.
tive wisdom of your colleagues, the advice of students
Questions often asked are, “What were the main points
you know well, or the resource library available at the
of today’s class?” or “What point or example in today’s
Center for Teaching and Learning may be enough. CTL
lecture would you like to see reviewed or clarified?”
has a wide collection of books, journals, and videotapes
Even in a large class, reading through student responses
on almost every aspect of teaching. You will find dozens
takes relatively little time. At the next class session,
of ideas on better lecture techniques alone, for example.
teachers can address questions or problems students
Any steps that you take to improve your teaching
have raised.
are likely to be worthwhile both professionally and per-
In short, good assessment techniques both assess
sonally. Faculty at research universities are increasingly
and teach; the time spent doing these assignments helps
expected to teach well, as has long been the case at stu-
students learn more effectively and efficiently. When stu-
dent-oriented liberal arts colleges and most state colleges
dents are encouraged to take the time to gauge what they
and universities. When well done, teaching can be a
know and how well developed their learning and aca-
source of enormous personal satisfaction and pleasure.
demic skills are, they begin to recognize the importance
Successful contact with students can balance the some-
of learning how to learn, as well as the importance of
times lonely aspects of pure scholarship; it also gives you
course content.
a chance to pass on those values, ideas, and passions that
The Center for Teaching and Learning sponsors
are at the core of your commitment to scholarship.
workshops and provides individual consultation on in-
You can begin by looking over the checklist of CTL
course assessment techniques. You can also consult the
services and committing to trying at least one over the
Angelo and Cross (1994) work listed in the bibliography for
course of your next teaching quarter.
an excellent and comprehensive treatment of assessment
techniques. This section has drawn heavily on their work.
Teaching Improvement
Most instructors regard their teaching as an intense-
ly personal matter. While they may be more than
willing to allow colleagues to critique their written work,
they are unlikely to invite them into their classrooms to
observe and make comments. However, teaching is like
any other academic endeavor—it is an acquired skill, one
more easily gained if you get specific feedback on how
v
ing
you are doing.
o
hing
ac
If you decide that you wish to make significant
Impr
T
e
improvements in your teaching, the Center for Teaching
and Learning can help you identify the specific skills and
strategies that will enhance your teaching style. This is
I think there is certainly something to the idea that some
particularly true when you aren’t quite sure what needs
people are natural teachers. They have a certain charisma;
improving. For some faculty and TAs, it has taken as lit-
they have the ability to relate to students and pick up on
tle as a student small-group evaluation to enhance their
their questions. And some people are non-teachers, who
questioning technique or grading policy. For others, it
will never be able to communicate, who probably couldn’t
has required considerable time to learn better methods
even communicate with their mothers, but in between
of organization or delivery. The crucial factor in each
there are most of us, who would be better off …
if we just went about teaching the way we go about our golf
case has been the teacher’s willingness to recognize the
games or our tennis games … and say, well, gee, there are
need for change and to try new approaches.
probably some things I can do that would make it go better.
You may be motivated by a specific goal, such as
the desire to try a particularly innovative class format or
John R. Perry, Henry Waldgrave Stuart Professor of
to increase the average attendance in your large lectures
Philosophy
62
teaching strategies. By reviewing your course materials
Putting It All Together: The Teaching Portfolio
and evaluations, and by reflecting on your approach to
teaching, you will recognize important trends and
Teaching portfolios have recently gained attention as a
tool for both self-improvement and hiring/promo-
progress in your teaching. This process will allow you to
tion processes. A portfolio documents your experience,
be more intentional in your teaching and will also likely
growth, strengths, and accomplishments as a teacher.
be useful for the academic job market or the tenure
Typically, portfolios include a brief table of contents, a
review/promotion process.
personal statement, syllabi and/or other course materials,
and evidence of your teaching effectiveness, such as stu-
dent evaluations, student papers, or a videotape of you in
The Oral Communication Program
action. (See Seldin’s 1997 work, listed in the bibliography,
for helpful examples and further discussion.) While most
Communication skills are so impor-
of the documents in a portfolio may sound familiar, the
The Center for Teaching
and Learning’s pro-
tant, and CTL has truly helped my
gram in Oral Commun-
personal statement is probably new to many instructors.
class have a positive experience
ication reflects the endur-
It can be as short as one page or as long as six pages, and
in expressing their thoughts in a
ing relevance of the spo-
may include the following items:
public manner. This type of training
ken arts at Stanford and
• a reflective statement of your pedagogical philosophy,
is rather uncommon in most class-
the university’s renewed
strategies, and objectives
room settings but can make a
commitment to “provide
difference in giving someone the
• a short list of your main teaching interests
students instruction in
self-confidence to rise to the occa-
• a summary of your past and present teaching responsi-
oral communication,” as it
sion and hold forth. CTL’s Oral
bilities
was phrased in 1994 by the
Communication training has
• a description of steps taken to evaluate and improve
Committee on Under-
inspired members of my class to
your teaching, including changes resulting from attend-
graduate Education. Since
surprise themselves when they are
ing teaching workshops, being videotaped, or talking to
then, CTL has developed a
able to get up before others and
a teaching consultant
full-scale program that
expound a point of view.
serves the university—
• an explanation of appended supporting material such
Richard N. Zare, Marguerite Blake
undergraduates,
gradu-
as syllabi, exams, or handouts
Wilbur Professor in Natural Science
ates, and faculty—in a
Teaching portfolios are best prepared in consulta-
variety of ways. The Oral Communication Program offers
tion with others. As you put your portfolio together, seek
courses and workshops, trains and provides tutors
the advice of colleagues, your academic advisor (if you
through our Speaking Center, and works with faculty
are a TA), and CTL consultants. CTL also has sample
across the disciplines to integrate oral communication
teaching portfolios that you can look over.
training into their curricula.
One great benefit of building a teaching portfolio
Impr
T
e
Students can take a number of courses for credit in
ac
is that it helps you clarify your pedagogical aims and
hing
o
v
the Oral Communication Program; these courses pro-
i
ng
vide a comprehensive approach to speech communica-
The teaching portfolio was a great help in my job search.
tion, training students in the fundamental principles of
I brought it with me to interviews and when someone
public speaking and the art of delivering effective, com-
asked, “What would you teach?” I reached into my bag and
pelling oral presentations. The program provides inno-
handed over the answer. I could see that just the fact that I
vative, discipline-specific instruction to help students
was that prepared surprised people. At one interview, I
refine their personal speaking styles in small groups and
was asked to give a separate talk specifically about teach-
classroom settings. The Oral Communication Program
ing, and I was able to use the material from my teaching
also offers workshops for the entire Stanford community
portfolio—both to help me prepare the talk and to use as a
on a range of speech-related topics.
handout. When I sit down to start planning my courses, I
Those interested in individualized instruction or
know the first thing I’ll look at is my portfolio and my fold-
independent study are invited to visit the program’s
er of teaching ideas.
Speaking Centers on the third and fourth floors of Sweet
Christian Sandvig, Ph.D. in Communication from Stanford,
Hall, where a staff of trained student tutors, an array of
Assistant Professor of Speech Communication, University
audio/video technology, and a variety of instructional
of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign
resource materials are available.
63
CHECKLIST OF CENTER FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING SERVICES FOR FACULTY, LECTURERS, AND POSTDOCTORAL
TEACHING FELLOWS
Teaching Orientations
may want to perfect your presentation ahead of
At the beginning of each quarter, a half day of pre-
time. At your option, you can practice alone, with
sentations and, in the following few weeks, work-
a videocamera, a consultant, or a small audience of
shops on a variety of teaching topics are offered to
volunteer peers. There is no charge for this service.
prepare new instructors and teaching assistants for
Newsletter
their duties, and to suggest new ideas and methods
CTL produces a quarterly newsletter, Speaking of
for the already experienced.
Teaching. Call 723-1326 to be put on the mailing
Consultants
list. Copies of past issues are available at CTL or
Consultants are available to advise you on your
on the web at http://ctl.stanford.edu/Newsletter/.
teaching by making classroom visits, reviewing
In-Course Assessment
videotapes, suggesting specific improvements, or
Materials and workshops on in-course assessment
talking over a particular problem. All consultation
are available from CTL. You can also request assis-
is completely confidential and individualized.
tance in designing assessment techniques appropri-
Classroom Videorecording
ate for your class.
Videorecording is one of the most effective ways to
Teaching Portfolios
evaluate and improve your teaching. This can be
CTL offers workshops on teaching portfolios to
arranged by calling CTL approximately a week in
assist you in your preparation for the academic job
advance and setting up a time; the entire service is
market or for your own reflection and professional
free and confidential. Consultation is available and
development. Sample portfolios, handouts, and ref-
encouraged during viewing of the video.
erences are available at the CTL library.
Student Small-Group Evaluation
Resource Center
A consultant comes to your class midquarter and,
A library of materials (videotapes as well as books)
after you have left, divides your students into groups
on teaching and teaching improvement is available
of six or fewer. Each group is given ten minutes to
for browsing or borrowing. CTL staff can also serve
select a spokesperson and agree on what they value
as liaison to other resources on campus.
about your course, what areas need improvement,
and specific suggestions for change. The results are
Technology in Teaching
given to you later in a private consultation.
CTL’s academic technology specialist is available
to consult with faculty on using technology in
v
ing
Lectures and Workshops
o
hing
teaching. Call 725-4164 to set up an appointment.
ac
Each year CTL sponsors talks on various aspects of
Impr
T
e
effective university teaching. Given by some of
Oral Communication Program
Stanford’s most outstanding faculty, the talks can be
The Oral Communication Program’s consultants
viewed live or on videotape. Watch the Daily or
are available to work with you on your presentation
posters in your department for announcements of
and public speaking skills throughout the quarter,
future talks. CTL also designs workshops, at depart-
at the Speaking Center at CTL, in workshops and
mental request, for specific groups of faculty or TAs.
in classes throughout the academic year.
Personalized Practice Sessions
For information on any of the above, call
If you are going to be giving a talk or seminar or
723-1326.
presenting a paper at a professional conference, you
64
Teaching at
Teaching AssistantsS tanford
The Teaching Assistant’s Role
65
• To help you manage your responsibilities, recommend
university academic support and tutoring services to stu-
Discussion Sessions
66
dents who need more extra help than you can provide.
Reviews
67
• Invite the professor to watch you teach and request
Labs
68
feedback on your teaching performance.
• Offer feedback to the professor about the course and
TAing and Your Professional Future
70
initiate conversations about those aspects of teaching
Checklist of CTL Services for TAs
72
that interest you most.
• Make use of CTL services for evaluating and improving
your teaching. (See the end of this special TA section for
details.)
The Teaching Assistant’s Role
The TA experience can be an outstanding way to learn WhatMakesa GreatTA?
the art of teaching and to have a positive influence on
• Preparation. Whether you’re leading a discussion sec-
many students. As a TA, you are the key link between
tion, a review section, or a lab section, plan your mate-
professor and students. This gives you the opportunity to
rials in advance. Ask former TAs and the professor for
observe and influence higher-level decisions about
materials developed for previous classes.
course design and content, as well as the opportunity to
• Knowledgeability. In addition to whatever advanced
maintain daily, close interactions with students. If you
background training you have in your field, be sure to
keep this perspective, you may find TAing to be one of
stay up to date with the content of the course you are
the most rewarding experiences you have in your educa-
TAing for. Nothing is as disappointing to students as
tion at Stanford. In most cases, you will have to take
finding out that their TA hasn’t read the textbook or
some initiative to make sure that your TA experience
doesn’t attend lecture.
provides both the mentorship you hope for and a set of
• Communication skills. In particular, you need to be
responsibilities you can handle. Clear conversations with
able to explain complicated things clearly, develop
the professor you are TAing for can set the stage for both.
interesting examples, and listen carefully as students ask
questions or try to explain their confusion. In addition,
How to Have a Successful TA Experience
basic public speaking skills can contribute enormously
• Meet with the professor and other TAs as soon as possible.
to your comfort and success as a TA. (See the end of this
• At this meeting, set clear expectations about both what
special TA section for details on CTL services to
you can contribute to the course (in time, responsibili-
improve communication skills.)
ties, and skills) and what you hope to get out of the
• Accessibility and availability. You need to seem
A
T
s
e
opportunity (in training, experience, and mentorship).
sista
ac
approachable to your students; achieve this by main-
hing
n
• Schedule regular weekly meetings with the professor
taining a friendly attitude, staying after class to talk with
t
s
and other TAs to maintain open communication and to
students, and encouraging students to visit your office
iron out course details.
hours or email you their questions. Then, make sure
• Balance your TA work with other academic and profes-
your office hours are at times your students can actual-
sional obligations; consider this practice for a faculty
ly attend.
position that combines teaching and research.
• Concern for students’ learning. Students can tell the
difference between a TA who considers TAing a waste of
his or her time and a TA who enjoys teaching and inter-
65
acting with students. Focus on the positive aspects of
Discussion Sections
the course and your interactions with students.
• A good relationship with the professor. A great TA
For all their challenges, discussion sections are for
many the most rewarding kind of teaching. You have
provides the bridge between a professor’s goals and his
a relatively small number of students whom you will get
or her day-to-day achievement. To do so, maintain reg-
to know well; if you are like most TAs or teaching fellows
ular, positive interactions with the professor and pro-
(TFs), there will be many students eager to talk to you
vide feedback about how the course is going, from the
when they see you on campus. You will have an enor-
students’ perspectives as well as your own.
mous potential to influence these students. Students
• Organization. Anticipate ways that you can make the
crave intellectually surprising, challenging, and stimulat-
course run more smoothly for both the professor and
ing discussions. If you can successfully impart your own
the students. Look for ways to streamline, document, or
passion while helping students reach their own insights,
improve course activities and teaching responsibilities.
you will have achieved one of the highest goals of the
university. As the years pass, you may even run across
students who chose your field because of the great dis-
cussions they had in your section.
Most of the skills that you will need for discussion
sections are described on page 29 under “Discussion
Leading” and on page 53 under “Teaching Challenges.”
There you will find suggestions for preparing for a dis-
cussion, keeping a discussion going, and improving par-
ticipation. You can also find suggestions for preparing for
your first discussion section on page 17 under “Preparing
for the First Class.” Here, we focus on some of the con-
cerns common to first-time discussion leaders:
“How can I lead a good discussion on the material
when I’m not an expert?” Many TAs or TFs, especially TFs
in the Introduction to the Humanities Program (IHUM),
feel overwhelmed by the breadth of material to be cov-
ered in section. They often find themselves going over
texts for the first time just a few days before the students
do. In other cases, you may be TAing an undergraduate
course that you took years ago at a different institution.
Unfortunately, there is no simple remedy for this situa-
tion. Your first time TAing a course, you may simply have
to do a lot of preparation. It will be easier, however, if you
talk with your colleagues in the course. Help them in
your strong areas while they work with you on theirs.
Experienced TAs or TFs can be of particular assistance.
Also, simply attending lecture, even if the professor does
t
s
not require it of you, will go a long way in preparing you
n
hing
for discussion sections. In addition, discuss with the pro-
ac
sista
T
e
s
A
fessor what his or her expectations for the section are. Be
TAs commonly interact with students in discussion sections.
Clear communication with the course instructor about section
clear about the major themes or goals of the course and
goals and explicit understandings about student and TA roles
how these should be reflected in your group’s discussion.
greatly enhance the quality of the experience for all involved.
Even without being an expert, you will be able to guide
the discussion toward the most important ideas. It’s also
fine to tell students when you don’t know something
(and much better than giving them an incorrect
answer!). It’s important for students to recognize that
66
scholars continue to learn all the time. If possible, tell
quizzes, problem sets, and exams, will help you deter-
them how you’d go about finding an answer or bring it to
mine your priorities and strategies.
the next class.
Once you decide on key topics, you will probably
“How do I know if my discussions are going well, and
realize that you cannot review all of the material in detail.
how can I salvage a section that isn’t going well?” Usually
You will have to choose between covering most of the
student attendance, degree of participation or respon-
material somewhat superficially or only representative
siveness, and even expressions, gestures, or body lan-
parts in depth. Both strategies have their advantages. The
guage will give you some indication. Ask students how
former, by briefly reviewing all the important topics, will
the section is going, both informally and formally (e.g.,
usually stimulate questions. Simply asking the students if
through midquarter evaluations or a small-group evalu-
they have any questions about the lectures rarely yields
ation). You can often transform a flailing section simply
much response. If you decide to cover lots of material
by asking students how they think their time could best
briefly, be sure to let the students know that they should
be used in section. Do not be afraid that by acknowledg-
investigate the same topics more deeply on their own.
ing the lackluster spirit of a discussion you are showing
Encourage them to see you during office hours if they
weakness; instead, use it as a springboard to ask students
have any questions. If you choose to cover only a few top-
what they really care about and what it would take to
ics in greater depth, mention other subjects that you
turn up the excitement of the section. Students respond
won’t have time to cover but which are important. By
positively to any sign that a TA is willing to take feedback
concentrating on particularly difficult aspects of the
and is interested in helping students to succeed in the
course that may not have received adequate time in the
course. Be willing to shake things up a bit if discussion
lectures, you may trigger questions that students would
section stagnates over time; for example, if you usually
otherwise be unable to formulate.
direct the discussion for the full hour, consider having
In preparing your presentation, if you come across
students discuss the material in pairs first. Consult
some aspect of the material that you don’t understand,
“Improving Your Teaching” on page 60 for further infor-
don’t hesitate to contact the professor for clarification. It
mation on how to assess student learning and improve
is quite common for faculty, even in elementary courses,
your discussion leading skills.
to present material that TAs may not have previously
learned. Of course, you need to plan your review early
enough so that you will have time to contact the profes-
Reviews
sor with any questions.
When actually conducting the review, your style
Leading a review session presents a number of unique will usually be closer to that of a lecturer than a discus-
challenges, particularly for an inexperienced TA. In
sion leader. You will probably need extensive notes. You
the usual case of a section that is part of a lecture course,
may also decide to put an outline on the board or dis-
you have less than an hour to go over material covered in
tribute one on a handout. If you are new to lecturing,
three or four 50-minute lectures. You have to present
practice your presentation a few times beforehand. Don’t
your material at a pace and level that will be meaningful
assume that just because you are “reviewing” material,
to students having trouble with the class without boring
you can improvise as you go or depend on students’
those who are doing well. You want to challenge students
questions. The students are also more likely to come pre-
to think for themselves about the topics addressed by the
pared if they see that you have taken the time to prepare.
course, but you need to avoid lengthy discussions that
Although every lecturer should attempt to gauge
A
T
s
consume valuable class time.
e
sista
ac
whether students are really understanding the topics, this
hing
To plan an effective review, make sure you under-
n
is especially crucial for a review. Use plenty of examples
t
s
stand what the professor thinks the students need to
to make your points and ask students to generate their
know and what the students will need to know to do well
own examples. Give students short problems to solve
in the course. Students will not respond to even the most
during the review. Let students practice the kinds of
brilliant or entertaining TA if he or she does not cover
applications that they should be able to make if they have
topics and problems central to the course. To ensure that
really grasped the major concept. After you ask a ques-
you do this, you should attend course lectures and obtain
tion, give everyone a minute or two to think before
notes for any you must miss. Regular meetings with the
acknowledging a response; this way, less vocal or more
professor and other TAs, as well as looking at past
67
reflective students will also have a chance to test them-
Labs
selves. An excellent alternative is to ask the students to
pair up with their neighbors to discuss a problem or
Most of the laboratory teaching by TAs at Stanford
takes place in introductory-level laboratory cours-
question for a couple of minutes. This active learning
es. Each lab session typically lasts two hours and fifty
technique will increase the participation and under-
minutes a week (three Stanford “hours”), during which
standing of your students.
students usually complete one experiment. Some sec-
By encouraging students to respond to the materi-
tions also include a one-hour discussion section. Some of
al with solutions or more questions, you will undoubted-
your lab section time may be devoted to explaining some
ly find that you are sometimes sidetracked. Because time
of the finer points (and pitfalls) of the experiment or to
is short and important topics are always too many rather
addressing students’ questions on homework or lecture
than too few, you will have to cut off digressions—but
material. As a lab TA, you are really a facilitator, a person
tactfully. For example, respond to a question briefly, and
who is there to help people learn; if you keep that in
then invite the questioner to pursue the topic with you
mind, you will help make the laboratory a pleasant learn-
further in office hours. Or explain that the issue raised is
ing experience for students and a rewarding teaching
a good one but too complicated for the time you have
experience for yourself.
left. Indicate that you will pursue it in the future, or that
you can suggest other readings on it for those who are
interested. Never cut a student off without explanation.
It is especially important in a review session to get
feedback on whether you are covering what students feel
they really need. The question “What would you like to
do?” usually elicits little response, but you can expect
more success by asking whether students would like you
to review a specific topic or asking if the pace of the ses-
sion has been too fast or slow. If you do sessions on a
weekly basis, it is also helpful to hand out brief evalua-
tion questionnaires to the students after the first few
meetings so that they can tell you before it is too late if
any improvements are needed. You can also ask your stu-
dents to email questions or confusing points to you ahead
of the review session so you can design it accordingly.
Finally, since reviews often require a great deal of
As lab facilitators, TAs ensure a safe environment for hands-on
preparation—either of notes or handouts—you might
exploration and help students develop important inquiry skills.
consider keeping a file of your efforts and making it
available to future leaders of those sessions. Think how
Preparing for Your Lab Section
much easier your job might have been if someone had
done the same for you! The professor will undoubtedly
• Find out what orientations, written materials, or proce-
be grateful if you contribute such resources to his or her
dures your particular department has for graduate stu-
course teaching file and will remember your effort and
dents assisting with laboratory courses. In many cases
organization when it comes time to prepare letters of rec-
you will have to completed a formal lab safety program
t
s
n
ommendation.
before working or teaching in a lab.
hing
ac
sista
• Meet with the professor and other TAs to establish a
T
e
s
A
regular method for preparing and reviewing labs each
week.
• Familiarize yourself with the laboratory room you’ll be
teaching in, including the layout and equipment.
• Find out the location of the first-aid kit, basic first-aid
rules, and the procedure for getting emergency assis-
tance. Then make sure the students know them too!
68
Your First Lab Section
Increase Student Learning
• Go over the grading methods and requirements of the
• A few strategic questions, such as: “Once you plot these
course.
points on your graph, how are you going to find the
• Make sure the students know the procedures and rules
best straight line through them?” or “Why do they tell
for writing up and submitting their results.
you to make measurements with the current going both
ways through the coil?” will help you figure out what
• Show students how to handle and care for the laborato-
the students understand and on what points they are
ry equipment they will be using.
still a little hazy.
• Introduce students to any safety procedures and pre-
• You can also relate the experiment to current topics of
cautions.
research and embellish otherwise “cookbooky” labs by
• You may want to let your students divide themselves
asking students to think about how their results (or the
into smaller groups of two to four lab partners. The
ones they hope for) relate to a larger, more basic scien-
exact number of lab partners per small group will
tific question. In a biology lab, for example, rather than
depend on the actual class size, the number of experi-
having the students just identify plant pigments and
mental apparatus available for each lab session, and the
learn a technique, you might also ask them to think
wishes of the course professor.
about how the different properties of pigments relate to
the evolution of plants’ coloration.
Helping Lab Run Smoothly
• Another way to enliven experiments is to have students
• Come into the lab well in advance and actually do the
present short (five to ten minute) talks on related top-
experiment yourself. Your students will come across a
ics, perhaps for extra credit.
number of stumbling blocks in even the best-designed
• Offer supplemental readings and resources for students
experiments; both you and they will benefit if you are as
interested in learning more about a topic.
prepared as possible to help them over these difficulties by
knowing the tricky or confusing parts of the experiments.
• Shortly before class begins, make sure the lab is proper-
ly set up for the day’s experiments. For example, check
water-bath temperatures and make sure all required
apparatus is on hand and warmed up, if necessary.
• Have students construct a flowchart of the procedures
for each day’s experiments before coming into lab.
Then, begin each lab period by reviewing the lab proto-
col and anticipating potential pitfalls.
• As students conduct their experiments, circulate among
the various groups and see how they are doing. Do not
wait for them to approach you, especially in the first few
weeks, since they may be hesitant to ask. This also gives
you a chance to learn their names.
• Because all labs and apparatus are shared, laboratory
A
courtesy is important. Be sure to have your students
T
s
e
sista
ac
clean up the lab benches before leaving. You may want
hing
Avoid lab problems by running through the lab yourself
n
to check and “okay” bench spaces as people leave.
t
s
and by making sure the materials are in place before the
• If a piece of apparatus breaks, set it aside with an appro-
students arrive for section. Missing materials or an over-
priate sign and notify the laboratory supervisor as soon
looked step in the instructions can result in frustrating,
as possible. This way the damaged equipment can be
or even disastrous, lab experiences.
put back into service quickly, an important considera-
tion when a limited number of pieces of equipment
have to be used by a large number of students over a few
days’ time.
69
TAing and Your Professional Future
faculty supervisor may not be impressed by the simple
fact that you spend a great deal of time on your course
Satisfying as teaching can be in its own right, a record of
or section (in fact, this could make an unfavorable
successful TAing has become increasingly important to
impression, if your own research falls by the wayside).
Ph.D.s seeking their first academic position. Even at
The best way to make a good impression is to show that
research universities such as Stanford, search committees
you can juggle the teaching and your own work. Be as
look for candidates who combine outstanding scholarly
systematic as possible in things like classroom prepara-
credentials with evidence of teaching ability. In fact,
tion and grading. Keep your outlines, notes, classroom
appointment papers for junior faculty at Stanford now
handouts, etc. in proper files; you can make these files
specifically include a section in which the candidate’s
available when the time comes to evaluate your per-
potential or experiences as a teacher must be document-
formance (e.g., when the professor is writing that letter
ed. When you apply for an academic position, you typi-
of recommendation).
cally will be asked to include a curriculum vitae and three
The teaching portfolio was particularly
• Arrange for student
or more letters of recommendation. A vita should list the
helpful during my job interviewing
evaluations of your
courses you have taught or TA’d and those you are pre-
process. Since I had thought quite a
teaching and make
pared to teach, but this by itself is not very informative.
bit about my approach to teaching
the most of them;
You should ask at least one of your faculty letter writers
while assembling the portfolio, I was
with careful planning
to comment on your teaching ability. Also consider
very comfortable discussing my teach-
and reflection, they
preparing a teaching portfolio that best presents your
ing methods and philosophy during
can help you improve
abilities and experience. To increase the value of your TA
interviews. I also had tangible evi-
your teaching. These
experience on the job market, we recommend the fol-
dence to present to the interviewing
evaluations will also
lowing:
committee that demonstrated my suc-
be used by other peo-
cess in the classroom. I think my port-
• Make sure your faculty supervisors are aware that you
ple to judge how
folio effectively emphasized the priori-
will want them to write letters of recommendation that
effective a teacher you
ty I place on teaching.
can comment favorably, and specifically, on your teaching.
are. Many TAs design
Dana Rowland, Ph.D. in Mathematics
• Be visible. Your professors cannot praise your teaching
their own evaluation
from Stanford; Assistant Professor of
ability if they never see or hear of it. If you give a lec-
forms, but you might
Mathematics, Merrimack College,
ture, try to arrange for the professor to be present. (This
use a standard form
North Andover, Massachusetts
may be difficult, since you may lecture to cover for a
instead to provide
traveling professor. If this happens to you, ask the
meaningful numerical data for future letters of recom-
Center for Teaching and Learning to videotape your
mendation. TAs not covered by an end-quarter evalua-
lecture and the professor to listen to or view it.) If you
tion system can use questionnaires developed by the
mainly lead reviews, arrange for an observation. At the
Center for Teaching and Learning for this purpose. Call
least, spend some time discussing the course and your
CTL at 723-1326 to order as many as you need.
contributions to it with the professor, making sure that
• Take advantage of the Center for Teaching and
you convey your enthusiasm and your ideas. Do not
Learning’s videorecording service. An increasing num-
just talk about your problems with your students!
ber of institutions request evidence of teaching ability;
• Show evidence of organization and efficiency. Most TAs
a tape of your class is one way to document your excel-
approach their initial teaching assignments enthusiasti-
lence. Consider being taped more than once to judge
cally. They are willing to devote a great deal of time and
t
s
your progress as an instructor and to be able to select an
n
hing
effort to making their section intellectually stimulating.
example of your teaching at its best.
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sista
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This kind of enthusiasm makes teaching and learning
A
• Consider putting together a teaching portfolio, a more
exciting, but remember not to neglect your own gradu-
comprehensive way of documenting, reflecting on, and
ate work. Learn to budget your time carefully; you will
strengthening your record as a teacher. See the section
need to do so for the rest of your academic career. Your
on teaching portfolios on page 63. As teaching contin-
future job will probably require a number of obliga-
ues to be an important factor in the academic job mar-
tions besides teaching, and you will only be able to
ket, the portfolio is a practical asset as well as a way to
accomplish them by developing an organized and effi-
develop professionally.
cient approach toward your classes. Realize that your
70
If you make the short list (list of final candidates)
at a college or university where you have applied for a
position, your teaching may be directly or indirectly test-
ed. You may have to present a traditional job talk or a
pedagogical job talk (or both). You may also be asked, in
the course of the on-campus interview, to describe in
some detail the design of a course that you would be pre-
pared to teach. In all these cases, if you have taught or
used the TA opportunity to improve your skills, you are
much more likely to appear confident. Your publications
or dissertation will also be crucial, of course, but search
committee members often comment that it is the job talk
that makes the greatest impression and serves to separate
the candidates.
Once you find your first academic position, previ-
ous teaching experience will continue to serve you well.
New assistant professors are expected to assume and to
be successful at multiple roles—teacher, researcher, com-
mittee member—quickly. If you already know how to
prepare courses, deliver lectures, and lead reviews and
discussions, then you will have more time for publishing
and university service. Later, when you go for tenure, the
quality of your teaching—together with your research—
will again be a major determinant of your success.
Increasingly, at universities like Stanford, the papers that
are prepared for faculty being considered for tenure must
include abundant documentation of effective teaching.
Even if you do not stay in academia, teaching pro-
vides valuable experience. Teaching builds self-presenta-
tion and interpersonal skills, as well as the intellectual
skills needed to understand something well enough to
explain, clarify, and apply it. These skills will serve you
well in any professional endeavor.
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CHECKLIST OF CENTER FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING SERVICES FOR GRADUATE STUDENTS AND TAS
Teaching Orientations
Newsletter
At the beginning of each quarter, a half day of pre-
CTL produces a quarterly newsletter, Speaking of
sentations and, during the quarter, workshops on a
Teaching. Call 723-1326 to be put on the mailing
variety of teaching topics are offered to prepare new
list. Copies of past issues are available at CTL or
instructors and teaching assistants for their duties,
on the web at http://ctl.stanford.edu/Newsletter/.
and to suggest new ideas and methods for the
In-Course Assessment
already experienced.
Materials and workshops on in-course assessment
Consultants
are available from CTL. You can also request assis-
Consultants are available to advise you on your
tance in designing assessment techniques appro-
teaching by making classroom visits, reviewing
priate for your class.
videotapes, suggesting specific improvements, or
Teaching Portfolios
talking over a particular problem. All consultation is
CTL offers workshops on teaching portfolios to
completely confidential and individualized.
assist you in your preparation for the academic
Classroom Videorecording'
job market or for your own reflection and profes-
Videorecording' is one of the most effective ways to
sional development. Sample portfolios, handouts,
evaluate and improve your teaching. This can be
and references are available at the CTL library.
arranged by calling CTL approximately a week in
Resource Center
advance and setting up a time; the entire service is
A library of materials (DVDs and videotapes as
free and confidential. Consultation is available and
well as books) on teaching and teaching improve-
encouraged during viewing of the video.
ment is available for browsing or borrowing. CTL
Student Small-Group Evaluation
staff can also serve as liaison to other resources on
A consultant comes to your class midquarter and,
campus.
after you have left, divides your students into
Technology in Teaching
groups of six or fewer. Each group is given ten min-
CTL’s academic technology specialist is available to
utes to select a spokesperson and agree on what
consult with TAs on using technology in teaching.
they value about your course, what areas need
Call 723-1326 to set up an appointment.
improvement, and specific suggestions for change.
The results are given to you later in a private con-
Oral Communication Program
sultation.
The Oral Communication Program’s consultants
are available to work with you on your presenta-
Lectures and Workshops
tion and public speaking skills at the Speaking
Each year, CTL sponsors talks on various aspects of
Center at CTL, in workshops, and in classes
effective university teaching. Given by some of Stan-
throughout the academic year.
ford’s most outstanding faculty, the talks can be
viewed live or on videotape. Watch the Daily or
For information on any of the above, call
posters in your department for announcements of
723-1326.
t
s
n
future talks. CTL also designs workshops, at depart-
hing
mental request, for specific groups of faculty or TAs.
ac
sista
T
e
s
A
Personalized Practice Sessions
If you are going to be giving a talk or seminar or
presenting a paper at a professional conference, you
may want to perfect your presentation ahead of
time. At your option, you can practice alone, with a
videocamera, a consultant, or a small audience of
volunteer peers. There is no charge for this service.
72
Appendices
Honor Code
73
• Representing as one’s own work the work of another
• Giving or receiving aid on an academic assignment under
Sexual Harassment Policy
75
circumstances in which a reasonable person should have
known that such aid was not permitted
Short Bibliography on College Teaching
76
In recent years, most student disciplinary cases have
CTL Courses
77
involved Honor Code violations; of these, the most fre-
quent arise when a student submits another’s work as his
Speaking of Teaching Newsletters
78
or her own, or gives or receives unpermitted aid. The stan-
Award-Winning Teachers on Teaching Videos
79
dard penalty for a first offense includes a one-quarter sus-
pension from the university and forty hours of community
service. In addition, most faculty members issue a “no
pass” or “no credit” for the course in which the violation
occurred. The standard penalty for a multiple violation
Honor Code
(e.g., cheating more than once in the same course) is a
The Honor Code is the university’s statement on academic
three-quarter suspension and forty or more hours of com-
integrity, written by students in 1921. It articulates univer-
munity service.
sity expectations of students and faculty in establishing
and maintaining the highest standards in academic work:
Interpretations and Applications of the Honor Code
A. The Honor Code is an undertaking of the students,
(last amended 2002)
individually and collectively:
In the spring of 1977, the Student Conduct Legislative
1. that they will not give or receive aid in examinations;
Council authored and adopted the following guidelines to
that they will not give or receive unpermitted aid in
assist students and faculty in understanding their rights
class work, in the preparation of reports, or in any other
and obligations under the university’s Honor Code. The
work that is to be used by the instructor as the basis of
most recent revisions to the original text were adopted in
grading;
the winter of 2002 by the Board on Judicial Affairs. It must
2. that they will do their share and take an active part in
be understood that the individual and collective responsi-
seeing to it that others as well as themselves uphold
bility of the students for upholding the Honor Code was
the spirit and letter of the Honor Code.
not imposed upon the students by the administration or
the faculty but was assumed by the students at their own
B. The faculty on its part manifests its confidence in the
request starting in 1921. Without such student responsibil-
honor of its students by refraining from proctoring
ity, the Honor Code cannot be effectively maintained.
examinations and from taking unusual and unreason-
able precautions to prevent the forms of dishonesty
1. General
mentioned above. The faculty will also avoid, as far as
(a) The Honor Code is agreed to by every student who
practicable, academic procedures that create temptations
registers at Stanford University and by every instructor
to violate the Honor Code.
who accepts an appointment.
(b) The Honor Code provides a standard of honesty
C. While the faculty alone has the right and obligation to
and declares that compliance with that standard is to
set academic requirements, the students and faculty will
be expected. It does not contemplate that the standard
work together to establish optimal conditions for hon-
will be self-enforcing but calls on students, faculty, and
orable academic work.
administration to encourage compliance and to take
Examples of conduct which have been regarded as being in
reasonable steps to discourage violations. If violations
violation of the Honor Code include:
occur, procedures are prescribed by the Student Judicial
Charter of 1997. However, the Honor Code depends for
• Copying from another’s examination paper or allowing
its effectiveness primarily on the individual and collec-
another to copy from one’s own paper
tive desire of all members of the community to prevent
• Unpermitted collaboration
and deter violations rather than on proceedings to
• Plagiarism
impose penalties after violations have occurred.
Appendic
• Revising and resubmitting a quiz or exam for regrading,
(c) In interpreting and applying the general provisions of
without the instructor’s knowledge and consent
the Honor Code, it should be kept in mind that although
• Giving or receiving unpermitted aid on a take-home
primary responsibility for making the Code effective
e
s
examination
rests with the students, faculty cooperation is essential,
73
since the faculty sets the academic requirements which
other hand, an instructor may require copies of an
students are to meet. The faculty should endeavor to
examination or test to be returned after the examination.
avoid academic requirements and procedures which
When possible, alternate seating should be provided and
place honorable and conscientious students at a disad-
used for all examinations. To avoid controversy in any
vantage. The faculty should also be ready and willing to
rereading or regrading of students’ work, the instructor
consult with students and should be responsive to their
may take measures by which the original work may be
suggestions in these matters.
clearly identified. With clear advance notice, an instruc-
(d) While an instructor’s failure to observe these guide-
tor may systematically compare work submitted to cur-
lines might be viewed as an extenuating circumstance in
rent or previous submissions. An instructor who requires
evaluating penalty options for a student’s misconduct, it
students to make up a missed test or examination may
would not preclude the initiation of an otherwise war-
administer a different test or examination of equivalent
ranted charge against the student.
range and difficulty. Such procedures are not to be con-
strued as unusual or unreasonable.
2. Specific Interpretations and Applications
(d) “Procedures that create temptations to violate the
(a) “Third-party responsibility.” A primary responsibility
Honor Code.” Although students are expected to resist
assumed by students is to discourage violations of the
temptations to cheat, the faculty should endeavor to
Honor Code by others. Various methods are possible.
minimize inducements to dishonesty. Examples of unde-
Drawing attention to a suspected violation may stop it.
sirable procedures include the following: failure to give
Moral suasion may be effective. Initiating formal proce-
clear directions and instructions concerning course
dures is a necessary and obligatory remedy when other
requirements and the limits of acceptable collaboration
methods are inappropriate or have failed. Faculty mem-
in coursework; treating required work casually as if it
bers have like responsibilities when suspected violations
were unimportant; carelessness or inconsistency in
come to their attention.
maintaining security of examinations or tests; reusing an
(b) “Proctoring.” Proctoring means being present in the
examination which is neither kept secure from public
examination room during a written examination, with
exposure nor made available to all students. If take-
the following exceptions:
home examinations are given, they should not be closed-
book examinations, nor should there be a specific time
1) The prohibition against proctoring should not be
limit less than the full period between the distribution of
construed to prohibit an instructor or teaching assis-
the examination and its due date. Such procedures place
tant from remaining in the examination room for the
honorable and conscientious students in a difficult posi-
first few minutes to distribute and explain the exami-
tion and often at a disadvantage, and could be interpret-
nation; or from visiting the examination room briefly
ed as mitigating by a judicial panel.
to transmit additional information; or from returning
at the end of the examination to collect examination
(e) “Penalty grading.” Students are not to be penalized
papers.
for violations of the Honor Code without adjudication
under the procedures specified by the Student Judicial
2) Nor does the prohibition against proctoring pro-
Charter of 1997. An instructor may not, therefore, lower
hibit an instructor or teaching assistant from visiting
a student’s grade or impose any other academic penalty
the examination room in response to specific reports
on the grounds of dishonesty in the absence of such for-
from students that cheating has been observed, to
mal proceedings.
investigate the basis for such reports. The instructor
or teaching assistant may also visit the examination
(f) “Instructor discretion.” Procedures falling under
room briefly and infrequently in order to answer stu-
instructor discretion would include exam location, alter-
dents’ questions.
nate times for exams, and alteration of due dates. Tests
will be taken from the classroom only with the consent
(c) “Unusual and unreasonable precautions.” In inter-
of the instructor.
preting and applying this provision, consideration
should be given to standard procedures which are cus-
(g) “Basis of grading.” All student work in a course or
tomary to Stanford and the need for cooperation
independent study (exams, quizzes, problem sets, drafts
between students and faculty in making the Honor Code
of papers, oral presentations, Internet/websites, research,
effective. The following situations are cited as examples:
classroom discussions, etc.) forms the basis for evaluating
An instructor should not require students to identify
and/or grading. The Honor Code applies to all academic
themselves before being admitted to an examination
work whether or not the work is given a letter grade, and
room, or require students to submit in advance to being
whether or not the Honor Code is cited and/or signed.
searched for notes or other materials, or maintain sur-
Therefore, regardless of the nature or extent of an assign-
s
veillance upon students who leave the examination
ment, academic dishonesty of any type is expressly pro-
e
room. Nor should the instructor take deliberate steps to
hibited and should always be considered a violation of
invite dishonesty in order to entrap students. Procedures
the Honor Code.
Appendic
of this kind would be unusual and unreasonable. On the
74
(h) “Dual submission policy." One of the principal moti-
vations behind the Honor Code is to prevent one student
from taking unfair advantage over the other students in a
class. For example, receiving unpermitted aid on an
assignment or consulting notes on a closed book exam
gives a student an advantage that students who adhere to
the Honor Code do not have. In much the same way,
submitting the same work in more than one course with-
out the knowledge of the instructor undermines fairness
because faculty assume that student work prepared for a
course is done for that course alone. To this end, the
Interpretations of the Stanford Honor Code shall include
the following: No student may submit substantially simi-
lar work in more than one class without the approval of
any instructors who might otherwise assume that the
work has been undertaken in their classes alone. Thus,
submitting work that was prepared for a previous class
requires the approval of the current instructor. Submit-
ting substantially similar work in concurrent classes
requires approval, in advance, from each instructor.
Sexual Harassment Policy
We provide below a summary of Stanford’s policy on
sexual harassment:
Stanford University strives to provide a place of work and
study free of sexual harassment, intimidation, or exploita-
tion. Where sexual harassment is found to have occurred,
the university will act to stop the harassment, prevent its
recurrence, and discipline and/or take other appropriate
action against those responsible.
We also highlight the following important paragraph on
consensual sexual or romantic relationships with students:
At a university, the role of the teacher is multifaceted,
including serving as intellectual guide, counselor, mentor
and advisor; the teacher’s influence and authority extend
far beyond the classroom. Consequently and as a general
proposition, the university believes that a sexual or roman-
tic relationship between a teacher and a student, even
where consensual and whether or not the student would
otherwise be subject to supervision or evaluation by the
teacher, is inconsistent with the proper role of the teacher,
and should be avoided. The university therefore very
strongly discourages such relationships.
For a full discussion of Stanford’s sexual harassment policy
and resources pertinent to it, you can request Under-
standing Stanford’s Policy on Sexual Harassment and
Consensual Relationships, a brochure available from the
Sexual Harassment Policy Office (723-1583), or you can
consult http://harass.stanford.edu.
Appendic
e
s
75
Short Bibliography on College Teaching
Fink, L. Dee. Creating Significant Learning Experiences:
An Integrated Approach to Designing College Courses.
Members of the Stanford community can borrow all of
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2003. Fink makes an
the works listed below from the Center for Teaching and
effective argument for learner-centered rather than
Learning library.
content-centered course design, drawing on recent
Angelo, Thomas A., and K. Patricia Cross. Classroom
research and offering various theoretical frameworks.
Assessment Techniques: A Handbook for College
Grunert, Judith. The Course Syllabus: A Learning-Centered
Teachers. 2nd edition. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass,
Approach. Bolton, MA: Anker Publishing, 1997. A
1994. A comprehensive and practical introduction
practical manual for constructing a syllabus that will
to the use of classroom assessment techniques. Fifty
help students acquire, use, and extend knowledge in
assessment techniques from a variety of fields are
an active, ongoing process of learning.
provided.
Hativa, Nira. Teaching for Effective Learning in Higher
Banner, James, and Harold C. Cannon. The Elements of
Education. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers,
Teaching. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999. The
2000. This book draws together much of the recent
authors divide their study into the “elements” that go
research on effective teaching and learning, consoli-
into the making of a good teacher: learning, authority,
dating it and giving plenty of practical assistance.
ethics, order, imagination, compassion, patience, char-
acter, and pleasure. All teachers have all these attrib-
Jacobs, Lucy Cheser, and Clinton I. Chase. Developing and
utes to varying degrees; the important thing is how
Using Tests Effectively: A Guide for Faculty. San
the traits are developed and used to the students’ best
Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1992. Tests have a profound
advantage.
impact on students’ approach toward and success in
learning. This is a comprehensive guide to better
Bligh, Donald A. What’s the Use of Lectures? San Francisco:
examination design, analysis, and grading.
Jossey-Bass, 2000. A thoughtful, thorough work on
when and how to use lectures most effectively, and
Light, Richard. Making the Most of College: Students Speak
especially how to be aware of, and compensate for, the
Their Minds. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
inadequacies of lectures for many kinds of student
Press, 2001. A valuable collection of insights and
learning.
guidelines for, among other methods, using collabor-
ative work among students to enhance learning. This
Boice, Robert. Advice for New Faculty Members. Boston: Allyn
is an excellent analysis of the ways students learn
and Bacon, 2000. A useful handbook covering not
best based on surveys and interviews of Harvard
only teaching but all aspects of a new professor’s
students but applicable to other research university
responsibilities.
undergraduates.
Christensen, C. Roland, David A. Garvin, and Ann Sweet,
Lowman, Joseph. Mastering the Techniques of Teaching.
eds. Education for Judgment: The Artistry of Discussion
Paperback edition. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2000.
Leadership. Boston: Harvard Business School Press,
Another excellent general introduction to university
1991. An excellent, thoughtful work on achieving
teaching. He stresses the skills that an instructor must
highly productive and successful discussions.
learn to excel in both the presentation of material and
Davis, Barbara Gross. Tools for Teaching. San Francisco:
the establishment of rapport with students.
Jossey-Bass, 1993. Gross has written a particularly
Marton, Ference, Dai Hounsell, and Noel Entwistle.
comprehensive and practical introduction to effective
The Experience of Learning: Implications for Teaching
teaching.
and Studying in Higher Education. 2nd ed. Edinburgh:
Edgerton, Russell, Patricia Hutchings, and Kathleen
Scottish Academic Press, 1997. A collection of essays
Quinlan. The Teaching Portfolio: Capturing the
by noted international figures that explores learning
Scholarship in Teaching. Washington, D. C.: American
in higher education through the eyes of students. The
Association for Higher Education, 1991. A thorough
major insight, now widely disseminated, is the distinc-
and practical orientation for teachers who would like
tion between two approaches to learning: “deep,”
to document and reflect on their teaching through
understanding and assimilating complex ideas for
the creation of a personal teaching portfolio.
oneself, and “surface,” getting by with course require-
ments.
Erickson, Bette LaSere, Calvin B. Peters, and Diane Weltner
Strommer.
Mazur, Eric. Peer Instruction: A User’s Manual.
Teaching College Freshmen. 2nd ed. San Francisco:
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1997. Harvard
s
e
Jossey-Bass, 2006. Teaching first-year students pres-
professor Mazur’s interactive approach to teaching
ents particular challenges. This book offers valuable
physics brings students into the teaching process and
insight into students’ intellectual development and
emphasizes understanding over memorization. This
Appendic
strategies to promote effective learning.
manual offers a comprehensive guide to preparation of
76
a first-year physics course but is also useful to faculty in
CTL 118, “Public Speaking.” A practical approach to the
other sciences and mathematics.
art of public speaking, this course emphasizes developing
skills in various speech types: exposition, argumentation,
McKeachie, Wilbert J. Teaching Tips: Strategies, Research,
and persuasion. Students sharpen skills with the aid of
and Theory for College and University Teachers. 12th
textbooks, videotapes, texts of famous speeches, and par-
edition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2006. Although
ticipation in a final program of talks. Students also evalu-
this book contains excellent suggestions for effective
ate presentations by others. (Summer quarter only)
lectures, discussions, labs, office hours, etc., its partic-
ular strength is its reviews of research on teaching.
CTL 119, “Oral Communication Tutor Teaching Practi-
Nyquist, Jody D., and Donald H. Wulff. Working
cum.” Teaching practicum for students who have been
Effectively with Graduate Assistants. Thousand Oaks,
selected to serve as public speaking tutors for the Oral
CA: Sage Publications, 1996. A comprehensive guide
Communication Program. Readings, exercises, and super-
for faculty who supervise teaching or research
vised teaching refine your speaking skills and prepare you
assistants.
to work as a peer tutor in a variety of academic disciplines.
Admission by application only.
Seldin, Peter. The Teaching Portfolio. Bolton, MA:
Anker Publishing, 1997. Benefiting from Seldin’s many
CTL 120, “Peer Tutor Training.” Peer Tutors are a strong
years of pioneering work on portfolios and his con-
link between class instruction and student understanding.
tacts with scholars and practitioners active in the
This training helps new tutors become familiar with differ-
portfolio field, this book offers nuts and bolts assis-
ent strategies for helping students develop problem-solving
tance—including guidelines for preparation and
and analytical skills. Tutors focus on helping students
examples of portfolios from many disciplines—and
deepen their conceptual understanding of course material
puts portfolios in a larger theoretical, national, and
and develop models for problem solving. Role playing,
institutional context.
internship, and observing veteran tutors are key compo-
nents to this course.
Tufte, Edward. The Cognitive Style of PowerPoint.
Cheshire, CN: Graphics Press, 2003. An insightful and
CTL 125, “From the Page to the Stage: The Performance
amusing critique of PowerPoint accompanied by
of Literature.” Explores the oral interpretation of poetry
thoughtful strategies for the illuminating presentation
and prose as both a performance art and a mode of literary
of dense data.
analysis, with the larger goal of developing speaking skills.
Emphasis on textual critique, audience response, and deliv-
ery style. No previous performance experience required.
CTL Courses
CTL 130, “Beyond Stereotype Threat.” The quality of a
CTL 53, “Working Smarter.” This course helps students
student’s test performance can be mitigated by the stu-
develop higher-level strategies and skills in time manage-
dent’s concerns about confirming negative stereotypes
ment, reading, speaking, writing, and test preparation.
associated with his or her social group, a phenomenon
Students also have the opportunity to explore learning
known as stereotype threat. The purpose of this course is
preferences and to develop techniques that optimize their
to educate students about stereotype threat and its impact
learning in various academic settings.
on academic success at Stanford. Its goal is to examine the
CTL 115/215, “Voice Workshop.” An innovative workshop
research that has been done with an eye toward determin-
focusing on correct breathing, voice production, expansion
ing future directions for research. Students have an oppor-
of vocal range and stamina, and clarity of articulation.
tunity to create a service project aimed at reducing the
Geared toward public speaking generally: presentations,
impact of stereotype threat on Stanford students. Same as
lectures, job talks, etc. Can be taken in conjunction with
PSYCH 125.
CTL 117.
CTL 177, “Performance of Power: Oratory and Authority
CTL 117/217, “The Art of Effective Speaking.” This is an
from the Ancient World to the Postmodern.” Speech as
introduction to the principles and practice of effective oral
action has long been seen as essential to leadership. This
communication. Through formal and informal speaking
course examines theories and examples of oratory, from
activities, students develop skills at framing and articulat-
Aristotle to Margaret Thatcher, assessing each as a model
ing ideas through speech. Strategies are presented for
of voice-activated authority. The course also surveys the
impromptu speaking, preparing and delivering presenta-
impact of mass media technologies as they transform the
tions, formulating persuasive arguments, refining clarity of
public space of oratory.
Appendic
thought, and enhancing general facility and confidence at
CTL 180/280, “Interpersonal and Small Group Commun-
oral self-expression.
ication.” This course explores and will enhance your per-
sonal effectiveness in interpersonal and small group com-
e
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77
municating in the contexts of work, family, and society.
2003–2004
Areas covered include listening, conflict resolution, leader-
• The Socratic Method: What It Is and How to Use It in the
ship, power and its implementation, group dynamics,
Classroom
emotions, and cultural influences on interactions. Students
• Designing Courses
will learn with the aid of a course reading packet, videos/
2002–2003
DVDs, role-playing, interviews, individual and group pre-
• Teaching in the US Classroom
sentations, and group exercises.
• Why Good Teachers Have Bad Classes
CTL 201, “Science Course Design.” For students interested
2001–2002
in an academic career and who anticipate designing sci-
• Faculty/TA Teaching Partnerships
ence courses at the undergraduate or graduate level. Goal
• Teaching in the U.S. Classroom
is to apply research on science learning to the design of
2000–2001
effective course materials. Topics include syllabus design,
• Problem-Based Learning
course content and format decisions, assessment planning
• Oral Communication in the Academy
and grading, and strategies for teaching improvement.
1998–1999
Same as GES 201.
• Capturing and Directing the Motivation to Learn
CTL 219, “Oral Communication for Graduate Students.”
• Cooperative Learning: Students Working in Small Groups
This course addresses a range of graduate student speaking
1997–1998
activities such as teaching (delivering lectures, guiding dis-
• Using Student Evaluations to Improve Teaching
cussion, and facilitating small groups), giving professional
• Designing and Teaching a Course
presentations and conference papers, and preparing for
1996–1997
orals or theses defenses. In-class projects, discussion, and
• Encouraging Top Students in Large Undergraduate Classes
individual evaluation assist students in developing effective
• Promoting a Culture of Teaching: The Pedagogical
techniques for improving oral communication skills.
Colloquium
CTL 225, “Teaching Development Series.” This course
1995–1996
enables graduate students to create a personal learning
• Multiculturalism in the Liberal Arts Classroom
portfolio based on teaching and academic career topics
• From Research or Teaching to Research and Teaching
from CTL’s workshop series.
• Promoting a Culture of Teaching: The Teaching Portfolio
CTL 226, “College Teaching in the Humanities.” Students
1994–1995
in this course will examine the latest research on teaching
• Gender Issues in Teaching
and learning, discuss and practice effective humanities
• Being a Teaching Assistant at Stanford: Results of CTL’s
teaching strategies, design a course, write a teaching state-
TA Survey
ment, examine what it means to teach in a disciplinary and
1993–1994
interdisciplinary context, and discuss the ways in which
• Active Learning: Getting Students to Work and Think in
technology can enhance teaching and what the research on
the Classroom
early career faculty shows.
• Teaching with Case Studies
1992–1993
• Testing and Grading
Speaking of Teaching Newsletters
• Classroom Assessment and Student Learning
These newsletters are available at Center for Teaching and
• Teaching and Multimedia
Learning and on the web at http://ctl.stanford.edu/
1991–1992
Newsletter/. If you would like to be added to the newsletter
• Juggling Teaching and Research
mailing list, please call CTL at 723-1326.
• Freshmen and Critical Thinking
2006–2007
• Responding to Student Writing
• Team Teaching: Benefits and Challenges
1990–1991
• Teaching Across the Disciplines: A Stanford Faculty Panel
• Teaching and Your Professional Future
2005–2006
• Videotaping and Evaluating Your Teaching
• Using Class Discussion to Meet Your Teaching Goals
1989–1990
• Getting More “Teaching” out of “Testing” and “Grading”
• CTL Services for Teachers
2004–2005
• TAing in a Multicultural University
s
e
• How to Create Memorable Lectures
• Teaching for Transformation: From Learning Theories to
Teaching Strategies
Appendic
78
Award-Winning Teachers on Teaching Videos
Engaging and Challenging Students
Being a Machine vs. Being Curious: What Do Students Want?
Memorable Videotaped Talks on Teaching by Stanford
Dennis Matthies, CTL
Faculty*
Please call the Center for Teaching and Learning at
Creating the Urge to Learn
723-1326 to reserve a copy of any of the following tapes.
Prof. Sam Chiu, Management Science and Engineering
Cultivating the Capability for Rigorous Critical Analysis:
Case Method Teaching
A Vital Pedagogical Task
Teaching by the Case Method
Prof. Robert McGinn, Science, Technology, and Society
Prof. Mary Barth, Graduate School of Business
Dealing with an Eclectic Audience
Teaching Strategies for Case-Based Learning: Environmental
Prof. Brigitte Cazelles, French and Italian Languages
Problems in the Classroom
Prof. Keith Loague, Geological and Environmental Sciences
Galvanizing the Student Muse: Creative Work in an
Academic Setting
Controversial Subject Matter in the Classroom
Prof. Jan Krawitz, Communication
Addressing Controversial Issues in the Classroom
Getting Inside Your Students’ Heads
Prof. David B. Abernethy, Political Science
Prof. Doug Osheroff, Physics
Controversy and Social Commitment in the Classroom
Letting Them Do It Themselves… In Groups!
Prof. Luis Fraga, Political Science
Prof. and President Emeritus Donald Kennedy, Biological
Moral Commitments, Emotional Identifications, and
Sciences
Historical Evidence: Teaching the Arab-Israeli Conflict
Managing the Dreaded Essay Assignment
Prof. Joel Beinin, History
Prof. Roger Noll, Public Policy and Economics
Talking about Killing, Torturing, and Letting Die
Playing as Pedagogy
Prof. Christopher Bobonich, Philosophy
Prof. Wanda Corn, Art History
Course Design
Relating to Your Students
How to Design and Teach a New Course
Prof. Sanford Dornbusch, Sociology and Human Biology
Prof. Russell Fernald, Psychology and Human Biology
Some Tricks of the Trade: Connecting with Your Students
Teaching As Learning: The Process of Designing a New
Prof. Brad Gregory, History
Course
Students Helping to Change the Curriculum
Prof. Leonard Ortolano, Civil and Environmental
Prof. Sheri Sheppard, Mechanical Engineering
Engineering
Teaching a Project-Based Course
Critical Thinking
Prof. Kristine Samuelson, Communication
Teaching Critical Thinking about Gender
Understanding the Process of Discovery: Research as a
Prof. Laura Carstensen, Psychology
Teaching Tool
Prof. Deborah Gordon, Biological Sciences
Discussion Leading
Discussion Leading and Small-Group Methods
General Teaching Effectiveness
Prof. John Rickford, Linguistics
7 (Plus or Minus 2) Habits of Highly Effective Teachers:
How to Have a Good Class Discussion
Conversations with Colleagues
Prof. Mary Louise Roberts, History
Prof. Anne Fernald, Psychology
Maximizing Participation in Classroom Discussions
Analyzing the Complex Task of Teaching
Prof. Susan McConnell, Biological Sciences
Dr. Kelley Skeff, School of Medicine
Back to the Basics: Presenting the Foundations of One’s
Diversity Issues in the Classroom
Discipline
Controversy and Social Commitment in the Classroom
Prof. Peter Sells, Linguistics
Prof. Luis Fraga, Political Science
Classroom Burnout: Experiencing It, Dealing with It, and
The Difficulties and Benefits of Encouraging Diversity and
Learning from It
Appendic
Diverse Views in the Classroom
Prof. Christina Maslach, UC Berkeley, Psychology
Prof. Harry Elam, Drama
How Teaching Sophomore College Changed My Life
e
Prof. Coit Blacker, Political Science
s
79
Is Teaching a Calling or a Profession? Teaching Literature in
How to Give a Lecture
an Uncertain Age
Prof. David Kennedy, History
Prof. Seth Lerer, English and Comparative Literature
Preparing and Delivering the Lecture
Learning from Teaching: What You Know, What You Don’t
Prof. Lanier Anderson, Philosophy
Know, and How to Teach
Student-Friendly Lecturing
Prof. Estelle Freedman, History
Prof. John Perry, Philosophy
Reflections on Mentoring: A Crucial Part of the Teaching Role
Prof. Robert M. Gray, Electrical Engineering
Mentoring Students
Reflections on Mentoring: A Crucial Part of the Teaching Role
Teaching American Foreign Policy
Prof. Robert M. Gray, Electrical Engineering
Provost Condoleezza Rice, Political Science
The Teaching Confessional: Things I Do but Shouldn’t Do;
Seminar Teaching
Things I Do and Should Do; Things I Don’t Do and
Teaching a Freshman/Sophomore Seminar
Shouldn’t Do; Things I Don’t Do but Should Do
Prof. James Sheehan, History
Prof. Mark Applebaum, Music
Teaching through Writing in Humanities Courses
Service Learning
Prof. Nancy Kollmann, History
Bringing Community Service into the Classroom
Prof. Al Camarillo, History
There Are No Poor Speakers, Only Poor Listeners
Prof. Emeritus James March, Political Science, Sociology,
Controversy and Social Commitment in the Classroom
and Graduate School of Business
Prof. Luis Fraga, Political Science
What I Learned about Teaching and Learning in Sophomore
Simulations
College
Stimulation and Simulations: Getting Students Interested in
Vice Provost for Undergraduate Education Ramón
International Relations
Saldívar, English
Prof. Scott D. Sagan, Political Science
Working with Rich Data
Prof. Robert Gregg, Religious Studies
Socratic Method
The Socratic Method: What It Is and How to Use It in the
Interdisciplinary Teaching
Classroom
Standing at the Abyss–Teaching in an Interdisciplinary
Prof. Rob Reich, Political Science
Context
Prof. Donald Barr, Sociology
Teaching in the Sciences, Mathematics, and Engineering
Active Learning, Peer Learning, Assessment-Driven Learning:
Teaching across the Disciplines: Reflections of a Pedagogic
How Do They Apply to Introductory Science Courses?
Switch Hitter
Prof. Christopher E.D. Chidsey, Chemistry
Vice Provost Robert Weisberg, Law
How Can Organic Chemistry Possibly Be Interesting?
Introductory Courses
One Teacher’s Answer
Introductory Courses: Some Teaching and Learning Ideas
Prof. Eric Kool, Chemistry
Prof. John Taylor, Economics
Image Isn’t Everything, but in Teaching Fluid Mechanics
It Sure Helps!
Large Courses
Prof. Jeffrey Koseff, Civil and Environmental Engineering
Encouraging Top Students in Large Classes
and Senior Assoc. Dean, School of Engineering
Prof. Eric Roberts, Computer Science
Listening to Students: Changing the Mathematics
Large Project-Based Courses: It’s Not Impossible
Curriculum at Stanford
Prof. Clifford Nass, Communication
Prof. Brad Osgood, Mathematics
Running a Big Course
Maximizing Participation in Classroom Discussions
Prof. Gil Masters, Civil Engineering
Prof. Susan McConnell, Biological Sciences
Lecturing
Planning the New Core: Math, Science, and Technology
Five Essential Concepts for Successful Lecturing
for Nonscientists
s
e
Prof. John Bravman, Materials Science and Engineering
Prof. Sandy Fetter, Physics
and Sr. Associate Dean, School of Engineering
Problem Sets, Failure, and Learning
Appendic
Prof. David Freyberg, Civil and Environmental
Engineering
80
Seeing the Forest through the Trees: Vertical Learning and
Testing
Teaching Science
Designing the Exam: Necessary Evil or Opportunity?
Prof. Robert Waymouth, Chemistry
Prof. Paul Turner, Art
Soap Bubbles, Thermodynamics, and Engineering Science:
* With the exception of Prof. Christina Maslach of UC Berkeley,
Teaching the Ideas behind All the Mathematics
all speakers in the series have been Stanford faculty. Their titles
Dean Franklin Orr, School of Earth Sciences
reflect their position at the time that they gave their talk.
Strategies for Teaching Science to Non-Technical Majors
Prof. Patricia Burchat, Physics
Teaching ‘Difficult’ Subjects: Some Observations from
Teaching Thermodynamics to Sophomores, Seniors, and
Graduate Students
Prof. Chris Edwards, Mechanical Engineering
Teaching Outside the Walls
Prof. Rob Dunbar, GES
Teaching Science: What Works
Prof. Paul Wender, Chemistry
Teaching through Problem Solving: Perspectives after
18 Years in the Trenches
Prof. Patricia Jones, Biological Sciences
Textbooks, Handouts, and Other Learning Materials: Which
Are Effective?
Prof. Guenther Walther, Statistics
The Value of the Laboratory Experience in the Sciences
Prof. Richard Zare, Chemistry
Team Teaching
Challenges and Rewards of Team-Teaching
Profs. Joshua Landy, French and Lanier Anderson,
Philosophy
Reflections on the Experience of Team Teaching
Professor Emerita Barbara Gelpi and Professor
Emeritus Al Gelpi, English
Technology in Teaching
Creating Links between Technology and Teaching
Prof. Barbara Gelpi, English
In Praise of (Real) Classroom Presence
Prof. Hans Ulrich Gumbrecht, Comparative Literature
and French and Italian
Incorporating New Technologies into the Teaching Process
Prof. Diane Middlebrook, English
History Wired: Technology-Enhanced Teaching
Prof. Timothy Lenoir, History
A Learning Tool: The Student-Produced Video As a
Coursework Option
Prof. Emeritus James L. Gibbs, Jr., Anthropology
Appendic
Teaching in a Digital Age
Prof. John W. Rick, Anthropological Sciences
e
Teaching in the Era of YouTube
s
Prof. Tom Byers, Management Science and Engineering
81
Acknowledgments
So many members of the Stanford community have contributed to this
handbook that there is a danger of some names slipping through. The
following list therefore attempts to be comprehensive but cannot be
exhaustive. Special thanks are due to Patricia O’Connell Killen and
Carrie Walker, editors of the first two versions of the handbook, on
which this revision has drawn liberally; and to the following people who
wrote or rewrote substantial sections in this or earlier versions: Guy
Browning for “Counseling Students”; Evanne Casson for “Grading”;
Steve Fazzari and David Weisberg for “Reviews”; Joe Lepgold and Bruce
Thompson for “Lecturing” and “Discussion Leading”; Kathy Williams
for “Labs”; Rosa E. Gonzalez and Joan Bisagno for “Students with
Disabilities”; and James Milojkovic for “Course Design.” Ann Watters
and Mark Gonnerman kindly let me use substantial portions of articles
they had earlier written for CTL’s newsletter TA Talk (now called
Speaking of Teaching), Ann from her article “TAing in a Multicultural
University” and Mark from his story “A Teaching Portfolio.” Professor
Eric Roberts of Computer Science gave me permission to include his
“Cautionary Thoughts,” which greatly strengthened the chapter on
“Technology in Teaching”; Marcelo Clerici-Arias, our associate director
(social sciences and technology), also looked over all technology-related
sections. CTL’s former associate director, Jack Prostko, drafted the sec-
tion on “In-Course Assessment” and updated contents throughout in
earlier versions of the handbook. I also thank Loren Rusk, my co-author
on another publication, for the material from that work which has
found its way into this. CTL’s senior associate director (sciences and
engineering) Robyn Wright Dunbar kindly reviewed the entire hand-
book from the perspective of teachers of science, and Professor Al
Camarillo of History reviewed its advice on diversity and multicultural
issues. Dr. Alejandro Martinez from Counseling and Psychological
Services, Virginia Pollard from the Sexual Harassment Policy Office, and
Kathy Wright from Undergraduate Advising Programs offered valuable
suggestions in our chapters concerned with their offices’ services.
The director of the Oral Communication Program at CTL, Doree
Allen, and the program’s lecturer, Tom Freeland, contributed the sections
on oral communication. I also owe a large debt of gratitude to CTL’s for-
mer associate director (humanities) Valerie Ross for her dedicated work
on the 2001 revision and to Kelly McGonigal, a Stanford Ph.D. in
Psychology and winner of the 2004 Gores teaching assistant award, for
her extensive re-writing and insightful contributions to the 2004 edition.
For the 2007 edition, I express my appreciation to our associate director
(humanities), Mariatte Denman, for her thorough and conscientious
editing. Linda Salser gave invaluable editing and other general assistance.
Particularly hearty thanks are due to Vice Provost for Under-
graduate Education John Bravman for his support of CTL and this
handbook, and for his many other efforts on behalf of effective teaching
at Stanford.
Words of appreciation are in order as well to those offices that
helped us gather necessary information; to those in the departments
who will help distribute this; and to the faculty, graduate students, and
other teachers who have used and talked to us about the handbook.
Most of all, however, I thank the many faculty, academic staff, and
teaching assistants at Stanford who have let us observe their great skill
in the classroom or who have shared their insights on teaching through
Editor: Michele Marincovich
talks and videotapes. I hope that the handbook has captured in some
Assistant Editor: Mariatte Denman
part their dedication and inspiration.
Copy Editor: Megan L. Hendershott
—Michele Marincovich, editor
Designer: Susan Wilson
Photography: L.A. Cicero/Stanford News Service
(inside front cover, pages 4, 12, 17, 22, 25,27, 30,
47, 48, 51, 57, 62, 68, 69); Dan Gilbert (page 14);
Rod Searcey (cover, pages 8, 36, 39, 42, 45, 54, 66)
82
CTL CONTACT INFORMATION
Michele Marincovich, Ph.D.
Associate Vice Provost for Undergraduate Education and CTL Director
(650) 723-2208
marin@stanford.edu
Doree Allen, Ph.D.
Senior Lecturer and Director of the Oral Communication Program
(650) 725-4149
doree.allen@stanford.edu
Amy Chambers
Tutor Coordinator
(650) 736-7996
a.chambers@stanford.edu
Marcelo Clerici-Arias
Associate Director, Social Sciences and Technology
(650) 725-0127
marcelo@stanford.edu
Mariatte Denman, Ph.D.
Associate Director, Humanities
(650) 723-6487
mdenman@stanford.edu
Robyn Wright Dunbar, Ph.D.
Senior Associate Director, Sciences and Engineering
(650) 723-3920
robyn.dunbar@stanford.edu
Thomas Freeland, Ph.D.
Lecturer in Oral Communication
(650) 736-2337
thomas@stanford.edu
Adina Glickman
Associate Director for Academic Support
(650) 723-8676
adinag@stanford.edu
Jennifer Hennings
Oral Communication Specialist and Tutor Manager
(650) 725-7667
inksalot@stanford.edu
David Leech
Program Assistant
(650) 723-1326
daleech@stanford.edu
Marianne Neuwirth, Ph.D.
Lecturer in Oral Communication
(650) 736-7298
neuwirth@stanford.edu
Cristen Osborne
Associate Program Manager
(650) 723-1326
cjosborne@stanford.edu
Jeremy Sabol, Ph.D.
Academic Technology Specialist
(650) 725-4164
jsabol@stanford.edu
Linda Salser
Program Manager
(650) 723-2207
lsalser@stanford.edu
Lindsay Schauer
Oral Communication Specialist and Tutor Manager
(650) 724-9910
lschauer@stanford.edu
CENTER FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING
Fourth Floor, Sweet Hall
Stanford, CA 94305-3087
http://ctl.stanford.edu
