Atmosphere
2 1 0
STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT AND POLICY RETROSPECTIVE: 1972–2002
UNEP
, Angelo Dotto
, Italy
, Still P
ictures
Atmosphere
Global overview
The burning of fossil fuels and biomass is the most
significant source of air pollutants such as SO , CO,
2
Over the past three decades, anthropogenic emissions
certain nitrous oxides such as NO and NO (known
2
of chemical compounds into the atmosphere have
collectively as NO ), SPM, volatile organic compounds
x
caused many environmental and health problems.
(VOCs) and some heavy metals. It is also the major
Some chemicals, such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),
anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide (CO ), one of
2
are produced deliberately and end up in the
the important greenhouse gases. Between 1973 and
atmosphere by accident from equipment or goods.
1998, total energy supply increased by 57 per cent
Others, such as sulphur dioxide (SO ) and carbon
(see graph opposite), the majority provided by oil,
2
monoxide (CO), are unavoidable by-products of
natural gas and coal with nuclear and hydropower and
burning fossil fuels. Urban air pollution, acid rain,
other renewable resources playing a minor role (IEA
contamination by toxic chemicals (some of them
2000). The fuels used vary from region to region —
persistent and transported over long distances),
for example, natural gas dominates in the Russian
depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer and changes
Federation, while coal provides 73 per cent of the
in the global climatic system are all important
energy consumed in China (BP Amoco 2000). Biomass
environmental threats to ecosystems and human well-
is an important source of energy in the developing
being.
world and is the main source of indoor air pollution in
such countries (Holdren and Smith 2000).
Air pollution and air quality
Acid precipitation has been one of the most
The World Health Organization (WHO) lists six
important environmental concerns over the past
‘classic’ air pollutants: CO, lead, nitrogen dioxide
decades especially in Europe and North America
(NO ), suspended particulate matter (SPM) —
(Rodhe and others 1995), and more recently also in
2
including dust, fumes, mists and smoke — SO and
China (Seip and others 1999). Significant damage to
2
tropospheric ozone (O ) (WHO 1999).
forests in Europe became a high priority environmental
3
ATMOSPHERE
2 1 1
issue around 1980, while thousands of lakes in
Impacts associated with air pollution
Scandinavia lost fish populations due to acidification
Harmful substances emitted to the air affect both human health and ecosystems.
from the 1950s to the 1980s. In some parts of Europe,
Indoor and outdoor air pollution are estimated to be responsible for nearly 5 per cent
the anthropogenic SO emissions which lead to acid
2
of the global burden of disease. Air pollution aggravates and, possibly, even causes
precipitation have been reduced by nearly 70 per cent
asthma and other allergic respiratory diseases. Adverse pregnancy outcomes, such
from their maximum values (EEA 2001); there have
as stillbirth and low birth weight, have also been associated with air pollution
also been reductions of some 40 per cent in the United
(Holdren and Smith 2000). It has been estimated that in developing countries about
States (US EPA 2000). This has resulted in a
1.9 million people die annually due to exposure to high concentrations of SPM in
the indoor air environment of rural areas, while the excess mortality due to outdoor
significant recovery of the natural acid balance, at least
levels of SPM and SO amounts to about 500 000 people annually. Evidence is also
2
in Europe. On the contrary, as a result of the growing
emerging that particles with median aerodynamic diameter less than 2.5 µm
use of coal and other high sulphur fuels, increasing SO2
(PM
) affect human health significantly (WHO 1999).
2.5
emissions in the Asia and Pacific Region are a serious
Acid deposition is one of the causes of acidification of soil and water that results
environmental threat (UNEP 1999).
in declining fish stocks, decreasing diversity in acid-sensitive lakes and degradation
of forest and soil. Excessive nitrogen (as nitrate and/or ammonium) promotes
Air pollutant emissions have declined or stabilized
eutrophication, particularly in coastal areas. Acid rain damages ecosystems,
in most industrialized countries, largely as a result of
provokes defoliation, corrosion of monuments and historic buildings and reduces
abatement policies developed and implemented since
agricultural yields.
the 1970s. Initially governments tried to apply direct
control instruments but these were not always cost-
effective. In the 1980s, policies were directed more
(Holdren and Smith 2000). Lead emissions from
towards cost-effective pollution abatement
gasoline additives have now declined to zero in many
mechanisms that relied on a compromise between the
industrial countries (EEA 1999, US EPA 2000). In
cost of environmental protection measures and
developing countries, however, the sources of
economic growth. The Polluter Pays Principle has
emissions are more varied and include highly polluting
become a basic concept in environmental policy
planning.
World energy supply by fuel
Recent policy developments, at both national and
(million tonnes oil equivalent/year)
regional levels, are based on economic and regulatory
10 000
instruments, and technology improvement and
coal
nuclear
combustible renewables and waste
transfer to enhance emission reductions. In the
oil
hydro
8 000
international arena, one of the most important political
gas
developments has been the Convention on Long-
6 000
Range Transboundary Air Pollution (CLRTAP),
adopted in 1979. Through a series of protocols
4 000
establishing reduction objectives for the main air
pollutants, this treaty has catalysed European,
2 000
Canadian and US governments to implement national
emission abatement policies (ECE 1995). The most
0
recent protocol is the 1999 Protocol to Abate
Acidification, Eutrophication and Ground-Level Ozone
1971
1974
1977
1980
1983
1986
1989
1992
1995
1998
that sets up new reduction commitments for SO ,
power plants, heavy industry, vehicles and the
2
World energy
NO , VOCs and ammonia (NH ) (ECE 2000).
domestic combustion of coal, charcoal and biomass.
x
3
supply is still
Stricter environmental regulation in the
While the emission of pollutants can be significantly
dominated by the
fossil fuels —
industrialized countries has triggered the introduction
reduced for a small cost, few developing nations have
coal, oil and gas
of cleaner technology and technological improvements,
made even small investments in pollution reduction
Source: IEA 2000
especially in the power generation and transport
measures, even though the environmental and
sectors. In the latter, a significant reduction in harmful
population health benefits of such measures are
emissions has been achieved due to the improved
evident (Holdren and Smith 2000, World Bank 1997).
engine combustion cycle, increased fuel efficiency and
Though measurable progress in industrial emission
the widespread introduction of catalytic converters
abatement has been achieved at least by the developed
2 1 2
STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT AND POLICY RETROSPECTIVE: 1972–2002
countries, transport has become one of the major
Migration of persistent organic pollutants
sources of air pollution (particularly NO and many
x
carbon compounds) in many countries. High
high latitudes
global distillation
mid-latitudes
deposition > evaporation
with fractionation
seasonal cycling
concentrations of these compounds in urban air can,
according to
of deposition
global mobility
and evaporation
high mobility
under certain climatic conditions, result in
relatively
long-range
photochemical smog that severely affects human health.
high mobility
atmospheric
transport
In many urban centres and their surrounding areas,
long-range
relatively
high concentrations of tropospheric O are an additional
oceanic
low mobility
3
transport
degradation
problem. Anthropogenic tropospheric ozone may be
low mobility
low
and permanent
latitudes
retention
produced by reactions between NO and VOCs on
evaporation > deposition
x
warm sunny days, especially in urban and industrial
‘grasshopping’
areas and in regions prone to stagnant air masses. This
can have far-reaching implications since molecules of
O have been found to travel large distances (up to 800
3
Persistent organic pollutants spread via a variety of mechanisms at different
km) from emission sources (CEC 1997). Tropospheric
latitudes
O concentrations over large areas of Europe and some
Source: Wania and Mackay 1996
3
areas of North America are so high that not only is
human health threatened but vegetation is also affected.
For example, in the United States ground-level ozone
Stratospheric ozone depletion
has been estimated to cost more than US$500 million a
The protection of the Earth’s ozone layer has
year as a result of reductions in agricultural and
presented one of the major challenges over the past
commercial forest yields (US EPA 2000).
30 years, spanning the fields of environment, trade,
Urban air pollution is one of the most important
international cooperation and sustainable
environmental problems. In most European and North
development. The thinning of the ozone layer
American cities, the concentrations of SO and SPM
threatens human health through diseases such as skin
2
have decreased substantially in recent years (Fenger
cancer, eye cataracts and immune deficiency, affects
1999, US EPA 2000). However, in many developing
flora and fauna, and also influences the planet’s
countries, rapid urbanization has resulted in increasing
climate. Ozone depletion is brought about by a number
air pollution in many cities (Fenger 1999), WHO air
of chemicals known as ozone-depleting substances
quality guidelines are often not met and, in megacities
(ODS), the most notorious of which are the
such as Beijing, Calcutta, Mexico City and Rio de
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). In 1974, the results of
Janeiro, high levels of SPM prevail (World Bank 2001).
studies linking stratospheric ozone depletion to the
A final issue of global concern is that of persistent
release of chloride ions in the stratosphere from CFCs
organic pollutants (POPs). These substances are
were made publicly available (Molina and Rowland
known to decay slowly and they can be transported
1974). ODS are used in refrigerators, air conditioners,
over long distances through the atmosphere (see
aerosol spray, insulating and furniture foams, and fire-
illustration above). High concentrations of some POPs
fighting equipment, and their production peaked in the
are found in polar areas (Schindler 1999, Masclet and
late 1980s as the demand for such goods grew (see
others 2000, Espeland and others 1997) with
graph on page 213).
potentially serious regional environmental impacts.
The depletion of the Earth’s ozone layer has now
These compounds can also accumulate in animal fats,
reached record levels, especially in the Antarctic and
representing a health risk. The Stockholm Convention
recently also in the Arctic. In September 2000, the
on Persistent Organic Pollutants, adopted in May
Antarctic ozone hole covered more than 28 million
2001, sets out control measures covering handling of
square kilometres (WMO 2000, NASA 2001). Current
pesticides, industrial chemicals and unintended by-
average ozone losses are 6 per cent in the northern
products. The control provisions call for eliminating
mid-latitudes in winter and spring, 5 per cent in
the production and use of intentionally produced
southern mid-latitudes all year round, 50 per cent in
POPs, and eliminating unintentionally produced POPs
the Antarctic spring and 15 per cent in the Arctic
where feasible (UNEP 2001).
spring. The resulting increases in harmful ultraviolet
ATMOSPHERE
2 1 3
These initiatives, though useful, provided only a
World production of major chlorofluorocarbons
(tonnes/year)
temporary respite. After falling for several years, CFC
consumption began increasing again in the 1980s, as
1 200 000
CFC-113
non-aerosol uses, such as foam blowing, solvents and
CFC-12
refrigeration, increased. Stricter control measures
1 000 000
CFC-11
were needed and UNEP and several developed
countries took the lead, calling for a global treaty on
800 000
stratospheric ozone layer protection (Benedick 1998).
The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the
600 000
Ozone Layer was finally agreed by 28 countries in
March 1985. It encouraged international cooperation
on research, systematic observation of the ozone
400 000
layer, monitoring of ODS production, and the exchange
of information. In September 1987, 46 countries
200 000
adopted the Montreal Protocol on Substances that
Deplete the Ozone Layer (by December 2001, 182
0
parties had ratified the Vienna Convention and 181 the
1970 1973 1976 1979 1982 1985 1988 1991 1994 1997 1999
Montreal Protocol).
World production of the three major CFCs peaked in about 1988 and has
The original Protocol required only a 50 per cent
since declined to very low values
cut in consumption of five widely used CFCs by
Source: AFEAS 2001
December 1999, and a freeze in the consumption of
three halons. Regular scientific assessments were the
The ozone hole
reached a record
irradiation amount to 7 per cent, 6 per cent, 130 per
basis for subsequent amendments and adjustments
size in
September 2000
cent and 22 per cent respectively (UNEP 2000a).
made to the Protocol in London (1990), Copenhagen
— 28.3 million
However, due to continuous efforts by the
(1992), Vienna (1995), Montreal (1997) and Beijing
km2, three times
the size of the
international community, the global consumption of
(1999). By the year 2000, 96 chemicals were subject
United States.
Dark blue areas
ODS has decreased markedly and the ozone layer is
to control (Sabogal 2000).
denote high
predicted to start recovering in the next one or two
Most ODS — including all the substances specified
levels of ozone
depletion
decades and to return to a pre-1980 level by the
in the original Protocol — were phased out in
middle of the 21st century if all the future control
industrialized countries by the end of 1995. The
Source: NASA 2001
measures of the Montreal Protocol are adhered to by
all countries (UNEP 2000a).
The Antarctic ozone hole breaks a new record
International cooperation has been the key to
reprinted with permission from P
protecting the stratospheric ozone layer. Nations
agreed in principle to tackle a global problem before
its effects became evident or its existence
scientifically proven — probably the first example of
acceptance of the precautionary approach (UNEP
2000a).
aul A. Newman
International action began in earnest in 1975 when
the UNEP Governing Council called for a meeting to
coordinate activities on protecting the ozone layer. A
Coordinating Committee on the Ozone Layer was
established the following year to undertake an annual
scientific review. In 1977, the United States banned
use of CFCs in non-essential aerosols. Canada,
Norway and Sweden soon enacted similar control
measures. The European Community (EC) froze
production capacity and began to limit use of aerosols.
2 1 4
STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT AND POLICY RETROSPECTIVE: 1972–2002
Protocol provides a 10-year grace period for
atmosphere has increased significantly (see graph left,
developing countries and the financial mechanism (the
which reflects growth since direct measurements
Multilateral Fund to the Montreal Protocol) to meet
started in 1957). This has contributed to the enhanced
the costs to these countries of phasing out ODS, thus
greenhouse effect known as ‘global warming’.
realizing the principle of common but differentiated
The CO concentration in the atmosphere is
2
responsibility. By 2000, the Multilateral Fund had
currently about 370 parts per million (ppm) — an
disbursed more than US$1.1 billion for capacity
increase of more than 30 per cent since 1750. The
building and projects to phase out ODS in 114
increase is largely due to anthropogenic emissions of
developing countries.
CO from fossil fuel combustion and to a lesser extent
2
Almost every party to the Montreal Protocol has
land-use change, cement production and biomass
now taken measures to phase out ODS with the result
combustion (IPCC 2001a). Although CO accounts for
2
that, by 2000, the total consumption of ODS had been
more than 60 per cent of the additional greenhouse
reduced by 85 per cent (UNEP 2000b).
effect accumulated since industrialization, the
concentrations of other greenhouse gases such as
methane (CH ), nitrous oxide (N O), halocarbons and
4
2
Carbon dioxide concentrations at Mauna Loa, Hawaii
halons have also increased. In comparison to CO ,
2
(parts per million by volume)
CH and N O have contributed about 20 per cent and
4
2
380
6–7 per cent respectively to the additional greenhouse
370
effect. Halocarbons have contributed about 14 per
cent. Many of these chemicals are regulated under the
360
Montreal Protocol (see above). However, those which
350
have negligible ozone-depleting potential are not
340
controlled under the Montreal Protocol. Although they
have accounted for less than 1 per cent of the
330
additional greenhouse effect since industrialization,
320
their concentrations in the atmosphere are increasing
310
(IPCC 2001a).
300
Greenhouse gas emissions are unevenly
1959 1961 1963 1965 1967 1969 1971 1973 1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001
distributed between countries and regions. In general,
industrialized countries are responsible for the
majority of historical and current emissions. OECD
Records from
Greenhouse gases and climate change
countries contributed more than half of CO emissions
2
Mauna Loa,
Hawaii, show
Scientists have known about the natural ‘greenhouse
in 1998, with an average per capita emission of about
how CO2
effect’ for more than a century (Arrhenius 1896): the
three times the world average. However the OECD’s
concentrations
have increased
Earth maintains its equilibrium temperature through a
share of global CO emissions has decreased by 11 per
2
— the increase is
largely due to
delicate balance between the incoming solar energy
cent since 1973 (IEA 2000).
anthropogenic
(short wavelength radiation) it absorbs and the
In assessing the possible impact of rising
emissions that
result from
outgoing infra-red energy (long wavelength radiation)
atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases,
burning fossil
that it emits and some of which escapes into space.
IPCC concluded in 2001 that ‘there is new and
fuel
Greenhouse gases (water vapour, carbon dioxide,
stronger evidence that most of the warming observed
Source: Keeling and
Whorf 2001
methane and others) allow solar radiation to pass
over the last 50 years is attributable to human
through the Earth’s atmosphere almost unimpeded but
activities’. The overall warming amounts to about 0.6
they absorb the infra-red radiation from the Earth’s
(±0.2)°C over the 20th century; the 1990s are ‘very
surface and then re-radiate some of it back to the
likely’ to have been the warmest decade and the year
Earth. This natural greenhouse effect keeps the
1998 the warmest year in the instrumental record,
surface temperature about 33°C warmer than it would
since 1861. Much of the rise in sea level over the past
otherwise be — warm enough to sustain life.
100 years (about 10 to 20 cm) has probably been
Since the industrial revolution, the concentration
related to the concurrent rise in the global
of CO , one of the major greenhouse gases, in the
temperature (IPCC 2001a).
2
ATMOSPHERE
2 1 5
Ecosystems, human health and economy are all
emissions of greenhouse gases to 1990 levels
sensitive to changes in climate — including both the
(UNFCCC 2001). In general, global emissions of
magnitude and rate of climate change. Whereas many
almost all anthropogenic greenhouse gases,
regions are likely to experience adverse effects of
particularly CO , continue to increase (IEA 2000).
2
climate change — some of which are potentially
This reflects the inadequacy of national and
irreversible — some effects could be beneficial for
international policies and measures to address climate
some regions. Climate change represents an important
change.
additional stress on those ecosystems already affected
In its Second Assessment Report, the IPCC stated
by increasing resource demands, unsustainable
that the ‘balance of evidence suggests that there is a
management practices and pollution.
discernible human influence on global climate’ (IPCC
Some of the first results of the changing climate
1996). This unequivocal statement provided the
can serve as indicators. Several vulnerable
scientific basis for the adoption of the Kyoto Protocol
ecosystems such as coral reefs are seriously
endangered by increased sea temperature (IPCC
Carbon dioxide emissions by region, 1998
2001b) and some populations of migratory birds have
(million tonnes carbon/year)
been declining because of unfavourable variations in
World total 6 234
climatic conditions (Sillett, Holmes and Sherry 2000).
Climate change is furthermore likely to affect human
health and well-being through a variety of
Asia and the Pacific 2 167
mechanisms. For example, it can adversely affect the
availability of freshwater, food production, and the
distribution and seasonal transmission of vector-borne
Europe 1 677
infectious diseases such as malaria, dengue fever and
schistosomiasis. The additional stress of climate
change will interact in different ways across regions. It
North America 1 614
can be expected to reduce the ability of some
environmental systems to provide, on a sustained
Latin America and the Caribbean 365
basis, key goods and services needed for successful
Africa 223
economic and social development, including adequate
West Asia 187
food, clean air and water, energy, safe shelter and low
levels of diseases (IPCC 2001b).
to the UNFCCC in December 1997. The protocol
Anthropogenic
greenhouse gas
The United Nations Framework Convention on
contains, for the first time, greenhouse gas reduction
emissions are
Climate Change (UNFCCC) adopted at UNCED in
targets for most industrialized countries. The targets,
unevenly
distributed
1992 (see Chapter 1) has the ultimate objective of
however, range from an obligation to reduce emissions
between regions
— most
‘stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the
by 8 per cent (for the European Union and many
emissions come
atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous
Central European countries) to a permission to
from
industrialized
anthropogenic interference with the climate system’
increase emissions by 10 per cent (Iceland) and 8 per
regions. Figures
include emissions
(UNFCCC 1992). The Convention further defines
cent (Australia). Overall, industrialized countries are
from fuel
several principles of fundamental importance, for
required to reduce their aggregated emissions to at
consumption, gas
flaring and
example that parties should take precautionary
least 5 per cent below the 1990 level in the period
cement
measures and act ‘on the basis of equity and in
2008–12. No new obligations were introduced for
production
accordance with their common but differentiated
developing countries. The Kyoto Protocol also allows
Source: compiled
from Marland,
responsibilities’. Being a framework treaty, the
collective implementation of obligations by means of
Boden and Andres
UNFCCC contained only a non-binding
applying the so-called ‘Kyoto mechanisms’. These
2001
recommendation for industrialized countries to return
mechanisms aim at providing ‘geographical flexibility’
to the 1990 emission levels of CO and other
and reducing the costs of complying with the Kyoto
2
greenhouse gases (not controlled by the Montreal
targets. For example, one of them — the Clean
Protocol) by the year 2000 (UNFCCC 1992). However,
Development Mechanism — allows industrialized
most of them have not returned anthropogenic
countries to receive emission credits for carrying out
2 1 6
STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT AND POLICY RETROSPECTIVE: 1972–2002
projects aimed at reducing emissions of greenhouse
flawed’, as it would damage the US economy and it
gases in developing countries (UNFCCC 1997).
exempted developing countries from fully participating
The cost estimates for industrialized countries to
(Coon 2001). This decision meant that the United
implement the Kyoto Protocol range between 0.1 and 2
States — a major emitter of CO —would not ratify
2
per cent of GDP in 2010 (IPCC 2001c) with most
the Kyoto Protocol.
impact being felt by the economies most dependent on
The Kyoto Protocol would never have come into
fossil fuels. In view of anticipated economic losses,
force if other developed countries had adopted the same
some industrialized nations have prejudiced the Kyoto
position. However, at the resumed 6th Conference of
commitments and the Kyoto Protocol as a whole.
the Parties (COP-6 Part II) in Bonn, Germany, in July
Debates on rules and modalities of the implementation
2001, the parties (except the United States)
of the protocol continued until the 6th Conference of
successfully completed negotiations aimed at setting the
the Parties to the UNFCCC held in November 2000 in
operational details for commitments on reducing
The Hague. As negotiating parties still failed to reach
emissions of greenhouse gases. They also reached
agreement on actions to strengthen implementation of
the UNFCCC itself. The political decision — or Bonn
The background to international cooperation on climate change
Agreement — was formally adopted by the COP on 25
Scientists began to attract policy-makers’ attention to global warming as an
July 2001. Many saw it as an ‘historic’ political
emerging global threat in the early 1970s (SCEP 1970). However their appeals
agreement that saved the Kyoto Protocol and paved the
were originally ignored and, as economies grew, more fossil fuels were burnt, more
way to its ratification, though it was clearly recognized
forested areas were cleared for agriculture and more halocarbons were produced. It
took a further 20 years of continuous effort by scientists, NGOs, international
that this was just a small step towards solving the global
organizations and several governments to get the international community to agree
problem. Discussions also resulted in a Political
to coordinated action to address climate change.
Declaration by the European Union, Canada, Iceland,
The Stockholm Conference is generally regarded as the starting point for
Norway, New Zealand and Switzerland on funding for
international efforts on climate variations and climate change (UN 1972). In 1979,
developing countries. This Declaration includes an
the first World Climate Conference in Geneva expressed concern about the
atmospheric commons. This event was attended primarily by scientists and received
undertaking to provide an annual contribution of
little attention from policy-makers. In the 1980s, a series of conferences and
US$410 million by 2005 (IISD 2001a).
workshops were held in Villach, Austria, where scenarios for future emissions of all
Shortly after COP-6 Part II, the climate change
of the significant greenhouse gases were considered. At the 1985 Villach meeting,
negotiators in Marrakesh (COP-7 held October-
an international group of scientific experts reached a consensus on the seriousness
November 2001) finalized outstanding issues related to
of the problem and the danger of significant warming (WMO 1986).
the political deal concluded in Bonn such as a
As a result of growing public pressure and the implications of the Brundtland
Commission (WCED 1987), the problem of global climate change moved onto the
compliance system, the ‘Kyoto mechanisms’,
political agenda of several governments. A diplomatic breakthrough came at the
accounting, reporting and review of information under
1988 Toronto Conference on the Changing Atmosphere from which emerged a
the Kyoto Protocol, and others (the so-called
recommendation calling on developed nations to reduce CO emissions by 20 per
2
‘Marrakesh Accords’). The agreement reached in
cent from 1988 levels by the year 2005. A few months later, IPCC was jointly
Marrakesh not only allows for ratification of the Kyoto
established by WMO and UNEP to review knowledge of the science, impact,
economics of, and the options for mitigating and/or adapting to climate change. The
Protocol in the near future but also will serve as the
IPCC studies, especially the three extensive Assessment Reports in 1990, 1995 and
foundation for a comprehensive, multilateral approach
2001, covered all the different facets of climate change.
that will and must continue beyond this Protocol (IISD
2001b).
Meeting the Kyoto targets will be just a first step
consensus, the conference was suspended and parties
in coping with the problem of climate change because
decided to resume negotiations in 2001. The pivotal
it will have a marginal effect on the greenhouse gas
point in the global discussion occurred in March 2001
concentration in the atmosphere. Even if, in the long
when the US government decided not to introduce any
term, a stabilization of atmospheric greenhouse gas
legal restrictions, as implied by the Kyoto Protocol, on
concentrations is achieved, warming will continue for
anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases. The US
several decades, and sea levels will continue to rise for
administration thus declared its opposition to the
centuries with serious consequences for millions of
Protocol, stating that it believed it to be ‘fatally
people (IPCC 2001a, b).
ATMOSPHERE
2 1 7
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Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental
UNEP (2000b). Report of the Twelfth Meeting of
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Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, United
Kingdom, and New York, United States,
the Parties to the Montreal Protocol. UNEP Ozone
Coon, C.E. (2001). Why President Bush is Right
Cambridge University Press
Secretariat
to Abandon the Kyoto Protocol. The Heritage
http://www.unep.org/ozone/12mop-9.shtml [Geo-
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Keeling, C.D. and Whorf, T.P. (2001). Atmospheric
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The Heritage Foundation
CO records from sites in the SIO air sampling
2
UNEP (2001). Text of the Stockholm Convention
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Marland, G., Boden, T.A. and Andres, R.J. (2001).
Global, Regional, and National Fossil Fuel CO
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Emissions. US Department of Energy, Carbon
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2 1 8
STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT AND POLICY RETROSPECTIVE: 1972–2002
Atmosphere: Africa
vehicles, are additional causes of concern. Vehicle
emissions are the major source of lead contamination,
The African continent is climatically diverse. Humid
and contribute to dust, noise and smoke pollution.
tropical conditions prevail in Western and Central
Policies are in place in Algeria, Mauritius and Morocco
Africa and in the Western Indian Ocean islands; most
to encourage conversion to newer, less polluting
Southern African countries experience arid and semi-
vehicles (Government of Mauritius 1990), and
arid conditions, while semi-deserts and deserts are
unleaded petrol has been promoted or even subsidized
features of Northern Africa. The region experiences a
in Egypt, South Africa and Tunisia (World Bank
high degree of variability and uncertainty in climatic
2001a). Industrial processes are also significant
conditions. Climate variability is therefore the single
sources of atmospheric pollution, especially in large
most important atmospheric phenomenon in Africa.
urban centres where the pollutants sometimes
In comparison to other regions, African countries
combine to create atmospheric smog.
emit negligible amounts of air pollutants and
In Northern Africa, the Western Indian Ocean
anthropogenic greenhouse gases. For example, Africa
islands, Southern Africa and some large cities (such as
contributes less than 3.5 per cent of global emissions
Lagos), the incidence of respiratory disease is
of CO (Marland, Boden and Andres 2001).
increasing, reflecting a deterioration of air quality. The
2
Nevertheless, anthropogenic atmospheric pollution is
main causes are the indoor burning of coal, wood,
a problem in Northern and Southern Africa, and in
kerosene (paraffin), dung and refuse for household
some large cities.
needs, and vehicular and industrial emissions. In sub-
Saharan Africa, traditional fuels accounted for 63.5 per
cent of total energy use in 1997 (World Bank 2001b).
Climate variability in Africa
Many countries have prepared National
In the past 30 years, Africa has experienced at least one major drought episode in
Environmental Action Plans (NEAPs) or National
each decade. In Eastern Africa there were serious droughts in 1973-74, 1984-85,
Strategies for Sustainable Development (NSSDs)
1987, 1992–94 and in 1999-2000 (DMC 2000). The last Sahelian drought
which address, among other things, sources and
persisted for a decade, from 1972-73 to 1983-84. Severe droughts were recorded
in Southern Africa in 1967 to 1973, 1982-83, 1986-87, 1991-92 and 1993-94
impacts of atmospheric pollution. Ghana, Kenya, South
(Chenje and Johnson 1994).
Africa, Uganda and Zambia are among those that have
The Western Indian Ocean islands are subject to tropical storms on average ten
introduced legislation making Environmental Impact
times a year during November to May. The El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO),
Assessments (EIAs) compulsory for developments
which affects much of Africa, has been associated with more frequent, persistent
such as roads, mines and industrial operations with
and intense warm phases over the past 30 years (IPCC 2001a). The 1997-98
ENSO event triggered higher sea surface temperatures in the southwest Indian
potentially high atmospheric emissions (Government
Ocean, and flooding and landslides across most of Eastern Africa (Ogallo 2001).
of Ghana 1994, Government of Kenya 1999, Republic
of South Africa 1989, Government of Uganda 1995,
Government of Zambia 1990).
Air quality
South Africa contributed 42 per cent of the total
Climatic variability and
regional emissions of CO in 1998 (Marland, Boden
vulnerability to climate change
2
and Andres 2001); some Northern African countries,
Climatic variability and associated floods and droughts
where total energy consumption increased by 44 per
result in increased risks of crop failure and therefore
cent from 1980 to 1998 (OAPEC 1999), also contribute
reduced food security, as well as higher incidences of
significantly. Subsidizing electricity production,
malnutrition and disease. In Ethiopia, for example, the
promoting industrial development economic strategies
1984 drought affected 8.7 million people, 1 million
and increased consumption have contributed to rising
people died and millions more suffered from
emissions in some areas. For example, in Mauritius
malnutrition and famine. This drought also caused the
total energy consumption doubled between 1990 and
death of nearly 1.5 million livestock (FAO 2000). The
1998, and CO emissions rose 23 per cent from 1991
1991-92 drought in Southern Africa caused a 54 per
2
to 1995 (UNCHS 1996).
cent reduction in cereal harvest and exposed more
A rapid increase in the number of private cars, and
than 17 million people to the risk of starvation
the poor condition of many commercial and private
(Calliham, Eriksen and Herrick 1994). More than
ATMOSPHERE
2 1 9
100 000 people died in the Sahelian drought of the
could spread to new areas such as parts of eastern
1970s and 1980s (Wijkman and Timberlake 1984).
Namibia and northern South Africa (WWF 1996).
Crop failure and livestock losses lead to increased
The region’s ability to adapt to climate change will
dependence on imports and foreign aid, reducing
depend on several factors, including population growth
economic performance and the ability to cope with
and consumption patterns, which will affect demand
future environmental disasters.
for food and water, and the location of populations and
In 1997 and 1998, parts of Eastern Africa suffered
infrastructure in relation to vulnerable coastal areas,
from high rainfall and flooding due to ENSO
which will determine economic losses due to sea level
disturbances, and in 1999 and 2000 Southern Africa
rise. Many countries will need to change their
and the Western Indian Ocean islands experienced
devastating cyclones and floods. Flood water is an
Carbon dioxide emissions per capita: Africa
ideal habitat for bacteria and mosquitoes. In Uganda,
(tonnes carbon per capita/year)
the ENSO-induced floods of 1997-98 caused more than
0.9
500 deaths from cholera, and a further 11 000 people
0.8
were hospitalized (NEMA 1999).
0.7
The sea temperature rise of 1.0–1.5°C due to the
0.6
ENSO disturbances is thought to have resulted in
0.5
0.4
bleaching of up to 30 per cent of the coral in Comoros,
0.3
80 per cent in Seychelles (PRE/COI 1998), and 90 per
0.2
cent in Kenya and Tanzania (Obura and others 2000).
0.1
The region’s vulnerability to natural disasters is
0.0
compounded by the anticipated impacts of global
1972
1974
1976
1978
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
climate change. According to IPCC, Africa is the most
All Africa
Central Africa
Western Africa
Eastern Africa
vulnerable region in terms of predicted decreases in
Northern Africa
Southern Africa
Western Indian Ocean
water and food security, because widespread poverty
limits adaptive capacity (IPCC 1998). Changes in
agricultural practices, particularly to reduce
Africa contributes
rainfall could also have serious consequences for those
dependency on rainfed agriculture, and to avoid
less than 3.5 per
cent of global
parts of Africa that depend on hydroelectricity.
cultivation in marginal areas. Rural communities that
emissions of
CO ; Northern
The anticipated sea level rise resulting from global
currently depend on biomass for energy may be forced
2
and Southern
climate change may threaten many coastal settlements
to seek alternative sources if climate change brings
Africa are
responsible for
and islands including the Western Indian Ocean
about changes to vegetation type and distribution.
more than 80 per
islands. The extent of sea level rise is still uncertain
cent of the
region’s
but the latest IPCC (2001a) estimates are in the range
Policy issues
emissions
10–94 cm by the year 2100. Even if anthropogenic
Almost all African countries have ratified the
Source: compiled
greenhouse gas emissions were stabilized immediately,
UNFCCC and many are in favour of the Kyoto
from Marland,
Boden and Andres
sea level would continue to rise for many years. IPCC
Protocol. African countries stand to benefit from
2001
also predicts that the intensity of cyclones, rain and
mechanisms of international cooperation proposed
wind will probably increase (IPCC 2001a), and the
under the Protocol. Countries that are rich in natural
cyclone zone in the Western Indian Ocean could
forests (as in Western and Central Africa) may also
expand to include Seychelles (UNEP 1999).
enter into emissions reduction transfer agreements
Changes to rainfall and temperature patterns could
with industrialized countries, contributing to their own
also alter biodiversity, with many species not being
economies and assisting development. On the whole,
able to adapt or migrate to more suitable areas. WWF
African countries have an interest in a decision on
forecasts that an anticipated 5 per cent decrease in
mechanisms that ensures they facilitate sustainable
rainfall in Southern Africa will affect grazing species
development in Africa, produce gains in the climate
such as hartebeest, wildebeest and zebra, threatening
system, contribute towards Africa’s adaptation to
wildlife in the Kruger National Park, South Africa, the
climate change and result in projects that accelerate
Okavango delta in Botswana and Hwange National
socio-economic growth (IISD 2000). Algeria, Cape
Park in Zimbabwe. There are also fears that malaria
Verde, Côte d’Ivoire, Egypt, Ghana, Lesotho, Mali,
2 2 0
STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT AND POLICY RETROSPECTIVE: 1972–2002
Mauritius, Niger, Senegal, Seychelles and Zimbabwe
to the changes in the environment. Mitigation and
have all produced National Communications to the
adaptation mechanisms need to be developed to cope
UNFCCC (UNFCCC 2001), giving detailed inventories
with the impacts of changes in weather patterns and
of emissions as well as sinks. South Africa emits the
intensified droughts and floods associated with El
most carbon in Africa but, being classified as a
Niño events (IPCC 2001b). On the other hand, African
developing country, is not formally required to control
countries may contribute to the implementation of the
emissions of greenhouse gases. However, a National
UNFCCC and Kyoto Protocol by adopting energy
Committee on Climate Change has been established to
efficient and renewable energy technologies. The
oversee research, communication and the
Kyoto mechanisms and international institutions to be
development of policy on climate change.
created to realize these mechanisms provide for active
In both Northern and Southern Africa, options for
participation of African countries. Failure to realize the
further exploitation of alternative sources of energy
potentialities of the Kyoto Protocol may result in
(such as solar, wind, small-scale hydropower and
further exposure to the adverse effects of climate
biomass) are being explored. Such initiatives are likely to
change (IISD 2000). Localized indoor and outdoor
be most successful in remote areas, where connections
pollution must be controlled and abated through the
to centralized power sources are expensive, and
introduction of cleaner industrial processes, improved
electricity demand is for domestic use only.
transport systems and waste management. For
One of the main challenges for most African
example, a waste management strategy that envisages
countries with regard to climatic and atmospheric
reducing illegal dumping and burning of solid waste
changes is the need to adapt development processes
has been developed in South Africa (DEAT 1998).
References: Chapter 2, atmosphere, Africa
Calliham, D.M., Eriksen, J.H. and Herrick, A.B.
IPCC (1998). The Regional Impacts of Climate
Ogallo, L. A. (2001). Unusual floods and
(1994). Famine Averted: The United States
Change: An Assessment of Vulnerability.
droughts in East Africa. World Climate News.
Government Response to the 1991/92 Southern
Cambridge, United Kingdom, Cambridge
June 2001, 19, 3-4
Africa Drought: Evaluation Synthesis Report.
University Press
PRE/COI (1998). Rapport Régional sur les
Washington DC, Management Systems
IPCC (2001a). Climate Change 2001: The
International
Récifs. Quatre Bornes, Mauritius, Programme
Scientific Basis. Contribution of Working Group I
Régional Environment, Commission de l’Ocean
Chenje, M. and Johnson, P. (eds. 1994). State of
to the Third Assessment Report of the
Indien
the Environment in Southern Africa. Maseru and
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
Harare, SADC, IUCN and SARDC
Cambridge, United Kingdom, and New York,
Republic of South Africa (1989). Environment
Conservation Act. Act No. 73 of 1989, Pretoria
DEAT (1998). Strategy for Integrated Pollution
United States, Cambridge University Press
Control and Waste Management. Pretoria, South
IPCC (2001b). Climate Change 2001: Impacts,
UNCHS (1996). An Urbanizing World: Global
Africa, Department of Environmental Affairs and
Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of
Report on Human Settlements 1996. Nairobi,
Tourism of the South African Government
Working Group II to the Third Assessment Report
United Nations Centre for Human Settlements
DMC (2000). DEKAD 19 Report (1-10 July,
of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
(HABITAT)
2000). Ten-Day Bulletin. Nairobi, Drought
Change. Cambridge, United Kingdom, and New
UNEP (1999). Western Indian Ocean
Monitoring Centre
York, United States, Cambridge University Press
Environment Outlook. Nairobi, United Nations
FAO (2000). Agricultural Development and
Marland, G., Boden, T.A. and Andres, R.J.
Environment Programme
Related Aspects in the Horn of Africa. ACC Inter-
(2001). Global, Regional, and National Fossil
UNFCCC (2001). Table of National
Agency Task Force on the UN Response to Long
Fuel CO Emissions. US Department of Energy,
2
Communications. UNFCCC Secretariat
Term Food Security. Rome, UN Food and
Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center
Agriculture Organization
http://www.unfccc.de/resource/natcom/nctable.ht
http://cdiac.esd.ornl.gov/trends/emis/tre_afr.htm
ml [Geo-2-003]
Government of Ghana (1994). Environmental
[Geo-2-001]
Protection Agency Act, 1994. Accra
NEMA (1999). State of the Environment Report
Wijkman, A. and Timberlake, L. (1984). Natural
Disasters: Acts of God or Acts of Man? London,
Government of Kenya (1999). Environment
for Uganda. Kampala, National Environment
Earthscan
Management and Coordination Act 1999. Nairobi
Management Authority
Government of Mauritius (1990). National
OAPEC (1999). Annual Statistical Report 1999.
World Bank (2001a). Middle East and North
Environmental Action Plan for Mauritius. Ministry
Kuwait, Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting
Africa Region Environment Strategy Update.
of Environment, Port-Louis
Countries
Washington DC, World Bank
Government of Uganda (1995). National
http://www.oapecorg.org/images/A%20S%20R%2
World Bank (2001b). World Development
Environment Statute. Statute No 4, Kampala
01999.pdf [Geo-2-002]
Indicators 2001. Washington DC, World Bank
Government of Zambia (1990). Environmental
Obura, D., Suleiman, M., Motta, H. and Schleyer,
http://www.worldbank.org/data/wdi2001/pdfs/tab
Protection and Pollution Control Act 1990. Act
M. (2000). Status of Coral Reefs in East Africa:
3_8.pdf [Geo-2-024]
No. 12 of 1990. Lusaka
Kenya, Mozambique, South Africa and Tanzania.
WWF (1996). Climate Change and Southern
IISD (2000). Climate Change Capacity
In C. Wilkinson (ed.), Status of Coral Reefs of the
Africa. Summary. World Wide Fund for Nature
Project–Africa. Report of the Workshop July 17-
World: 2000. Townsville, Australia, Australian
http://www.panda.org/resources/publications/clima
21, 2000 Dakar, Senegal. International Institute
Institute of Marine Science and Global Coral Reef
te/Africa_Issue/africa.htm [Geo-2-004]
for Sustainable Development, Winnipeg, Canada
Monitoring Network
http://iisd.ca/climate/cccp_africa.htm [Geo-2-153]
ATMOSPHERE
2 2 1
Atmosphere: Asia and the Pacific
Urban air pollution in Asia
The air in Asia’s cities is amongst the most polluted in the world. Of the 15 cities in
A serious environmental issue in the Asia and Pacific
the world with the highest levels of particulate matter, 12 are located in Asia (ADB
region is the rapid degradation of the quality of air.
1999). Furthermore, six of these cities also have the highest levels of atmospheric
Depletion of the ozone layer and the consequences of
SO . Levels of air pollution substantially exceed the international guidelines for air
2
global climate change are also serious.
quality recommended by WHO. Cities such as Beijing, Calcutta, Jakarta, New Delhi,
Shanghai and Tehran are notorious for high levels of suspended particulates, with
Air quality
New Delhi recording the maximum of 420 µg/m3 (ESCAP/ADB 2000 and ADB
2001). Tehran has also recorded SO levels four times the guidelines prescribed by
Air pollution levels in the most populated cities are
2
WHO (World Bank 2001).
amongst the highest in the world, producing serious
human health impacts and affecting aquatic and
Asian and parts of the South Pacific sub-regions,
terrestrial ecosystems. Transport is a significant, often
concern over the environment began to create a
major, source of urban air pollution. The other sources
demand for improved environmental protection in the
include industrial emissions, burning of solid and liquid
1980s. The 1990s have seen significant progress in
fuels for power generation, and burning of biomass and
establishing the institutions and policy tools needed to
other fuels such as charcoal for household use. In a few
address urgent environmental problems. However,
cities, pollution levels have decreased. For example, in
continuous growth in energy consumption and reliance
Japan, high fuel prices, technological advances and
on fuels such as coal and oil with a relatively high
strict standards have reduced SO and particulate
carbon content will inevitably increase emissions
2
emissions, and eliminated lead emissions from
unless more aggressive policies are introduced.
transport. However, NO emissions in Tokyo and
Indoor air pollution is often a more severe health
x
Osaka have not declined sufficiently because of an
hazard than outdoor air pollution. Most rural
increasing number of vehicles. This situation is
inhabitants in the region use twigs, grass, dried animal
common in cities with growing levels of private
dung, crop residues, wood, charcoal and kerosene as
transport (UN-ESCAP/ADB 2000).
household fuels. Coupled with inadequate ventilation,
Traffic has become a major air polluter in the big
this results in highly contaminated indoor air. Given
cities, although most Asian countries have low per
the high levels of harmful emissions and the number
capita vehicle ownership in comparison to the world
of people using traditional cooking fuels — Asia
average (World Bank 2000). However, the motorized
produces nearly half of the world’s woodfuel
fleet (see bar chart) has been growing rapidly; for
(FAOSTAT 2001) — the scale of exposure is large.
example, the number of private motor vehicles in Sri
Health effects include acute respiratory infection in
Lanka doubled during 1975–92 (Government of Sri
children, chronic obstructive lung disease, adverse
Lanka 1994) and in India the number of cars has been
pregnancy outcomes and lung cancer in women. Acute
doubling every seven years for the past 30 years
respiratory diseases are prevalent in the rural and/or
(ADB 1999). This fact, combined with poor roads, fuel
hilly areas of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India,
quality and vehicle maintenance, makes vehicular air
Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka where indoor air
pollution an alarming issue.
Many countries have developed their own air
Passenger vehicles/1 000 people (1996)
quality standards for principal pollutants as well as
500
Despite the
emission standards for power plants, selected
479
world average
heavy air
industries and vehicles. To reduce pollution, many
pollution in Asia’s
400
cities, the
countries have introduced unleaded petrol, mandatory
number of
vehicles per
catalytic converters and low sulphur motor fuels.
300
capita is well
Alternative technologies such as electric vehicles and
below the global
200
average in all
compressed natural gas operated vehicles are also being
sub-regions
considered, especially in India and the Islamic Republic
100
except Australia
44
41
and New Zealand
of Iran. Tax incentives for gas or battery operated
5
20
12
26
0
Source: World Bank
vehicles have been introduced in Nepal and Pakistan.
Australia Central Northwest South Southeast South
regional
2000
and New
Asia Pacific and
Asia
Asia
Pacific average
Except for developed countries of the Northeast
Zealand
East Asia
2 2 2
STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT AND POLICY RETROSPECTIVE: 1972–2002
pollution is high. About 40 per cent of the global
of China and India’s overwhelming dependence on coal.
infantile mortality caused by pneumonia occurs in
Around 0.28 million ha of forest land are reported to be
Bangladesh, India, Indonesia and Nepal; many of these
damaged by acid rain in the Sichuan basin of China.
deaths are caused by pollutants from burning
SO emissions in Asia are estimated to have increased
2
traditional fuels (ADB 2001). In India, household solid
from about 26.6 to about 39.2 million tonnes during
fuel use is estimated to cause about 500 000
1985–1997 (Streets and others 2000). In China, a
premature deaths a year in women and children under
reduction of 3.7 million tonnes or 15.8 per cent in SO2
five. There are indications that tuberculosis and
emissions was achieved during 1995–2000 (SEPA
blindness may be associated with indoor air pollution.
2001). At least two-thirds of acid depositions in the
Indoor air pollution is blamed for 5–6 per cent of the
region are caused by coal-fired power plants with
national burden of diseases in women and children in
outdated pollution control equipment.
India (Holdren and Smith 2000).
Haze problems are also prevalent in the region due
The key areas for intervention are: use of cleaner
to forest fires in Southeast Asia. The most serious
fuels such as low-propane gas and kerosene;
episode occurred in 1997, when the effects of forest fires
development of high-grade biomass fuels;
in Indonesia extended to neighbouring countries
improvements in stove design and better
including Brunei Darussalam, Papua New Guinea,
dissemination of stoves; improvements in housing;
Philippines, Singapore and Thailand (UNEP 1999). A
and improvements in environmental awareness and
Haze Technical Task Force was established by ASEAN
education. To address the problem of indoor air
Senior Officials on Environment in 1995 and, in 1997, a
pollution in India, around 3 million biogas plants and
Regional Haze Action Plan was approved (ASEAN 2001).
more than 22 million improved cooking stoves have
The Acid Deposition Monitoring Network
been installed in rural and remote areas of the country,
(EANET), with the participation of ten East Asian
countries, began a preparatory phase of monitoring
The Asian brown cloud
acid deposition in April 1998. In October 2000, the
network decided to begin regular monitoring from
In spring 1999, scientists working on the project Indian Ocean Experiment
January 2001 (EANET 2000). In South Asia, the Malé
(INDOEX) discovered a dense brownish pollution haze layer covering most of South
and Southeast Asia and the tropical region of the Indian Ocean. The researchers
Declaration on Control and Prevention of Air Pollution
tracked the haze over an area of about 10 million km2, and believe it forms over
and its likely Transboundary Effects, was adopted by
much of the Asian continent. The haze is a mixture of pollutants, mainly soot,
eight South Asian countries in 1998.
sulphates, nitrates, organic particles, fly ash and mineral dust, formed by fossil fuel
combustion and rural biomass burning. It reduces the sunlight reaching the tropical
Ozone depletion
Indian Ocean surface, thousands of kilometres from its source, by as much as 10
Depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer has emerged
per cent, with a larger reduction over the Indian sub-continent. Simulations with
global climate models indicate that the haze could have major impacts on the
as a serious concern in the region. Data from Australia
monsoon circulation, regional rainfall patterns and vertical temperature profile of the
and New Zealand show that ultraviolet levels there
atmosphere.
appear to be rising by about 10 per cent per decade
A programme called ABC (Asian Brown Cloud) has been initiated with support
(McKenzie, Connor and Bodeker 1999). It follows that
from UNEP. The main aim of the first phase of this programme is to study the
the average exposure time for an individual in Australia
impact of the Asian haze on a number of parameters, including monsoon change,
water balance, agriculture and health. Scientists plan to establish a network of
to develop sunburn has been reduced by approximately
ground-based monitoring stations throughout Asia to study the composition and
20 per cent over the past 20 years.
seasonal pattern of the haze. UNEP has pledged to facilitate the continued research
India and China are the largest regional producers
programme and, in the longer-term, to help coordinate policy responses to address
and users of CFCs. China’s consumption of ODS
the problem.
increased more than 12 per cent per year during
1986–94. India is the second largest producer and the
Source: UNEP (2001) and C4 and UNEP (in press)
fourth largest consumer of CFCs in the world (UNEP
1998). The Multilateral Fund of the Montreal Protocol
resulting in a saving of the equivalent of 21 million
and GEF have been helping the region meet the goals
tonnes of firewood per annum (Times of India 2000).
of the Montreal Protocol. China has made a
Haze and acid rain have been the emerging regional
commitment to phase out the consumption of ODS by
issues over the past decade, especially in Asia because
2010. It has already banned the establishment of new
ATMOSPHERE
2 2 3
CFC- and halon-related production facilities, and
include marine ecosystems, coastal systems, human
developed general and sector-specific plans with the
settlements and infrastructure (IPCC 1998). Countries
help of the World Bank and the Multilateral Fund. The
in the Northwest Pacific and East Asia sub-regions
latter has approved a World Bank project which will
and the Pacific Island countries may be particularly
help India phase out CFC production by 2010.
vulnerable to phenomena such as sea level rise
The countries of Central Asia have also made
because many of their human settlements and
considerable progress. Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan and
industrial facilities are located in coastal or lowland
Uzbekistan are working towards the phase out of the
areas. For the small island developing states, climate
use of ODS during 2001–03 (Oberthur 1999).
change and extreme weather events may have
dramatic impacts on terrestrial biodiversity,
Greenhouse gas emissions
subsistence cropping and forest food sources. The
and climate change
densely populated and intensively used low-lying
Per capita use of commercial energy increased
coastal plains, islands and deltas in South Asia are
annually by 1.9 per cent in South Asia and 3 per cent
especially vulnerable to coastal erosion and land loss
in East Asia and the Pacific during 1980–98 (World
because of inundation and sea flooding, upstream
Bank 2001).
movement of the saline/freshwater front and sea water
CO is the main anthropogenic greenhouse gas.
intrusion into freshwater aquifers (IPCC 1998).
2
Methane emissions are also high in South Asia,
GEF and UNDP are promoting projects to help
accounting for approximately 50 per cent of the total
countries in the region assess their emissions and
global anthropogenic emission of CH (UNDP, UNEP
formulate strategies to reduce them. For example,
4
and WRI 1992). In New Zealand, CH emissions are an
countries participating in the Asia Least Cost
4
order of magnitude higher than the global per capita
Greenhouse Gas Abatement Strategies project have
average, primarily due to the large number of
identified a number of options in the energy sector to
ruminant animals (MFE 1997).
reduce greenhouse gas emissions (GEF 2000).
Areas under most threat from climate change
References: Chapter 2, atmosphere, Asia and the Pacific
ADB (1999). Urban Sector Strategy. Manila,
Government of Sri Lanka (1994). State of the
SEPA (2001). Year 2000 Report on the State of
Asian Development Bank
Environment, Sri Lanka. Prepared for submission
the Environment in China. Beijing, State
ADB (2001). Asian Environment Outlook 2001.
to the South Asian Co-operative Environmental
Environmental Protection Administration of China
Manila, Asian Development Bank
Programme. Colombo, Government of Sri Lanka,
Times of India (2000). Indian Ocean Haze traced
Ministry of Forestry and Environment
ASEAN (2001). Second ASEAN State of the
to Chulha smoke, aerosols. Times of India. 17
Environment Report, 2001. Jakarta, ASEAN
Holdren, J.P. and Smith, K.R., eds. (2000).
October 2000, 9
Secretariat
Energy, the Environment and Health. In World
UNDP, UNEP and WRI (1992). World Resources
Energy Assessment: Energy and the Challenge of
C4 and UNEP (in press). The South Asian Brown
1992–93. New York and Oxford, Oxford
Sustainability. New York, United Nations
Cloud: Climate and Other Environmental Impacts
University Press
Development Programme
A UNEP Assessment Report. Nairobi, United
UNEP (1998). OzoneAction. 28, October 1998
Nations Environment Programme
IPCC (1998). The Regional Impacts of Climate
Change: An Assessment of Vulnerability.
UNEP (1999). GEO 2000. United Nations
EANET (2000). Report of the Second
Cambridge, United Kingdom, Cambridge
Environment Programme. London and New York,
Intergovernmental Meeting on the Acid
University Press
Earthscan
Deposition Monitoring Network in East Asia
UNEP (2001). More Knowledge of Interactions
(EANET). Niigata, Japan, Interim Network Centre,
McKenzie, R., Connor, B. and Bodeker, G.
between Asian Brown Haze, Global Warming and
Acid Deposition and Oxidant Research Centre
(1999). Increased summertime UV radiation in
New Zealand in response to ozone loss. Science.
Ozone Urgently Needed Says UNEP. UNEP News
ESCAP/ADB (2000). State of the Environment in
285, 1709-11
Release 01/46
Asia and Pacific 2000. New York, United Nations
http://www.unep.org/Documents/Default.asp?Docu
MFE (1997). New Zealand: The State of New
FAOSTAT (2001). FAOSTAT Statistics Database.
mentID=197&ArticleID=2813 [Geo-2-154]
Zealand’s Environment 1997. Wellington,
Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization of the
Ministry for the Environment of New Zealand
World Bank (2000). World Development
United Nations
Indicators 1999. Washington DC, World Bank
http://www.fao.org [Geo-2-068]
Oberthur, S. (1999). Status of the Montreal
Protocol Implementation in Countries with
World Bank (2001). World Development
GEF (2000). GEF Contributions to Agenda 21:
Economies in Transition. Nairobi, UNEP and GEF
Indicators 2001. Washington DC, World Bank
the First Decade. Washington DC, Global
Environment Facility
Streets, D.G, Tsai, N.Y., Akimoto, H. and Oka, K.
(2000). Sulfur Dioxide Emissions in Asia in the
Period 1985-1997. Atmospheric Environment.
34, 4413-24
2 2 4
STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT AND POLICY RETROSPECTIVE: 1972–2002
Atmosphere: Europe
countries, the power and heavy industry sectors have
traditionally been the major polluters, with transport
Air pollution
only significant in major cities. In the early 1990s,
Air pollution was one of the threats to human health
economic recession was a driver in the decrease of air
and ecosystems that was recognized early in Europe.
pollution in CEE but at the same time there was a
A treaty (the 1979 ECE Convention on Long Range
sharp growth in the use of private cars. For example,
Transboundary Air Pollution, CLRTAP) was signed as
even during the worst recession years (1990 to 1994),
early as the late 1970s and entered into force in 1983
the number of private cars in Armenia, Russia and
to curb anthropogenic emissions of harmful
Ukraine increased by more than 100 per cent
substances.
(FSRFHEM 1996). This rapid increase in private car
ownership has made transport an increasingly
important contributor to CEE’s air quality problems.
Health effects of air pollution related to road traffic
Emissions of most key air pollutants have declined
in Austria, France and Switzerland
over the whole of Europe since the early 1980s. By
A recent health impact assessment of air pollution in Austria, France and
the end of 2000, emissions of sulphur compounds had
Switzerland revealed that car-related pollution kills more people than car accidents
been reduced to less than one-third of 1980 levels in
in these three countries. Long-term exposure to air pollution from cars causes an
Western Europe, and to two-thirds of those levels in
extra 21 000 premature deaths from respiratory or heart disease per year in adults
over 30. In comparison, the total annual deaths from road traffic accidents in these
CEE (EEA 2001a, UNEP 1999). A significant recovery
countries are 9 947. Each year air pollution from cars in the three countries causes
of natural acid balance of water and soils has been
300 000 extra cases of bronchitis in children, 15 000 hospital admissions for heart
observed in Europe, mainly due to reductions in SO2
disease, 395 000 asthma attacks in adults and 162 000 in children, and some 16
emissions, although the emissions are still too high to
million person-days of restricted activities for adults over 20 years old because of
avoid serious effects in sensitive ecosystems. Average
respiratory disorders. The total cost of this health impact is €27 billion per year or
1.7 per cent of the combined GNP of the three countries. This is the equivalent of
figures, however, mask a wide variation among
€360/person/year (Kunzli and others 2000).
countries and sub-regions. For instance, SO2
emissions increased by 7 per cent in Greece and 3 per
cent in Portugal between 1990 and 1998 while
The main sectors and activities driving air
reductions of 71 per cent and 60 per cent were
pollution in Western Europe in the past three decades
observed in Germany and Finland respectively (EEA
have been energy, transport, industry, agriculture,
2000). NO and NH emissions have not decreased
x
3
solvent use, and storage and distribution of fossil
significantly in Western Europe except for NO in
x
fuels. In Central and Eastern European (CEE)
Germany and the United Kingdom but NO has been
x
reduced in many CEE countries (Czech
Environmental Institute and Ministry of the
SO emissions in EMEP countries (million tonnes/year)
2
Environment 1996, EEA 2001b, GRID-Budapest 1999,
70
GRID-Warsaw 1998, Interstate Statistical Committee
1999, OECD 1999a, UNECE/EMEP/MSC 1998). A
60
lack of monitoring of emissions of heavy metals, POPs
50
and SPM, especially in CEE countries, means that no
40
convincing trends can be observed but it is clear that
particulate matter and tropospheric ozone precursors
30
still represent serious problems (EEA 2000).
20
In Western Europe, emissions of SO , NO and
2
x
10
NH have shown a clear de-coupling from GDP
3
0
growth, pointing towards some degree of effectiveness
of measures taken (EEA 2001a). In some of the CEE
1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
countries that are likely to be in the first wave of
Over the period 1980–98, SO emissions in countries that are members of the Co-operative Programme
2
for Monitoring and Evaluation of the Long-Range Transmission of Air Pollutants in Europe (EMEP) have
accession to the European Union (EU), economic
been reduced by 56 percent
restructuring and environmental actions also appear to
Source: Vestreng and Støren 2000
have had an effect in reducing air pollution. In other
ATMOSPHERE
2 2 5
CEE countries, the fall in industrial output due to the
In the
SO emissions (1 000 tonnes): linking policy to
2
recession appears to have been the main factor in air
Netherlands, a
emission reductions in the Netherlands
shift in fuel from
pollution reduction (OECD 1999a and b, UNECE
oil to natural gas
250
produced a net
1999). In countries such as Russia and Ukraine,
decrease in SO2
reference
emissions per unit of GDP have actually increased but
emissions until
the mid-1980s
the effect has been masked by the overall fall in GDP
when greater use
200
of coal reversed
(SCRFEP 1999).
fuel shifts
the trend. Since
It is clear that the reductions in emissions are at
1983, the
sulphur content
least partly due to national and local measures that
efficiency
of coal has been
150
improvement
have been taken to achieve targets set by CLRTAP
reduced, while
reduced sulphur
flue gas
and its Protocols, and to EU Directives linked to air
content in coal
desulphurization
units began to be
emissions such as the Limitation of Emissions of
fitted to Dutch
Certain Pollutants into the Air from Large Combustion
100
power plants in
1986, with 96
Plants Directive (1988) and various directives on
per cent
equipped by
vehicle emissions, the change to unleaded petrol and
flue gas
actual
1996
desulphurization
higher quality diesel fuels and improved engine
50
Note: the reference
design. Despite this clear progress, many air pollution
line above is based
reduction targets have still not been met. In Western
on electricity
produced
Europe, only the EU and CLRTAP targets for SO
0
2
Source: EEA 2000
were met well before the target date (the end of 2000)
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
with less progress on NO , NH and VOCs. Two
x
3
recent European measures are expected to achieve
there (UNEP 2000). As a result, an increase in
further reductions in air pollutants: a proposal for an
ultraviolet radiation occurred in Europe between 1980
EU Directive on National Emission Ceilings for
and 1997, with a clearly higher increase in the
Certain Atmospheric Pollutants (NECD) and the
northeast (EEA 1999, Parry 2000).
CLRTAP Protocol to Abate Acidification,
As a result of implementing the Vienna
Eutrophication and Ground-level Ozone. In many
Convention and its Montreal Protocol, ODS production
European countries, additional measures will be
in Western Europe has decreased by almost 90 per
required to achieve the NECD and CLRTAP Protocol
cent while the production of hydrochlorofluorocarbons
targets. In Western Europe ‘non-technical’ measures
(HCFCs) has increased (EC 1999, UNEP 1998). The
for controlling pollution such as road pricing and tax
political and economic transition in CEE has delayed
incentives have become more important (EC 2000) but
the phase out of ODS production and consumption but
in many CEE countries it is unlikely that currently
there is progress. Large amounts of donor assistance
weak environmental protection bodies can enforce an
were channelled via the GEF in the 1990s to upgrade
effective air pollution reduction strategy in the near
technologies in favour of ozone-friendly substances.
future (OECD 1999b).
An important milestone for the Countries with
Economies in Transition (CEIT) was the ceasing of
Stratospheric ozone depletion
production of ODS listed in Annexes A and B to the
The thickness of the ozone layer over Europe has
Montreal Protocol by the Russian Federation, the
decreased measurably since the 1980s. Though the
major regional producer, in December 2000 (UNEP
average ozone loss in northern mid-latitudes is 6 per
2001).
cent in winter and spring, at certain times the loss can
be more significant. For example, in the spring of 1995
Greenhouse gas emissions
after an unusually cold Arctic winter, stratospheric
Although many European countries are enthusiastic
ozone concentrations over Europe were 10–12 per
proponents of a global climate change treaty, the
cent lower than in the mid-1970s. The winter of
region is still a major emitter of anthropogenic
1995–96 was even colder and ozone concentrations
greenhouse gases. Most CO emissions come from
2
over the United Kingdom fell by almost 50 per cent in
fossil fuel combustion (ETC/AE 2000, OECD 1999b).
the first week in March, the lowest ever recorded
The energy sector (power and heating) is the main
2 2 6
STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT AND POLICY RETROSPECTIVE: 1972–2002
contributor (32 per cent of the EU’s CO emissions),
increases in energy efficiency, and effects of policies
2
while transport, combustion, manufacturing and heavy
and measures to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
industry also play a major role (ETC/AE 2000).
(ETC/AE 2000). However, meeting the Kyoto Protocol
Greenhouse gas emissions in the EU decreased by
targets will still be difficult (EEA 2001a).
2 per cent between 1990 and 1998 (EEA 2001a),
Economic transformation in CEE has contributed
mainly as a result of stabilization of CO emissions and
to a significant decrease of anthropogenic greenhouse
2
reduction of emissions of N O and methane. Most of
gas emissions. In 2000, CO emissions in nine of
2
2
this decrease was attributable to Germany (as a result
those countries were 8 per cent lower than in 1990
of increased efficiency of new power plants, energy
(ETC/AE 2000). In some of the CEE countries,
saving in households and industries, and economic
economic restructuring and environmental actions
restructuring in the former East Germany) and the
appear to have had an effect in reducing CO (OECD
2
United Kingdom (following a switch from coal to gas).
1999a) while in most CEE countries recession and a
In Western Europe generally, there has been a clear
decline in industrial output appears to have been the
de-coupling between emissions, economic growth and
main factor in CO reduction (OECD 1999a and b,
2
energy consumption thanks to a combination of
UNECE 1999).
References: Chapter 2, atmosphere, Europe
Czech Environmental Institute and Ministry of the
GRID-Budapest (1999). State of the Environment
UNECE and EMEP/MSC-W (1998). Transboundary
Environment (1996). Environment Year Book of
in Hungary. Budapest, GRID-Budapest
Acidifying Air Pollution in Europe, Report 1/98.
the Czech Republic 1995. Prague, Czech
GRID-Warsaw (1998). State of the Environment in
Oslo, Norwegian Meteorological Institute
Statistical Office
Poland. State Inspectorate for Environmental
UNECE (1999). Economic Survey of Europe,
EC (1999). Statistical Factsheet — Ozone-
Pollution
2000. Geneva, United Nations Economic
depleting Substances. Brussels, European
http://pios.gov.pl/raport/ang [Geo-2-006]
Commission for Europe
Commission
Interstate Statistical Committee (1999). Official
UNEP (1998). Production and consumption of
EC (2000). A Review of the Auto-Oil II
Statistics of the Countries of the Commonwealth
ozone-depleting substances 1986-1996. Nairobi,
Programme. (COM 2000) 626 final. Brussels,
of Independent States. CD Rom. Moscow,
United Nations Environment Programme
European Commission
Interstate Statistical Committee of the
UNEP (1999). GEO 2000. United Nations
EEA (1999). Environment in the European Union
Commonwealth of Independent States
Environment Programme. London and New York,
at the Turn of the Century. Environmental
Kunzli, N., Kaiser, R., Medina, S., Studnicka, M.,
Earthscan
Assessment Report No. 2. Copenhagen, European
Chanel, O., Filliger, P., Herry, M., Horak Jr, F.,
UNEP (2000). Action on Ozone. Nairobi, United
Environment Agency
Puybonnieux-Texier, V., Quenel, P., Schneider, J.,
Nations Environment Programme
EEA (2000). Environmental Signals 2000.
Seethaler, R., Vergnaud, J-C. and Sommer, H.
UNEP (2001). Report of the 21st Meeting of the
Environmental Assessment Report No. 6.
(2000). Public-health impact of outdoor and traffic-
Open-Ended Working Group of the Parties to the
Copenhagen, European Environment Agency
related air pollution: a European assessment. The
Montreal Protocol. 24-26 July 2001. United
Lancet. 356, 795-801
EEA (2001a). Environmental Signals 2001.
Nations Environment Programme
Environmental Assessment Report No. 8.
OECD (1999a). Environment in the Transition to a
http://www.unep.org/ozone/pdf/21oewg-4.pdf [Geo-
Copenhagen, European Environment Agency
Market Economy: Progress in Central and Eastern
2-007]
Europe and the New Independent States. Paris,
EEA (2001b). Databases on Air Quality and
Vestreng, V. and Støren, E. (2000). Analysis of
OECD Centre for Cooperation with Non-Members
Emissions of Air Pollutants and Greenhouse Gases
UNECE/EMEP Emission Data. MSC-W Status
in Europe. European Topic Centre on Air and
OECD (1999b). Environmental Data. Paris,
report 2000. EMEP/MSC_W Note 1/00. Research
Climate Change
Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Note No. 37. Oslo, Norwegian Meteorological
http://etc-acc.eionet.eu.int/databases [Geo-2-004]
Development
Institute
ETC/AE (2000). European Community and
Parry, M.L. (2000). Assessment of Potential
Member States Greenhouse Gas Emission Trends
Effects and Adaptations for Climate Change in
1990-1998. Topic report No. 6/2000. European
Europe: Summary and Conclusions. Norwich,
Topic Centre for Air Emissions. Copenhagen,
Jackson Environment Institute, University of East
European Environment Agency
Anglia
FSRFHEM (1996). Review of Environmental
SCRFEP (1999). National Report on the State of
Pollution in the Russian Federation in 1995.
the Environment in the Russian Federation in
Moscow, Federal Service of the Russian Federation
1999. Moscow, State Committee of the Russian
for Hydrometeorology and Environmental
Federation for Environmental Protection
Monitoring
ATMOSPHERE
2 2 7
Atmosphere: Latin America
Air pollution increases mortality
and the Caribbean
In 1992, it was estimated that 76 million urban people were exposed to air
pollutant concentrations exceeding WHO guidelines. In São Paulo and Rio de
Air pollution is one of the most critical environmental
Janeiro, air pollution was estimated to be responsible for 4 000 premature deaths
issues in the Latin America and Caribbean Region
annually (CETESB 1992). Studies in Brazil, Chile and Mexico have shown that a 10
because of its impact on human health, especially in
µg/m3 increase of concentration of PM
(particles of 10µ or less in diameter) in
10
urban areas. Rapid urbanization, population growth,
the air coincides with a 0.6 to 1.3 per cent increase in mortality in those over the
industrialization and a growing number of motor
age of 65 (PAHO 1998).
vehicles are the main causes of air pollution. The
region is also prone to the negative impacts of
cause of emissions in the region, particularly in the
stratospheric ozone layer depletion.
Amazon basin (UNEP 1999). Deforestation and
livestock breeding (the latter is significant in
Air quality
Argentina, Chile and Uruguay) also result in a huge
Some three-quarters of the population of Latin America
regional methane emission — some 9.3 per cent of the
and the Caribbean live in cities. Several megacities
world total (UNFCCC-SBI 2000).
such as Buenos Aires, Mexico City, Rio de Janeiro and
The average annual per capita carbon emission
São Paulo, each with a population of more than 10
from industry in the region was 0.73 tonnes in 1998,
million, are located in the region and economic growth
somewhat lower than the world average of 1.06 tonnes
in these urban centres has caused increases in air
(Marland, Boden and Andres 2001). Mexico is the
pollution (particularly CO, NO , SO , tropospheric O ,
region’s largest carbon emitter.
X
2
3
hydrocarbons and SPM) and associated human health
Industrial pollutants originate mostly from fuel
impacts (UNEP 2000). Today the problem extends
combustion processes in the power generation sector,
beyond large cities and also affects medium-size cities
although emissions of heavy metals such as lead and
and small islands (Dalal 1979, Romieu, Weitzenfeld and
mercury are also important (PAHO 1998). In oil-
Finkelman 1990). The transport sector is a major
producing countries, emissions from the refining
source of urban air pollution — 70 per cent of
process are also significant — for example, in Mexico
emissions in Buenos Aires (PAHO 1998) and Mexico
City, almost 60 per cent of SO emissions originate
2
City (INEGI 1998) are transport-related, with the
from industry, including oil refineries in the
number of cars in Mexico City increasing fourfold
metropolitan area (INEGI 1998). In many countries,
between 1970 and 1996 (ECLAC 2000a). Industry,
agriculture and the municipal sector also contribute to
Carbon dioxide emissions per capita: Latin America and the
air pollution. In Santiago, the most significant sources
Caribbean (tonnes carbon per capita/year)
of air pollution are transport, and small and medium-
1.20
size enterprises (IMO 1995). In addition, unfavourable
topographic and meteorological conditions in some
cities aggravate the impact of pollution: the Valley of
1.00
Mexico obstructs the dispersal of pollutants from its
metropolitan area as do the hills surrounding Santiago
0.80
(ECLAC 2000b).
The growth of industry, agriculture and transport
0.60
sectors over the past 30 years has been accompanied
by a steady increase in CO emissions — estimated at
2
65 per cent between 1980 and 1998 (UNEP 2001a). In
0.40
1991–92, the region was estimated to be responsible
1972
1974
1976
1978
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
for some 11 per cent of global anthropogenic
Caribbean
South America
world
Meso-America
Latin America and the Caribbean
emissions of CO — 4.5 per cent of global industrial
2
emissions and 48.5 per cent of emissions from land-
Average industrial carbon emission in Latin America and the Caribbean in 1998 was 0.73 tonnes/year,
compared to the global average of 1.06 tonnes
use change (UNDP, UNEP, World Bank and WRI
Source: compiled from Marlan, Boden and Andres 2001
1996). Deforestation is thought to be the principal
2 2 8
STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT AND POLICY RETROSPECTIVE: 1972–2002
Bank and WRI 1998). Air pollution is blamed for 2.3
Dealing with air pollution in Mexico City
million annual cases of infantile chronic respiratory
In Mexico City, one of the biggest megacities in the world, studies have shown a
sickness and 100 000 cases of chronic adult bronchitis
close correlation between urban air pollution and the acceleration of pulmonary
in the region (ECLAC 2000b).
diseases, ageing processes in the lungs and respiratory infections (Loomis and
others 1999, PAHO 1998, WHO 1999). A comprehensive programme to cope with
In recent decades, significant efforts have been
air pollution in the Valley of Mexico was launched in 1990 aimed at improving the
made to cope with air pollution, especially in urban
quality of fuel, promoting public transport, reducing emissions from vehicles,
areas (see box left) through strategies that include
industry and services, and reforestation. The 1995-2000 Programme to Improve Air
emission controls, changes in fuels and contingency
Quality in Mexico City (Proaire) introduced new activities in the field of monitoring,
controls. In Santiago, SPM emissions — and the
education and public participation. Other initiatives included the establishment of
number of days when alerts were sounded or
the Valley of Mexico Environmental Trust Fund, which is maintained with tax
revenue from petrol and finances air quality improvement activities, the Automatic
emergencies declared — have been reduced
Environmental Monitoring Network, Environmental Emergency Programmes, ‘A Day
considerably over the past decade, with concentrations
Without a Car’ Programme, a reforestation programme and environmental education
of PM
and PM
decreasing by 24.1 per cent and 47.4
10
2.5
in the metropolitan area of Mexico City (ECLAC 2000a).
per cent respectively between 1989 and 1999 (CAPP
2000). This is largely due to implementation of a plan
initiated in 1990 which included control of household
mining activities result in local deterioration of air
and industrial emissions, developing monitoring
quality (PAHO 1998).
capacity, removing highly polluting buses, controlling
Other sources of air pollution have local and sub-
bus circulation and emissions, introducing car catalytic
regional impacts, including pesticide use in agriculture
converters, improving motor fuel quality, and paving
and airborne particles resulting from soil erosion and
streets (ECLAC 2000c, O’Ryan and Larraguibel 2000).
biomass combustion. Studies conducted in Colombia
Notwithstanding the progress achieved, urban air
and Ecuador in the early 1990s revealed that more
pollution is a serious concern even in some small and
than 60 per cent of agricultural workers involved in
medium-sized cities because of the continued growth
production for foreign markets had symptoms of acute
of the transport and industrial sectors, coupled with a
pesticide poisoning (headaches, allergies, dizziness,
lack of adequate monitoring and regulations. The
dermatitis, blurred vision) while others experienced
growth of vehicles due to rising real incomes and the
serious chronic effects (stillbirths, miscarriages, and
removal of tariffs could nullify the progress made in
respiratory and neurological problems). Neighbouring
improving air quality. By 2010, 85 per cent of the
inhabitants can also be affected, as has been found for
population are expected to be living in urban areas,
Nicaraguan cotton fields and Costa Rican coffee
and combating air pollution and preventing its
plantations (UNDP, UNEP, World Bank and WRI 1998,
negative health impacts will be a priority in every
UNEP 2000).
country.
Forest fires are another important contributor to
air pollution, sometimes having a significant long-
Global atmospheric issues
distance effect (CCAD and IUCN 1996, Nepstad and
Ozone depletion is a significant issue for the region,
others 1997). In 1997, for example, the smoke from
especially those countries closest to the Antarctic
fires in Guatemala, Honduras and Mexico drifted
ozone hole such as Argentina and Chile. Following
across much of the southeastern United States,
ratification of the Montreal Protocol, governments in
prompting the Texas authorities to issue a health
collaboration with private sector and other
warning to residents (UNEP 2000).
stakeholders adopted regulations, established
In Latin America and the Caribbean, about one-
institutions and took measures to phase out ODS —
fifth of the population uses biomass as a major
Brazil halted production in 1999 (MMA 2001).
household fuel, resulting in indoor air pollution. This
Countries such as Argentina, Mexico (currently the
mainly affects women, children and the elderly who
main regional producer of ODS) and Venezuela that
stay indoors for long periods. In Colombia and Mexico,
still produce CFCs have developed policies and
for example, women using biomass for cooking are up
measures to reduce both production and consumption
to 75 times more likely to contract chronic lung
of ODS. In contrast to other developing regions, the
disease than the average person (UNDP, UNEP, World
Latin American and Caribbean Region has reduced
ATMOSPHERE
2 2 9
total production of CFCs from the 1986 level by
island states will probably be the first to suffer from sea
approximately 21 per cent (UNEP 2001b).
level rise. There may also be impacts on health caused
Global climate change may seriously affect the
by an increase in epidemic disease vectors, along with
region given its ecological and socio-economic
other gastrointestinal infections (PAHO 1998).
vulnerability. Changes in the water cycle may pose a
Countries in the region do not have commitments
danger to arid and semi-arid zones and thus affect the
under the UNFCCC or Kyoto Protocol. Mitigation and
production of cereals and livestock as well as
adaptation activities include energy-saving measures
hydroelectric power generation in countries such as
in transport, agriculture and waste management
Argentina, Chile, Costa Rica and Panama. Coastlines
sectors, developing renewable energy sources and
and coastal ecosystems in Central America, Argentina,
developing carbon sinks, mostly forests. Wind energy
Uruguay and Venezuela may be affected, and the coastal
is exploited in several countries including Barbados,
infrastructure may be damaged. Many of the large
Costa Rica and Jamaica. A 2-MW demonstration plant
metropolitan areas are highly vulnerable to sea level
using ocean thermal energy conversion has been built
rise, especially major ports. In the Caribbean, the small
in Jamaica (UNEP 2000).
References: Chapter 2, atmosphere, Latin America and the Caribbean
CAPP (2000). Estado del Medio Ambiente en
Loomis, D., Castillejos, M., Gold, D.R.,
UNEP (2000). GEO Latin America and the
Chile - 1999: Informe País. Santiago, Centro de
McDonnell, W. and Borja-Aburto, V.H. (1999). Air
Caribbean Environment Outlook. Mexico City,
Análisis de Políticas Públicas, Universidad de
pollution and infant mortality in Mexico City.
United Nations Environment Programme, Regional
Chile
Epidemiology. 10, 118-23
Office for Latin America and the Caribbean
CCAD and IUCN (1996). Reducción del Efecto
Marland, G., Boden, T.A. and Andres, R.J.
UNEP (2001a). GEO: Environmental Statistics
Invernadero Mediante la Limitación y Absorción
(2001). Global, Regional, and National Fossil
for Latin America and the Caribbean (work in
del CO en América Central: Propuesta Plan de
Fuel CO Emissions. US Department of Energy,
progress). Estadísticas ambientales de América
2
2
Prevención y Combate de Incendios Forestales en
Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center
Latina y el Caribe (trabajo en proceso). Mexico
América Central. San José, Costa Rica, Comisión
http://cdiac.esd.ornl.gov/trends/emis/tre_amd.html
City, United Nations Environment Programme,
Centroamericana de Ambiente y Desarrollo,
[Geo-2-046]
Regional Office for Latin America and the
Consejo Centroamericano de Bosques y Áreas
MMA (2001). Programa Brasileiro de Eliminação
Caribbean
Protegidas, Unión Mundial para la Naturaleza,
da Produção e do Consumo das Substâncias que
UNEP (2001b). Report of the Secretariat on
Oficina para Mesoamérica San José, Costa Rica
Destroem a Camada de Ozônio. Ministerio de
Information Provided by the Parties in
CETESB (1992). Relatorio de Qualidadde do Ar
Medio Ambiente, Brasil
Accordance with Article 7 of the Montreal
em São Paulo. São Paulo, Compahia de
http://www.mma.gov.br/port/ascom/imprensa/maio
Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone
Tecnologia de Saneamento Ambiental
2000/informma54.html [Geo-2-047]
Layer. 13th Meeting of the Parties to the Montreal
Dalal, R.C. (1979). Composition of Trinidad
Nepstad, D.N., Klink, C.A., Uhl, C., Vieira, I.C.,
Protocol, 16–19 October 2001, Colombo, Sri
Rainfall. Water Resource Research. 15, 1217-23
Lefebvre, P., Pedlowski, M., Matricardi, E.,
Lanka. UNEP/OzL.Pro.13/3
http://www.unep.org/ozone/13mop-before.shtml
ECLAC (2000a). De la Urbanización Acelerada a
Negreiros, G., Brown, I.F., Amaral, E., Homma, A.
[Geo-2-155]
la Consolidación de los Asentamientos Humanos
and Walker, R. (1997). Land-use in Amazonia
en América Latina y el Caribe. Regional
and the Cerrado of Brazil. Ciencia e Cultura -
UNFCCC-SBI (2000). National Communications
Conference for Latin America and the Caribbean
Journal of the Brazilian Association for the
from Parties not Included in Annex I to the
preparatory to the extraordinary session on the
Advancement of Science. 49, 1/2, 73-86
Convention. Second Compilation and Synthesis
examination and general evaluation of the
O’Ryan, R. and Larraguibel, L. (2000).
of Initial National Communications from Parties
application of the Habitat Programme,
Contaminacion del Aire en Santiago: Estado
not Included in Annex I to the Convention. Note
CEPAL/HABITAT, LC/G.2116
Actual y Soluciones. Santiago, Universidad de
by the Secretariat. FCCC/SBI/2000/15, 24
October. Bonn, United Nations Framework
ECLAC (2000b). Conciencia Ciudadana y
Chile
Convention on Climate Change, Scientific Body for
Pollution Atmosférica: Estado de Situación en la
PAHO (1998). Health in the Americas. 1998
Implementation
Ciudad de México. CEPAL, LC/R. 1987. Santiago,
Edition. Scientific Publication No. 569.
Economic Commission for Latin America and the
Washington DC, Pan-American Health
WHO (1999). Air Quality Guidelines. Geneva,
Caribbean
Organization
World Health Organization
ECLAC (2000c). Conciencia Ciudadana y
Romieu, I., Weitzenfeld, H. and Finkelman, J.
Contaminacion Atmosférica: Estado de Situación
(1990). Urban air pollution in Latin America and
en el Area Metropolitana de Santiago de Chile.
the Caribbean: Health Perspectives. World Health
CEPAL, LC/R. 2022. Santiago, Economic
Statistics Quarterly 43, 153–67
Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean
UNDP, UNEP, World Bank and WRI (1998).
IMO (1995). Global Waste Survey - Final Report.
World Resources 1998–99. Washington DC,
Manila, International Maritime Organization
World Resources Institute
INEGI (1998). Estadisticas del medio ambiente.
UNEP (1999). GEO 2000. United Nations
Mexico, 1997. Aguascalientes, Instituto Nacional
Environment Programme. London and New York,
de Estadistica, Geografia e Informatica
Earthscan
2 3 0
STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT AND POLICY RETROSPECTIVE: 1972–2002
Atmosphere: North America
Ground-level ozone in North America
Air quality
Research over the past decade has demonstrated that O is
3
responsible for far greater impacts on health than was
Over the past 30 years, there have been notable air
previously thought. Even average concentrations of O can
3
quality improvements at both regional and local levels
exacerbate asthma and other respiratory diseases, and inhibit
in the region. Levels of many air pollutants have been
or interfere with the immune system, especially in young
gradually reduced — the trends in the United States
children, the elderly and outdoor sports enthusiasts (OMA
(see graph) are representative of the region.
2000). Research in both Canada and the United States
repeatedly documents a strong correlation between
Acid rain control programmes contributed to the
hospitalization and worker absenteeism, and episodic high
dramatic decline in sulphur emissions since 1995 with
O levels (CEC 1997).
3
reductions of 10–25 per cent in some parts of the
north-eastern United States (US EPA 2000a). Recent
evidence, however, suggests that many sensitive areas
many cases, however, controls failed to reduce ozone
are still receiving acid deposition that exceeds their
concentrations sufficiently to meet national health
assimilation capacity, and damage caused by acid
standards (US EPA 1997a).
deposition may be more fundamental than was
Ozone molecules have been found to travel large
previously believed (CEC 2000, Munton 1998).
distances from emission sources — the typical
New concerns have arisen over ground level ozone
transport range of tropospheric O is 240–800
3
and fine particulate matter, whose emissions have not
kilometres (CEC 1997). Between 30 and 90 per cent of
decreased as markedly as other common pollutants.
eastern Canada’s O comes from the United States,
3
while the province of Ontario, the region in Canada that
Emissions of major air pollutants: United States (million tonnes/year)
suffers from the worst O problem, is a source of NO
3
x
downwind into northeastern United States (EC 2000a).
120
SO2
CO
NO
VOC
PM
x
10
Fossil fuel power plants are the largest point
100
sources of NO — significant amounts of O are formed
x
3
80
and transported within the plumes of power plants. In
60
addition, while VOCs have decreased in the United
States over the past 30 years, NO emissions increased
40
x
between 1970 and 1999 by 17 per cent (US EPA
20
2000b). These findings led to a new approach in which
0
North America recognized the need for aggressive
1970 1980 1989 19991970 1980 1989 19991970 1980 1989 19991970 1980 1989 1999
1990 1999
strategies to reduce regional NO emissions and for
x
cooperation between the two countries.
Emissions of
many air
Ground-level ozone
Under the Canada/US Air Quality Agreement (1991),
pollutants have
Ground-level O is a common, pervasive and harmful
both countries set targets to reduce NO emissions and
been reduced
3
x
over the past 30
air pollutant (see box). Fossil fuel combustion is the
in October 2000 they signed an annex to the agreement
years,
particularly for
major source of NO , with the transportation sector
to reduce border emissions of NO from fossil fuel
x
x
CO, VOCs and
alone responsible for 60 per cent of NO emissions in
power (EC 2000b). They have also engaged in the 1995
SO
x
2
Canada (Hancey 1999) and 53 per cent in the United
North American Research Strategy for Tropospheric
Source: US EPA
States (US EPA 2000b).
Ozone and signed the 1999 CLRTAP Protocol to Abate
2001
Between 1984 and 1991, Canada’s ozone guideline
Acidification, Eutrophication and Ground-Level Ozone.
of 0.082 ppm over a one-hour period was exceeded at
Recognition that exposure to ozone at concentrations
least once in all major cities (EC 2000a). In the United
below 0.08 ppm results in severe health effects has
States, tens of millions of people lived in areas where
prompted revisions in both Canadian and US ozone
the one-hour ozone standard of 0.120 ppm was
health standards (EC 2000a, US EPA 1997b). Although
regularly exceeded (US EPA 2000b). Control measures
levels of SPM have decreased by 40 per cent since 1980,
in the 1970s focused primarily on reducing VOCs and,
recent research has revealed serious health concerns at
in some cases, NO emissions from factories and
concentrations well within allowed levels attributable to
x
vehicles in the regions that were most affected. In
the finer airborne particles released mainly from vehicles
ATMOSPHERE
2 3 1
the US transport sector accounted for around 5 per
Impact of air pollution on health in North America
cent of global anthropogenic CO emitted and more
2
Air pollution is emerging as a key contributor to some
than one-third of total world transportation energy use
respiratory and cardiovascular diseases. Around 80 million
(NRC 1997, O’Meara Sheehan 2001).
US citizens are exposed to levels of air pollution that can
impair health and more than 2 per cent of all deaths
Two sharp price shocks in the oil market in the
annually can be attributed to air pollution (UNDP, UNEP,
1970s helped to increase awareness that oil is not a
World Bank and WRI 1998). Air pollution is also linked to an
renewable resource. Energy-saving standards for
alarming rise over the past two decades in the prevalence of
vehicle bodies, engines and fuel efficiency in new
asthma among children and young adults. More than 5.5
passenger cars were introduced in the 1970s and
million children in North America are affected by asthma.
strengthened in the 1980s (OECD 1996, CEQ 1997).
The impact of environmental pollution on children’s health is
a priority issue in North America.
However, a combination of factors conspired to drive
energy use up during the 1980s. Progress in total and
and power plants. Consequently, North American
per capita energy efficiency slowed and CO emissions
2
standards for particulate matter have been adjusted (EC
continued to rise (CEQ 1997, EC 1997, OECD 1998).
1999, EC 2000a, OMA 2000).
Renewed efforts subsequent to the UNFCCC
commitments also failed to curb CO emissions in the
2
Stratospheric ozone layer depletion
1990s. In 1998, emissions were 14 and 11 per cent
North America’s northern regions have been subject to
serious stratospheric ozone depletion. With the 1987
Average temperatures in the United States (°C)
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone
14.0
Layer, both countries committed themselves to actions
average annual temperature (°C)
to protect the stratospheric ozone layer. In Canada, strict
trend
13.5
regulations passed in 1990 and reformulated in 1999
reduced production faster than the protocol required,
13.0
from a high of 27 800 tonnes/year in 1987 to 900
tonnes/year in 1996 (EC 2001). In the United States, the
12.5
use and trade of ODS is controlled through a marketable
permit system and a tax on ODS. The subsequent price
12.0
increase of ODS encouraged the use of alternatives. Both
countries reduced their non-essential CFC consumption
11.5
to zero by 1996 (Potts 2001).
1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000
Average annual temperatures in the United States have increased more than
Greenhouse gases and climate change
0.6°C since the late 1970s
Since 1972 North America’s climate has warmed
Source: DOC, NOAA and NCDC 2000
considerably, reflecting a global trend. About half of
the average rise in North America’s surface
above 1990 levels in Canada and the United States
temperature during the past century — more than
respectively (US EPA 2000a, SRP 2000). Renewable
0.6 °C — occurred since the late 1970s (see graph).
energy production from hydropower, wind, solar,
North America emits more greenhouse gas than any
biomass and geothermal sources is increasing but still
other region, accounting for around 5 per cent of the
contributes only a small fraction of energy needs,
world’s population but nearly 26 per cent of global
supplying about 7 per cent of US domestic energy
anthropogenic emissions of CO in 1998 (Marland,
demand in 2000 (US EIA 2001).
2
Boden and Andres 2001). North America has one of
In the transport sector, progress made in car fuel
the world’s most energy-consuming economies. The
efficiency and emission controls has been partially
transportation sector is the largest source of CO
offset by increases in the number of automobiles, in
2
emissions, accounting for 30.1 per cent of Canada’s
distances travelled, and a trend since 1984 toward light-
emissions in 1995 (EC 1998a) while in 1993 cars and
duty trucks and sport-utility vehicles (CEQ 1997, EC
light trucks were responsible for more than 20 per
1998a). For example, between 1990 and 1995 there was
cent of US CO emissions (Glick undated). In 1997,
a 15 per cent increase in automobile travel in Canada, a
2
2 3 2
STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT AND POLICY RETROSPECTIVE: 1972–2002
decrease in urban transit usage and a 6 per cent
between 2008 and 2012. However, in early 2001, the
increase in total fossil fuel use (EC 1998b). In 1994,
United States announced that implementing the Kyoto
nearly 60 per cent of US households owned two or
treaty would be too harmful to the economy and that it
more cars and 19 per cent owned three or more (De
would pursue other ways of addressing climate change
Souza 1999). Cheap parking and other hidden subsidies,
(US EIA 2001). At the July 2001 UNFCCC conference
such as funds for highway development and low fuel
in Bonn a compromise was struck allowing carbon-
prices, have encouraged car dependency (Miller and
absorbing forests to be used against emissions with
Moffat 1993, EC 1998a).
the result that Canada may obtain more than 20 per
Under the 1997 Kyoto Protocol, Canada agreed to
cent of its target with such credits (MacKinnon 2001).
reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 6 per cent and
the United States to 7 per cent below 1990 levels
References: Chapter 2, atmosphere, North America
CEC (1997). Long-Range Transport of Ground
EC (2000b). Canada and the United States Reach
OMA (2000). The Illness Costs of Air Pollution.
Level Ozone and its Precursors. Montreal,
a Draft Agreement to Reduce Transboundary
Ontario Medical Association
Commission for Environmental Cooperation
Smog. Environment Canada
http://www.oma.org/phealth/icap.htm [Geo-2-036]
CEC (2000). Booming Economies, Silencing
http://www.ec.gc.ca/press/001013_n_e.htm [Geo-
Potts, J. (2001). Ozone Depletion and the Illegal
Environments, and the Paths to Our Future.
2-031]
Trade of Ozone Depleting Substances.
Montreal, Commission for Environmental
EC (2001). Stratospheric Ozone. Environment
Unpublished report. Montreal, Commission for
Cooperation
Canada
Environmental Cooperation
http://www.cec.org [Geo-2-026]
http://www.ec.gc.ca/ind/English/Ozone/Bulletin/stin
SRP (2000). The Sustainability Report.
CEQ (1997). Environmental Quality — The World
d1_e.cfm [Geo-2-032]
Sustainability Reporting Program
Wide Web: The 1997 Annual Report of the
Glick, P (undated). Global Warming: The High
http://www.sustreport.org [Geo-2-037]
Council on Environmental Quality. Washington DC,
Costs of Inaction. The Sierra Club: Understanding
UNDP, UNEP, World Bank and WRI (1998). World
The White House, Council on Environmental
Green Markets Project
Resources 1998–99. Washington DC, World
Quality
http://www.sierraclub.org/globalwarming/resources/i
Resources Institute
De Souza, R-M. (1999). Household Transportation
naction.asp [Geo-2-033]
US EIA (1999). International Energy Annual
Use and Urban Air Pollution: A Comparative
Hancey, C. (1999). Particulate Matter, Ground-
1999. United States Energy Information
Analysis of Thailand, Mexico, and the United
Level Ozone, and the Canada-Wide Standards
Administration
States. Washington, DC, Population Reference
Regulatory Process. The Sierra Club
http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/iea/tablef8.html [Geo-
Bureau
http://www.sierraclub.ca/national/climate/ground-
2-038]
DOC, NOAA and NCDC (2000). Climate of 1999
level-ozone.html [Geo-2-034]
US EIA (2001). Energy Information Brief —
Annual Review. Asheville, North Carolina, US
MacKinnon, Mark (2001). Pollution Pact Hailed as
United States of America. Washington DC, US
Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and
Crucial First Step. The Globe and Mail, 24 July
Energy Information Administration
Atmospheric Administration, National Climatic
2001, A1
http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/usa.html [Geo-
Data Center
Marland, G., Boden, T.A. and Andres, R.J. (2001).
2-039]
http://ceq.eh.doe.gov/nepa/reports/statistics/tab6x1.
Global, Regional, and National Fossil Fuel CO2
US EPA (1997a). Regional Approaches to
html [Geo-2-156]
Emissions. US Department of Energy, Carbon
Improving Air Quality. US Environmental
EC (1997). Global Climate Change: The
Dioxide Information Analysis Center
Protection Agency
Greenhouse Gas Emissions Outlook to 2020.
http://cdiac.esd.ornl.gov/trends/emis/tre_amd.htm
http://www.epa.gov/oar/oaqps/airtrans/
Environment Canada
[Geo-2-035]
groundoz.html [Geo-2-040]
http://www.ec.gc.ca/climate/fact/greenhou.html
Miller, P. and Moffet, J. (1993). The Price of
US EPA (1997b). National Ambient Air Quality
[Geo-2-027]
Mobility: Uncovering the Hidden Costs of
Standards for Ozone: Final Rule. Federal Register,
EC (1998a). Canadian Passenger Transportation,
Transportation. New York, Natural Resources
62, 38856-96. Washington DC, US Environmental
National Environmental Indicator Series. In SOE
Defence Council
Protection Agency
Bulletin No. 98-5. Ottawa, Environment Canada,
Munton, D. (1998). Dispelling the myths of the
US EPA (2000a). National Air Quality and
State of the Environment Reporting Program
acid rain story. Environment 40, 6, 27-33
Emissions Trends Report, 1999. US Environmental
EC (1998b). Cars more efficient, but Canadians
NRC (1997). Vehicle emissions. National
Protection Agency
driving more. Science and the Environment
Research Council. XLVII, 3, 10
http://www.epa.gov/oar/aqtrnd98/html/ [Geo-2-
Bulletin. June 1998
O’Meara Sheehan, M. (2001). Making better
042]
EC (1999). Canada Signs International Agreement
transportation choices. In L. Starke (ed.), State of
US EPA (2000b). National Air Quality and
on Acid Rain and Smog Reductions. Environment
the World 2001. New York, W.W. Norton
Emissions Trends Report, 1998. US Environmental
Canada
OECD (1996). Environmental Performance
Protection Agency
http://www.ec.gc.ca/press/acidrn_n_e.htm [Geo-2-
Reviews: United States. Paris, Organization for
http://www.epa.gov/Ozone/title6/phaseout/phasfrm.
029]
Economic Cooperation and Development
txt [Geo-2-041]
EC (2000a). Clean Air. Environment Canada
OECD (1998). Environmental Indicators: Towards
US EPA (2001). Average Annual Emissions, All
http://www.ec.gc.ca/air/introduction_e.cfm [Geo-2-
Sustainable Development. Paris, Organization for
Criteria Pollutants. US Environmental Protection
030]
Economic Cooperation and Development
Agency
http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/trends/trends99/tier3_
yrsemis.pdf [Geo-2-043]
ATMOSPHERE
2 3 3
Atmosphere: West Asia
Energy consumption and production: West Asia
(million tonnes oil equivalent/year)
Air quality
1 200
The level of industrialization in West Asia is low in
consumption
comparison with Europe and the United States but
production
1 000
population growth, urbanization and an increase in oil-
related industries and other industrial activities have
800
resulted in air pollution ‘hot spots’. In the major cities
600
and industrial compounds of West Asia, concentrations
of the main air pollutants often exceed WHO
400
guidelines by a factor of two to five (World Bank 1995).
The burning of fossil fuels is the main cause of
200
atmospheric air pollution and the main source of
anthropogenic CO emissions. It accounts for all West
0
2
Asia’s commercial primary energy production which
1972
1974
1976
1978
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1997
1996
increased from 665.5 million tonnes of oil equivalent
(mtoe) in 1972 to 974.2 mtoe in 1997, while energy
industry, especially in the large oil, petrochemical,
West Asian
energy
consumption increased from 27.0 to 229.5 mtoe over
fertilizer and metal industries.
production has
the same period (compiled from IEA 1999).
The increasing number of vehicles, poor traffic
now exceeded its
previous
The main sources of air pollution in the Gulf
management, ageing cars and congested roads in
maximum in
1979;
Cooperation Council (GCC) countries are oil
major cities add to the level of air pollution. Many
consumption
refineries, oil gathering centres, oil platforms,
vehicles are in poor condition and about 30 per cent
continues to
increase at
petrochemical and fertilizer plants, and motor
are older than 15 years and produce significantly
around 3.5 per
vehicles. In the Mashriq countries, outdated
higher emissions of hydrocarbons and NO than new
cent a year
x
technologies especially in power generation plants,
ones (World Bank and UNDP 1998). Furthermore,
Source: compiled
from IEA 1999
fertilizer plants, smelters and cement factories have
leaded petrol is still in use in many countries,
caused deterioration of air quality not only in
compounding health problems in cities and along
industrial sites but also in nearby settlements.
major highways (World Bank 1995). To cope with this
Amongst the air pollutants emitted, SPM is of great
problem, some countries have taken measures to
concern with levels well above maximum allowable
phase out leaded gasoline. Unleaded gasoline has been
concentrations. The economic loss due to the impact
introduced to the GCC countries and Lebanon, and is
of poor air quality on human health in Syria is
the only fuel produced in Bahrain since July 2000
estimated at about US$188 million per year (World
(BAPCO 2000).
Bank and UNDP 1998). However, recent trends in
Along with atmospheric pollution caused by human
West Asia, and especially in the GCC countries, are
activities, seasonal sand and dust storms contribute to
towards adopting cleaner production approaches in
air pollution in West Asia in general and along the
northern coasts of the Arabian (Persian) Gulf in
particular (ROPME 1999). The dust storms absorb
The cement industry pollutes the atmosphere
pollutants such as pesticides and can transport them
The cement industry, the major industrial source of CO2
for long distances with adverse effects on the
emissions in the Mashriq sub-region, also emits large
environment, the economy and quality of life. It is
amounts of dust, covering nearby vegetation, endangering
estimated that the annual amount of dust fall-out along
human health and ecosystems. In Lebanon, the cement
the coastal area of Kuwait may reach 1 000 tonnes/km2
industry is responsible for 77.2 per cent of all industrial
emissions (Government of Lebanon 1998). In Syria,
with an overall mean concentration of 200 µg/m3
particulate emissions from one cement company near
(Khalaf and others 1980, EPA 1996).
Damascus result in SPM levels exceeding guidelines within a
Transboundary air pollution is an emerging issue in
radius of 3 km. This has caused thoracic and respiratory
the region. Stricter measures and regulations to control
diseases among workers and nearby communities (CAMRE
emissions, to promote the use of modern and efficient
and UNEP 1997).
technologies, and towards restructuring the price of
2 3 4
STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT AND POLICY RETROSPECTIVE: 1972–2002
energy resources must be taken to curb air pollution.
sea level rise. Temperature variations and changes in
Energy efficiency programmes in the power, petroleum,
rainfall patterns will affect water resources and food
transportation, industrial, agriculture and residential
production capacity. Climate change impacts are
sectors are needed to reduce energy consumption and
considered a high priority in some countries,
associated emissions of greenhouse gases.
especially in island countries such as Bahrain.
Following ratification of the UNFCCC, National
Stratospheric ozone depletion
Climate Change Committees were established and
The West Asia states (with the exception of Iraq)
some countries have started to monitor air quality and
acceded to the Vienna Convention and the Montreal
meteorological parameters. National inventories of
Protocol and its amendments. All countries in the
greenhouse gases have been completed for several
region are users but not producers of ODS and
countries (Bahrain, Jordan and Lebanon) and work is
programmes regulating the import and use of ODS
underway in other countries. These inventories
have been developed at both national and regional
produced figures that were higher by 59, 72 and 25 per
levels. Regulations for specifications and ODS
cent respectively (AGU and MoHME 2000, GCEP
emissions have been enacted, and ozone offices and
1997, Government of Lebanon 1998) than those
coordinating committees have been established to
reported by UNDP, UNEP, World Bank and WRI (1998).
monitor the activities of companies related to the
Per capita CO emissions in West Asia increased
2
consumption, handling and storage of these chemicals.
from 4.7 tonnes/year in 1972 to 7.4 tonnes/year in
Companies are gradually phasing out the use of ODS
1998, echoing regional trends in population growth,
and most countries have frozen the consumption of
development and industrialization. Emissions in the
ODS as required by the Montreal Protocol. Further
very high per capita emitting countries (Kuwait, Qatar
efforts are needed to phase out methyl bromide which
and the United Arab Emirates) dropped during this
is still consumed in Jordan, Lebanon and Syria.
period (Marland, Boden and Andres 2001). This decline
was one of the results of national policies that included
Climate change
such measures as programmes for cleaner energy
The West Asia region is likely to be affected by
development, introduction of new efficient
climate change. The Arabian Peninsula and a number
technologies and establishment of air quality standards.
of islands (such as Bahrain) will probably be prone to
References: Chapter 2, atmosphere, West Asia
AGU and MoHME (2000). Bahrain Inventory of
GCEP (1997). Initial Communication Report under
Marland, G., Boden, T.A. and Andres, R.J. (2001).
Greenhouse Gas Emissions Report under
the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change.
Global, Regional, and National Fossil Fuel CO2
UNEP/GEF Project 2200-97-46. Manama,
Amman, Jordan, General Cooperation of
Emissions. US Department of Energy, Carbon
Bahrain, Arabian Gulf University and the Ministry
Environment Protection
Dioxide Information Analysis Center
of Housing, Municipalities and Environment
Government of Lebanon (1998). The First National
http://cdiac.esd.ornl.gov/trends/emis/tre_amd.htm
BAPCO (2000). BAPCO Site for Information on
Inventory of Greenhouse Gas Emission by Sources
[Geo-2-035]
the Introduction of Unleaded Gasoline. Frequently
and Removals Sinks, Final Report. Beirut, United
ROPME (1999). Regional Report of the State of
Asked Questions. Bahrain Petroleum Company
Nations Environment Programme, Global
Environment. Kuwait City, Regional Organization
http://www.unleadedbahrain.com/english/faq.htm#3
Environment Facility, Ministry of Environment,
for the Protection of the Marine Environment
[Geo-2-044]
Lebanon
UNDP, UNEP, World Bank and WRI (1998). World
CAMRE and UNEP (1997). Study on the
IEA (1999). Energy Balances of Non-OECD
Resources 1998-99. London and New York,
Application of the General Guidelines for the
countries 1971–97. Paris, Organization of
Oxford University Press
Identification of the Environment Impacts of
Economic Cooperation and Development,
World Bank (1995). Middle East and North Africa
Industry: Case Study on Adra Factory for Cement
International Energy Agency
Environmental Strategy: Towards Sustainable
and Construction Materials in Syria. Damascus,
Khalaf, F., Kadib, A., Gharib, I., Al-Hashash, M.,
Development. Washington DC, World Bank
Environmental and Scientific Research Centre,
Al-Saleh, A., Al-Kadi, A., Desouki, M., Al-Omran,
World Bank and UNDP (1998). State of the
General Commission for Environmental Affairs
L., Al-Ansari, L., Al-Houti and Al-Mudhian, L.
Environment in Syria. London, Environmental
EPA (1996). Environment Protection Authority
(1980). Dust Fallout (Toze) in Kuwait: Mineralogy,
Resources Management
Annual Report. Kuwait City, Environment
Granulometry and Distribution Pattern. Report No.
Protection Authority
KISR/PPI 108/EES-RF-8016. Kuwait City, Kuwait
Institute for Scientific Research
ATMOSPHERE
2 3 5
Atmosphere: the Polar Regions
Monthly mean ozone levels at Halley Bay, Antarctica (Dobson units)
350
The key atmospheric issues in the Arctic and
September
Antarctic are the depletion of the stratospheric ozone
October
layer, the long-range transport of air pollutants and
300
warming associated with global climate change. These
problems are mainly due to anthropogenic activities in
250
other parts of the world.
Seasonal stratospheric ozone depletion over
200
Antarctica, and more recently over the Arctic, has
been one of the major regional environmental
150
concerns since it was noticed in 1985 (Farman and
others 1985). The depth, area and duration of the
100
Antarctic ozone hole has steadily increased, reaching
1955
1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
an all-time high of around 29 million km2 in
September 2000 (WMO 2000, NASA 2001).
In the Arctic, average yearly stratospheric ozone
sheets and ice shelves, and the altered distribution
Monthly mean
ozone levels at
levels in the 1990s had declined by 10 per cent from
and abundance of species in polar regions (IPCC
the Halley Bay
site during the
the late 1970s, increasing the risk of snow blindness
2001a). Other impacts of the warming trend include a
onset of the
and sunburn.
recorded 15 per cent increase in Arctic precipitation,
Antarctic spring
The recovery of the stratospheric ozone layer in
increased storm episodes, earlier springs and a later
Source: BAS 2000
the polar regions depends primarily on the
onset of freezing conditions, and decreased marine
implementation of the Montreal Protocol on the
salinity (AMAP 1997). Permafrost thawing can itself
Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer. Therefore
add to climate change problems — for example,
the efforts of nations to phase out the use of ODS,
emissions of methane from tundra may increase while
even though they are located far from the poles, are of
reductions in the extent of highly reflective snow and
the utmost importance (UNEP 2000).
ice cover will magnify warming. These effects may
Natural ecosystems in polar regions have low
continue for centuries, long after greenhouse gas
adaptive capacity and are highly vulnerable to
concentrations are stabilized, and may cause
climate change. Climate change is expected to be
irreversible impacts on ice sheets, global ocean
more extreme in the polar regions than anywhere
circulation and sea-level rise (IPCC 2001a).
else (a warming trend of as much as 5ºC over
extensive land areas has been noted in the Arctic,
‘The permafrost zone covers 58 per cent of the territory of the
although there are some areas in eastern Canada
Russian Federation. Many human settlements, industrial plants
where temperatures have declined) and will probably
and infrastructure are located in this zone. Given the current
have major physical, ecological, social and economic
warming trend, the border of the permafrost zone could move
impacts in both the Arctic and the Antarctic (IPCC
300–400 km northward by 2100.’ — Interagency Commission 1998
2001a and b). Whether due to a natural oscillation or
global climate change, the atmospheric temperature
of Antarctica is undergoing changes. A marked
Since most industrial countries are in the
warming trend is evident in the Antarctic peninsula
Northern Hemisphere, the Arctic is more exposed to
with spectacular loss of ice shelves and an increase
anthropogenic air pollution than the Antarctic.
in the cover of higher terrestrial vegetation
Prevailing winds carry polluting substances —
although, as in the Arctic, there are also areas of
including heavy metals, POPs and sometimes
marked cooling — at the South Pole for example
radionuclides — into the Arctic where they can stay
(Neff 1999).
airborne for weeks or months and be transported over
Climate change is almost certainly responsible for
long distances (Crane and Galasso 1999). Over much
the decrease in extent and thickness of Arctic sea ice,
of the Arctic, levels of certain types of pollutants are
permafrost thawing, coastal erosion, changes in ice
so high that they cannot be attributed to sources
2 3 6
STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT AND POLICY RETROSPECTIVE: 1972–2002
The level of air pollution in the Arctic is so high
Long-range transport of pollutants to polar regions
that ‘Arctic haze’ has become a major problem. The
Some persistent toxic substances, including POPs and
term was coined in the 1950s to describe an unusual
mercury, can become volatile in warm air and be
reduction in visibility that the crews of North
transported by air masses. After deposition, they can re-
enter the atmosphere again and continue their journey,
American weather reconnaissance planes observed
becoming long-distance contaminants. The process can
during flights in the high latitudes in the Arctic. The
continue until they reach the cooler polar areas where they
haze is seasonal, with a peak in the spring, and
condense on to particles or snow flakes in the air, which
originates from anthropogenic sources of emission
eventually land on the ground. Due to low solubility in water
outside the Arctic. The haze aerosols are mainly
and high solubility in fats, they are easily incorporated into
sulphurous (up to 90 per cent) originating from coal
fat-rich polar food webs, and accumulate in biota. Due to
the combination of harsh climate conditions with physico-
burning in the northern mid-latitudes, particularly in
chemical properties of persistent toxic substances, the polar
Europe and Asia. The particles are about the same
regions, the Arctic in particular, create a sink for these
size as the wavelength of visible light, which explains
substances, which may result in their levels being higher
why the haze is so apparent to the naked eye.
than in the source regions (AMAP 1997). The
Improvement in the state of the polar environment
implementation of the recently adopted Stockholm
Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, signed in May
depends primarily on policies and measures
2001, may lead to a reduction in deposition of POPs in the
implemented by people inside and outside of the polar
polar regions.
areas. The Arctic countries have taken a number of
steps to improve air quality. These include signing the
Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air
Pollution (CLRTAP) and the relevant protocols to it,
within the region; they come from much further south.
Major sources of anthropogenic radionuclides in
the Arctic include fall-out from nuclear tests, releases
Radioactive contamination after Chernobyl
from nuclear fuel reprocessing plants, and fall-out from
the 1986 Chernobyl nuclear power plant accident. A
significant increase of radioactivity in Arctic
indigenous people was registered after the Chernobyl
accident, particularly amongst those who consumed
significant quantities of foods that concentrate radio-
caesium, such as reindeer meat, freshwater fish,
mushrooms and berries. The phenomenon was mainly
observed in 1986–89 in Norwegian and Swedish Saami
and up to 1991 in the indigenous population of the
Kola Peninsula, in the Russian Federation. Since then
the levels have been gradually falling back towards the
pre-accident levels (AMAP 1997).
Within the Arctic, the Russian Federation’s
industrial complexes have been a major source of
atmospheric pollution. Emissions of sulphur
Chernobyl
compounds and heavy metals from smelters have
137
caused major forest degradation on the Kola Peninsula
Cs kBq/m2
185
and have decreased the number of species in the
40
region. The areas severely affected by air pollution
10
2
around the Nickel-Pechenga and Varanger smelters
increased from around 400 km2 in 1973 to 5 000 km2
in 1988 (AMAP 1997). Since 1990, emissions from
Levels of caesium 137 (1 000 becquerels/m2) in Scandinavia, Finland and
the Leningrad region of Russia following the Chernobyl explosion in 1986
Russian smelters have decreased or stabilized mainly
because of the economic slowdown.
Source: AMAP 1997
ATMOSPHERE
2 3 7
ecosystems and of some traditional indigenous
The significance of Arctic haze
communities. Despite increasing activity in both the
The discovery of Arctic haze put paid to the earlier notion
domestic and international arenas, only preliminary
that aerosol pollution could only be local or regional. The
steps have been taken to address the problem of global
cold, dry air in the polar regions allows particles to remain
airborne for weeks rather than days, which in turn allows
climate change. The main regional challenge is
sulphur contaminants to spread from industrial sources in
therefore enhancing the potential for adaptation to
Eurasia across the entire Arctic and into North America. The
change that should help mitigate adverse impacts. The
haze particles can facilitate the transport of metals and other
Arctic countries have initiated an Arctic Climate
contaminants to and within the polar region and result in
Impact Assessment to be completed in 2003. It will be
the deposition of these pollutants in precipitation over major
integrated into the regional studies of the IPCC (ACIA
ocean areas surrounding the Arctic (AMAP 1997).
2001).
and supporting the development of the Stockholm
Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants. In
addition, domestic regulatory measures taken in the
United States and Canada have reduced emissions of
some POPs, heavy metals and sulphur compounds.
Actions to address stratospheric ozone depletion rely
on the successful implementation of the Montreal
Protocol by all nations (UNEP 2000).
Given the predicted increase in the global mean
temperature, climate change will impose significant
pressures on the polar regions in the 21st century.
These impacts are likely to be exacerbated by the high
vulnerability and low adaptive capacity of polar
References: Chapter 2, atmosphere, the Polar Regions
ACIA (2001). Arctic Climate Impact Assessment.
Interagency Commission (1998). The Second
Neff, W.D. (1999). Decadal time scale trends and
http://www.acia.uaf.edu
National Communication to the UNFCCC.
variability in the tropospheric circulation over the
AMAP (1997). Arctic Pollution Issues: A State of
Moscow, Interagency Commission of the Russian
South Pole. Journal of Geophysical Research-
the Arctic Environment Report. Oslo, Arctic
Federation on Climate Change Problems
Atmospheres, 104, 27217-51
Monitoring and Assessment Programme
IPCC (2001a). Climate Change 2001: Impacts,
UNEP (2000). Report of the Twelfth Meeting of
Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of
the Parties to the Montreal Protocol. UNEP Ozone
BAS (2000). BAS Ozone Bulletin 01/00. British
Working Group II to the Third Assessment Report
Secretariat
Antarctic Survey. http://www.nerc-
of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
http://www.unep.org/ozone/12mop-9.shtml [Geo-2-
bas.ac.uk/public/icd/jds/ozone/bulletins/bas0100.ht
Change. Cambridge, United Kingdom, and New
019]
ml [Geo-2-100]
York, United States, Cambridge University Press
WMO (2000). Antarctic Ozone Bulletin 5/2000.
Crane, K. and Galasso, J.L. (1999). Arctic
IPCC (2001b). Climate Change 2001: The
Geneva, World Meteorological Organization
Environmental Atlas. Washington DC, Office of
Scientific Basis. Contribution of Working Group I
Naval Research, Naval Research Laboratory
to the Third Assessment Report of the
Farman, J.C., Gardiner, B.J. and Shanklin, J.D.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
(1985). Large losses of total ozone in Antarctica
Cambridge, United Kingdom, and New York, United
reveals seasonal ClO /NO interaction. Nature
States, Cambridge University Press
X
Z
315, 207-10
NASA (2001). Largest-ever ozone hole observed
over Antarctica. NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
http://www.gsfc.nasa.gov/gsfc/earth/environ/ozone/o
zone.htm [Geo-2-017]
2 3 8
STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT AND POLICY RETROSPECTIVE: 1972–2002
OUR CHANGING ENVIRONMENT: Chomutov, Czech Republic
Pollution from coal-fired powerplants
1979
near Chomutov, Czech Republic, swept
for many years over the Krusne Hory
Mountains into Germany — that is,
from the lower right to the upper left in
the images shown on the left.
The green rectangular shapes are strip mines
which supply low-grade, sulphur-rich brown coal for
electricity generation.The burning of this low-grade
coal not only pollutes the air but also inflicts severe
damage on forests throughout Eastern Europe.
In the early 1980s, trees growing high up on the
mountains began to die. The effects are shown in the
central left portion of the two images. In the 1979
image, the dark areas represesent healthy, dense
forest. In the 2000 image, these dark areas are
replaced by areas of light grey, in which the trees have
died and mostly bare soil has been left. Extensive
clear-cutting of dead and dying trees has since
occurred. Efforts to replace the damaged forests been
widely unsuccessful.
2000
Landsat data: USGS/EROS Data Center
Compilation: UNEP GRID Sioux Falls
ATMOSPHERE
2 3 9
OUR CHANGING ENVIRONMENT: Kilimanjaro, Tanzania
Mt Kilimanjaro, located some 300 km
south of the equator in Tanzania, is
Map shows the
extent of the glacier
Africa’s highest mountain. Its permanent
in 1962 (yellow
outline, based on
ice and snow looming some 5 000 metres
geological survey)
above an undulating savanna plain have
and in 2000 (black
outline, based on
always fascinated people and attracted
Landsat imagery
and aerial survey)
many visitors to both Tanzania and Kenya.
But the glaciers of Kilimanjaro are
vanishing due to regional warming,
probably linked to global warming. The
map shows the diminishing extent of the
glaciers between 1962 and 2000. Over
these 38 years, Kilimanjaro has lost some
55 per cent of its glaciers. According to
the Byrd Polar Research Center of Ohio
State University ‘Kilimanjaro has lost 82
percent of the ice cap it had when it was
first carefully surveyed in 1912’.
view of the south eastern side of
Kibo (highest peak of Kilimanjaro)
view of the main caldera on Kibo
increasing hole in the remaining
Remnants of the eastern side
western side of the Northern Glacier
of the Northern Glacier
Landsat data: USGS/EROS Data Center
Photographs: Christian Lambrechts, UNF/UNEP/KWS/University of Bayneuth/WCST
