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CASE 6 Magazine-Single pages 3/11/04 5:24 PM Page 14
14 THE IMPACT OF AMERIC AN FOREIGN POLICY ON WORLD CHRISTIANIT Y
THE IMPACT OF AMERICAN FOREIGN
POLICY ON WORLD CHRISTIANITY
T O M F R A M E
Drawing on three recent
CHIVE
books about America’s
place in the world,
Tom Frame considers the
REUTERS PICTURES AR
| OT
complex entanglement
PHO
of American culture,
Christian mission and
imperialism.
Dr Tom Frame is
Anglican Bishop to
the Australian
Defence Force and
author of Living by
the Sword?: the ethics
of armed intervention.
Identity for a few pointers. Like many other
…the English language; Christianity,
American writers, Huntington sees 9/11 as a
religious commitment; English concepts
Irecall a senior politician saying a few
years ago that if Americans didn’t speak
English Australians wouldn’t be misled
turning point for the United States in recent
of the rule of law, the responsibility of
into thinking they were like them.
times. He claims it brought American
rulers, and the rights of individuals;
However, American foreign policy has
identity back to the fore. He writes: “So long
and dissenting Protestant values of
enormous impact on Australia—not least on
as Americans see their nation endangered,
individualism, the work ethic, and the
how Christianity is perceived. In this article,
they are likely to have a high sense of
belief that humans have the ability and
I will outline the sources and features of the
identity with it. If their perception of threat
the duty to try to create a heaven on
American identitybefore considering the force
fades, other identities could again take
earth, a ‘city on a hill’.
and effect of that identity on American foreign
precedence over national identity”. He says
policy. In considering the international
that Americans have historically defined
Huntington notes that 63 per cent of
projection of that identity through foreign
their identity in terms of “race, ethnicity,
Americans claim to be Protestant, 23 per cent
policy, I will come to the crux of the
ideology and culture”. The first two—race
are Roman Catholics, 8 per cent other
discussion and describe the impact of
and ethnicity—are, he claims, “now largely
religions and 6 per cent profess no religion at
American foreign policy on Christian mission
eliminated” leaving ideology and culture.
all. This is in stark contrast to Australia where
and ministry, global peace and stability.
Huntington contends that the
around 38 per cent are Protestant, 27 per cent
ideological strand, derived from Thomas
are Catholic, 4.5 per cent have a religion
Jefferson’s ‘American Creed’ with its
other than Christianity while 30.5 per cent
American identity and religion
principles of liberty, equality, democracy,
do not claim any religious affiliation.
Let me begin, then, with the question of
civil rights, non-discrimination, and the rule
The emphasis on Protestantism is
American identity and draw on Samuel
of law has remained largely intact. But this
important in Huntington’s account for two
Huntington’s recent publication, Who are
creed is the product of a culture that
reasons: i) because he claims that Roman
We? The Challenges to America’s National
includes among its key elements:
Catholics in America maintain an
CASE 6 Magazine-Single pages 3/11/04 5:24 PM Page 15
TOM FRAME 15
international allegiance to the Papacy on the
book Colossus: The Rise and Fall of the
It is an Empire with ‘attention deficit
one hand, and ii) because Roman Catholics
American. It is apparent that a nation
disorder’. It refuses to admit the scale of its
immigrants (especially Hispanics) tend to
professing a sense of purpose shaped by
responsibilities and to invest adequately in
retain a stronger sense of ethnic loyalty which
religious language and a sense of destiny
situations that it can influence for good.
effectively downgrades their national identity
shrouded in religious symbols will inevitably
He advocates a ‘liberal empire’, modelled on
on the other. Having said that, it is clear that
use both its enormous economic power and
that maintained by Britain, which can bring
contemporary Americans rank among the
its unrivalled military strength to defend
about prosperity and democracy by force
most religious people in the world. And
itself from armed attack while pursuing its
of will if necessary. Thus, Ferguson is not
despite drawing a line between Church and
‘mandate’ throughout the surrounding
surprised or even embarrassed by the Bush
State (a separation, I might add, designed to
world. As Peter Singer observed in his book,
Administration’s policy document The
protect the Church from the State),
The President of Good and Evil: The Ethics
National Security Strategy of the United States
Americans have believed in the importance of
of George W. Bush, most Americans see the
released in September 2002. It stated:
religion in public life since the Massachusetts
world in terms of good—which is to be
As a matter of common sense and self-
Constitution of 1780 declared that good
encouraged and commended—and evil—
defence, America will act against such
order and civil government “essentially
which is to be resisted and defeated.
emerging threats before they are fully
depend on piety, religion and morality”.
However, the historic isolationism of
formed. We cannot defend America and
our friends by hoping for the best. So we
The way Americans define themselves determines
must be prepared to defeat our enemies’
plans, using the best intelligence and
their role in the world: a religious people; with
proceeding with deliberation. History will
judge harshly those who saw this danger
a divine mandate; to achieve a godly world.
coming but failed to act. In the new world
we have entered, the only path to safety
This outlook has four general consequences
the United States, a tendency that I believe
is the path of action.
for the formation of national identity.
survives, means it has to be coaxed into
First, the American system of government
engagement with unfolding regional and
But even if the United States refused to
rests on a religious base that presupposes
global security challenges. But because the
acknowledge its imperial characteristics in a
a Supreme Being. The second consequence
United States wants to defend itself far
diplomatic or military legal sense, I would
is a widely held belief that Americans are
beyond the shores of continental America,
argue that it must comes to terms with the
‘God’s Chosen’ and that the United States
preferably in East Asia or Western Europe,
exportation of its popular culture, its moral
is the ‘New Israel’. Third, there are overtly
it appears to be an Imperial power.
values and ethical virtues, its political
religious elements in public occasions, such
Consequently, there are 752 US military
aspirations and social expectations, its
as the inauguration of a President, and
installations in over 130 countries while the
capitalism and consumerism. The Star
religious assertions in the American pledge
United States has invaded two sovereign
Spangled Banner is in many places a long
of allegiance and on banknotes. Fourth,
nations (Afghanistan and Iraq) in the past
way behind the Golden Arches.
to quote Huntington again: “national
three years. President Bush has stated his
For its part, Australia has been heavily
ceremonies and activities themselves take
intention of extending the “benefits of
influenced by the United States for good and
on a religious aura and perform religious
freedom … to every corner of the globe” but
for bad, and there is a deep streak of anti-
functions”. While the American Creed has
is emphatic: “America has never been an
Americanism in many Australian people.
been described as ‘Protestantism without
empire”. Most people would say America is
By and large the citizens of this country are
God’ and American civil religion as
an Imperial nation—even if it is so
in my observation indifferent to Peruvian
‘Christianity without Christ’, there is an
reluctantly. But is that such a bad thing?
culture, Icelandic politics and Senegal’s
attempt at inclusiveness, it is clear that how
Niall Ferguson, a British academic now
military might. The same is not true of the
Americans define themselves determines their
resident in the United States, says no. He says:
United States. It has infused and, some would
role in the world: a religious people; with a
“It is not that empires are good but that the
say, infected Australian public life, popular
divine mandate; to achieve a godly world.
alternatives are worse”. He argues that “empire
culture and even religious worship. So much
is more necessary in the 21st century than ever
now looks or sounds American without
before”. Why? As a means to “contain
apology. For their part, American imports are
American identity in the wider
epidemics, depose tyrants, end local wars and
not inclined to explain themselves and show
world
eradicate terrorist organizations”. The sooner
little respect for local customs. I have often
In thinking about how America’s religious
the United States openly acknowledges that it
quoted with enthusiasm that great aphorism:
identity affects its foreign policy I have been
is an imperial nation the better. The problem,
“the United States is the only country in the
assisted by Niall Ferguson’s controversial new
Ferguson says, is that Americans are in denial.
world to become decadent before it was
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16 THE IMPACT OF AMERIC AN FOREIGN POLICY ON WORLD CHRISTIANIT Y
The one truly global religion?
Christianity is described in Adrian Hastings’
A World History of Christianity as the only
genuinely global religion. It is the
predominant religion in four and a half of the
world’s six continents: Europe, North and
South America, Australia and the Pacific, and
sub-Saharan Africa are mainly Christian. It is
also the majority religion in the Philippines
and in South Korea. In many ways this
proliferation is not surprising. In response to
the command of Jesus recorded at the close
civilised”. And I must acknowledge my own
I have no doubt that many throughout
of St Matthew’s Gospel to make disciples of
deep disdain for so much that seems to
Asia and the Arab world see Christianity as
all nations, the evangelising energy of the
represent America. If Australians feel this
a thoroughly Western religion. This is ironic
Church has taken believers across the world
way as citizens of a nation that has enjoyed
given its origins in the Middle East and its
proclaiming Christ and him crucified. I have
American political friendship and goodwill,
recent rapid spread throughout Africa and
no doubt that zeal will continue to be
and it has been significant and positive in
South America. There are, of course, many
embodied in mission and outreach despite the
many ways, one can imagine the mood in
resonances of Christianity in Western
inherent difficulties and dangers of this kind
those nations identified by President George
political philosophy. Self-declared Christians
of endeavour. In past decades, Christian
W. Bush as being part of the so-called ‘Axis of
are active in Western political and military
missionaries were accused of devaluing local
Evil’. Anti-Americanism has become a mass
institutions. Christianity is intertwined with
cultures and ignoring host customs by seeking
phenomenon, perhaps even a global uprising,
the social and political order in countries
not just conversion to the religion of Jesus but
involving passions most Americans cannot
like Canada, New Zealand and Australia.
the embrace of bourgeois European culture
comprehend let alone ameliorate. How can
And when Asians or Arabs observe elements
and the imposition of social democratic
this tension be resolved? Huntington offers
of Christianity in either the thrust of
ideals. The aim was not just to make new
three alternatives: “America becomes the
American foreign policy or in justifications
disciples but to make Africans, Asians and
world. The world becomes America. America
for the United States resorting to military
Aborigines who resembled the people who
remains America. Cosmopolitan? Imperial?
action, they feel obliged in part to resist or
had brought them the gospel.
National? The choices Americans make will
shape their future as a nation and the future
Ironically, many throughout Asia and the Arab
of the world”. This is probably true but this is
not how the Muslim world perceives the
world see Christianity (which originated in the
challenge or the alternatives.
Middle East) as a thoroughly Western religion.
Identifying Christianity with
oppose both its force and effect on religious
The contemporary Church has
Western actions
grounds. This resistance becomes acute in
recognised the pride, arrogance and the
Two years ago I started visiting the Cultural
nations that have formally embraced a
heresy embedded in such an outlook. It is
Centre of the Saudi Embassy in Canberra to
religious outlook in public life or legislated
now seen as something akin to the Apostolic
arrange for the delivery of a box of Korans
to establish a theocratic state: such as
Church wanting to impose circumcision on
for distribution to ADF personnel attending
Thailand and Iran. Of course, Christianity is
Gentile believers. There is now a much better
the inaugural Islam Acquaint Course. During
not a private religion. It is played out in
appreciation of those things that are integral
several conversations with the embassy staff
public life. There will, therefore, always be
to Christian profession and those things that
over successive visits, it was apparent that
associations and partnerships between the
are entirely discretionary and matters open to
they had yet to grasp either the essence or the
Church and the State, and especially while
free and independent judgement. Indeed, the
extent of religious nominalism in this
the majority of the American population
preservation of cultural differences within
country or, I suspected, the United States
claim some affiliation with a Christian
Christian Churches across the world has been
as well. Indeed, I was asked for my opinion
Church. So an element of ambiguity or
recognised as a blessing to be celebrated
of Bill Clinton’s relationship with Monica
haziness is unavoidable in the development
rather than a bane to be eliminated. But in
Lewinsky, and why Christianity (rather than
and explanation of national policy. But
many places there remains a lively perception
the Church of which Clinton was a member)
where does that leave Christianity as a
that Christianity is still manacled to Western
could tolerate such behaviour.
discrete religion with its own integrity?
bourgeois liberal culture and that it continues
CASE 6 Magazine-Single pages 3/11/04 5:24 PM Page 17
TOM FRAME 17
to be an ally of corporate capitalism and
coming in its wake. The bombing of churches
Islamic extremists are also hostile to the older
rampant consumerism. And because the
and places of Christian worship in Iraq for the
European states and to Western nations
imported popular culture in most countries
first time in sixteen months suggests that in the
elsewhere—such as Australia. Extremists and
originates predominantly from the United
minds of some, Christianity and the United
fanatics do not expect to change these societies
States—I am thinking here of sports, films,
States are synonymous. And in those countries
because even they realise this is futile. Instead,
fashion, music and fast food—there is an
that are ‘secular’ or just nominally Christian,
the aim is to inflict serious damage on them—
added dimension to the notion that
the Church’s entanglement with the State is
to hurt and harm them. Is this really a ‘clash
becoming a Christian means being American.
being reviewed. How a Christian applies his or
of civilisations’? Yes. It would appear to be.
We are dealing more with perceptions than
her religious principles to the responsibilities
And every time that American political
reality but the effects and outcomes remain.
of citizenship or the manner in which spiritual
leaders claim some divine mandate for their
For instance, this perception has an influence
convictions are expressed in the political realm
actions beyond the US’s borders, the more
on a nation’s attitude towards accepting
are by no means settled questions.
difficult it is for Christians wherever they are
humanitarian assistance, the imposition of
living in the world. Although the Muslim
travel restrictions, the existence of a free press
world is as divided and fractured by doctrinal
What is (and is not) Caesar’s?
dispute and organisational disagreement as
For the last three centuries religion has been
the Christian Church, a feature of many
Is this really a ‘clash
a declining factor in human affairs. It started
conflicts is for the belligerents to see a unity
in the 17th century, when after more than a
and a common cause in their adversary that
of civilisations’? Yes, it
hundred years of bloody religious war, the
does not exist. This appears to be happening
would appear to be.
leaders of Europe attempted to reduce and
at the present time in the Islamic world’s
contain the influence of religion in politics
confrontation with the United States. No one
and resorts to censorship, the composition
in the Treaty of Westphalia. In the following
is immune to its effects or safe from its
of parliament, the judiciary and the armed
century, Enlightenment thinkers exalted
consequences. This global confrontation has
forces, and a readiness to belong to
reason over faith as a source of human
contributed in some way I am sure to recent
multinational institutions or to participate
understanding. The 19th century saw
local sectarian violence in Australia.
in international programs.
increasing confidence that science would
Part of the answer is for religious groups
Some countries prefer, therefore, to be
dethrone religion while botany and
to be precise about what they believe and
closed and isolationist rather than open
astronomy would displace theology and
concise in their prohibitions of contrary
themselves and their citizens to Christianity
dogmatics. Humanity was moving into a
conduct. There is also a general need for
and the possibility of American influence
new phase of rationalism, pragmatism and
a long and close examination of the
hiding in its shadow or US interference
secularism. Marx denounced religion as the
interactions between religious groups and
‘opiate of the masses’ and Freud referred to
political authorities. This is not new. Indeed,
religious beliefs as mere ‘delusions’. But in
the question put to Jesus concerning the
the last quarter of the 20th century, that
payment of taxes was about this very matter.
trend was abruptly reversed in most parts of
We must work hard at determining what
the world other than in Western Europe and
does belong to God and what does belong
in countries like Australia, Canada and New
to Caesar, even as we commit ourselves to
Zealand. Elsewhere there has been religious
giving each their due. ©
resurgence and spiritual revival. As the
American sociologist Mark Juergensmeyer
This article was initially a paper given
observes, political leaders throughout the
at Quest, a venture of Green Square
world are now “striving for new forms of
Community Church in Sydney
national order based on religious values”. But
(www.greensquarechurch.org).
beware: once a conflict between individuals
and communities enters into the realm of
theological convictions and religious beliefs,
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it tends to become bitter, extreme and
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completely impervious to compromise.
It is clear that Osama bin Laden and
Study Guide from the
Al Qaeda have set themselves implacably
Associate Access section
Living by the sword? The Ethics of Armed
against the United States, its people, its
Intervention
of the CASE website!
religion and its culture in much the way that
Tom Frame
UNSW Press, Sydney, 2004. 278pp.
the Soviet Union did between 1945 and 1989.
