A View Inside Primary Schools
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A World Education Indicators (WEI) cross-national study
Why does an education system fail to provide its students with quality education? Schools
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are one of the first places to look for the answers. They represent a vital element in any
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successful effort to improve the quality of learning. Yet, policies and programmes aiming
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to achieve this goal are typically limited by the lack of reliable information on how schools
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function. The study presented in this report seeks to contribute to the understanding of
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schools across a range of education systems.
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As part of the World Education Indicators programme, the Survey of Primary Schools
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(WEI-SPS) offers unique insight into the classrooms of 11 diverse countries* in order to
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understand and monitor the factors shaping the quality and equality of primary education.
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It examines the main issues and inputs shaping primary schools: the background
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characteristics of pupils; demographic and educational characteristics of teachers and
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school heads; school resources and conditions; instructional time; school management;
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teaching and learning styles in the classroom; as well as learning opportunities provided
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to pupils.
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The survey was designed to ensure that these data could be compared internationally.
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Therefore, it serves as a valuable resource for everyone interested in education quality
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and equality – from policymakers to teachers and academics.
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* Argentina, Brazil, Chile, India, Malaysia, Paraguay, Peru, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Tunisia and Uruguay.
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The report and data can be accessed at:
www.uis.unesco.org
ISBN 978-92-9189-058-3
9 789291 890583
A View inside PrimAry schools
A World Education Indicators (WEI)
cross-national study
Edited by:
Yanhong Zhang
T. Neville Postlethwaite
Aletta Grisay
UNESCO Institute for Statistics
Montreal, 2008
UNESCO
The constitution of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) was adopted
by 20 countries at the London Conference in November 1945 and entered into effect on November 4, 1946. The
Organization currently has 193 Member States and six Associate Members.
The main objective of UNESCO is to contribute to peace and security in the world by promoting collaboration among
nations through education, science, culture and communication in order to foster universal respect for justice, the
rule of law, and the human rights and fundamental freedoms that are affirmed for the peoples of the world, without
distinction of race, sex, language or religion, by the Charter of the United Nations.
To fulfil its mandate, UNESCO performs five principal functions: 1) prospective studies on education, science, culture
and communication; 2) the advancement, transfer and sharing of knowledge through research, training and teaching
activities; 3) standard-setting actions for the preparation and adoption of internal instruments and statutory
recommendations; 4) expertise through technical co-operation to Member States for their development policies and
projects; and 5) the exchange of specialized information.
UNESCO is headquartered in Paris, France.
The UNESCO Institute for Statistics
The UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) is the statistical office of UNESCO and is the UN depository for global
statistics in the fields of education, science and technology, culture and communication.
The UIS was established in 1999. It was created to improve UNESCO’s statistical programme and to develop and
deliver the timely, accurate and policy-relevant statistics needed in today’s increasingly complex and rapidly changing
social, political and economic environments.
The UIS is based in Montreal, Canada.
Published in 2008 by:
UNESCO Institute for Statistics
P.O. Box 6128, Succursale Centre-Ville
Montreal, Quebec H3C 3J7
Canada
Tel: (1 514) 343-6880
Fax: (1 514) 343-5740
Email: publications@uis.unesco.org
http://www.uis.unesco.org
ISBN 978-92-9189-058-3
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
Photo credit: © Tomas van Houtryve / Panos Pictures
Design: Tam Fung-Kwan
Printed by: Imprimerie L’Empreinte
Ref: UIS/AP/08-01
The ideas and opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors and are not necessarily those of UNESCO and do not commit
the Organization.
The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever
on the part of UNESCO concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities or concerning the delimitation of its
frontiers or boundaries.
Foreword
Why does an education system fail to provide its students with quality education? Schools are one of the first places
to look for the answers. They represent a vital element in any successful effort to improve the quality of learning. Yet,
policies and programmes aiming to achieve this goal are typically limited by the lack of reliable information on how
schools function. The study presented in this report seeks to contribute to the understanding of the role of schools
across a range of education systems.
The World Education Indicators' Survey of Primary Schools (WEI-SPS) offers unique insight into the classrooms of
11 diverse countries* in order to understand and monitor the factors shaping the quality and equality of primary
education. It examines the main issues and inputs shaping primary schools: the background characteristics of
pupils; demographic and educational characteristics of teachers and school heads; school resources and conditions;
instructional time; school management; teaching and learning styles in the classroom; as well as learning opportunities
provided to pupils.
The survey was designed to ensure that these data could be compared internationally. It serves as a valuable resource
for everyone interested in education quality and equity – from policymakers to teachers and academics.
As part of the WEI programme, the study is the result of a collaborative effort amongst participating countries, the
UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) and leading international experts. The WEI programme aims to develop a critical
mass of policy-relevant education indicators and includes special projects, such as this survey, to broaden the scope
and comparability of education data.
WEI-SPS represented a major challenge and investment for the UIS and the countries involved. In 200-2004,
national and international experts, as well as UIS staff, began designing and testing the questionnaires for school
heads and Grade 4 teachers. The following year, the target populations and the sampling frames were defined before
calibrating the school samples to yield national estimates with small sampling errors. Between 2005 and 2007, the
data were collected, cleaned and then analyzed for this publication and an international database.
The survey also benefited from the experience of diverse organizations and projects. In particular, the design of the
questionnaires drew on the instruments developed by the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational
Achievement (IEA), Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), School Achievement
Indicators Program (Canada), Schools and Staffing Survey (United States), the Southern and Eastern Consortium
for Monitoring of Educational Quality (SACMEQ), Zelfevaluatie basisonderwijs – ZEBO (Self-Evaluation in Primary
Education, the Netherlands), Victorian Department of Education (Australia) and the Assessment Research Centre
(University of Melbourne, Australia).
By analyzing the diverse components and issues shaping policies and programmes regarding primary schools, the
study can be used to evaluate strengths and weaknesses of educational systems. Furthermore, the comparative
nature of the study allows each participating country to evaluate its position in relation to others in terms of
* Argentina, Brazil, Chile, India, Malaysia, Paraguay, Peru, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Tunisia and Uruguay.
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
FOREWORD
the inputs, policies and processes of schools. These comparisons must obviously be interpreted within the unique
traditions and contexts of each education system. But this framework will serve as a resource now and in the years
to come for those committed to improving educational quality and equality.
For more information about the study, to download the summary and/or full report and to access the international
database, please consult www.uis.unesco.org.
Hendrik van der Pol
Director
UNESCO Institute for Statistics
4
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
Table of contents
Foreword
3
Reader’s guide
17
Chapter 1: Introduction
19
Background
19
Survey objectives
19
Conceptual framework
20
Conducting the survey
20
Questionnaire development
20
Sampling
21
Context of primary schools in WEI-SPS countries
21
Structure of primary education
22
Participation in primary education
22
Financing of primary schools
26
Teacher training
27
Curriculum
28
Current reforms affecting primary schools
29
Summary
29
Organization of the report
29
Chapter 2: The context of primary schooling
31
In what types of communities did primary pupils live?
31
What was the distance to public amenities?
34
How many pupils were enrolled in public and private schools?
37
Where were the private schools?
38
What was the total enrolment in primary schools?
38
What was the perceived physical condition of school buildings?
40
What school resources were available?
41
Electricity and running water
41
Sufficiency
43
Facilities
44
Special teaching rooms
44
Equipment
4
Computers
4
Resources by school location
46
Resource levels and background characteristics of pupils served by the schools
48
Differences in school resources within regions
49
Conclusion
49
Country profiles
1
Chapter 3: Characteristics of pupils in schools
53
Admission policies of primary schools
3
Characteristics of pupil intake at the school level
Index of Social advantage of pupil intake
7
Pupil engagement in school as perceived by school heads
7
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
TABlE OF CONTENTS
Pupil behavioural problems as perceived by school heads
61
Gender equality in single-sex and co-educational schools
64
Hours of instruction and lost school days
6
Conclusion
69
Country profiles
70
Chapter 4: School heads and teaching staff
73
Age and gender of school heads
73
Highest levels of education of school heads
74
levels of pre-service teacher training and management training
76
Pupil-teacher ratios, average numbers of teachers per school, levels of education of staff and years
of pre-service training
78
Staff levels of education
80
Stability of school staff
80
Filling staff vacancies
82
In-service teacher training
84
Perceived behavioural problems among teachers
86
Conclusion
89
Country profiles
90
Chapter 5: School management, inspection and parental involvement in school
91
School heads and instructional leadership
91
School governance and school autonomy
96
Monitoring and evaluation
102
Parental involvement
107
Conclusion
110
Country profiles
111
Chapter 6: Grade 4 pupils and their classrooms
115
Socio-economic advantage/disadvantage of Grade 4 pupils, as perceived by their teachers
11
Pupil attitudes towards school
118
levels of grade repetition in schools
121
Grade 4 class organization, teacher time and textbook supply
122
Single-grade versus multi-grade schools
123
Class size
123
Subject matter versus general class teachers
123
Teaching time
124
Pupils having sufficient textbooks
127
Basic classroom resources
128
Conclusion
131
Country profiles
132
Chapter 7: General characteristics of Grade 4 teachers and their teaching
133
Background characteristics of Grade 4 teachers
133
Teacher workload
137
In-service training for teachers (INSET)
139
lesson structure
140
Teaching styles
140
Pupil learning approaches as perceived by teachers
14
Pupil assessment
149
Conclusion
11
Country profiles
12
6
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
A View inside PrimAry schools
Chapter 8: Teacher attitudes, perceptions and satisfaction
155
introduction
155
Teachers’ perceptions of school staff’s expectations concerning academic achievement
155
Teachers’ positive or negative perception of selected aspects of their professional life
158
i) role of school heads in implementing a shared vision of school objectives among staff
158
ii) Teacher complaints about factors hindering instruction
161
iii) Teacher professional satisfaction
163
Teachers' perception of their social status
166
Gender effects
169
conclusion
11
Country profiles
11
Chapter 9: Opportunity to learn in Grade 4 classes – reading instruction
175
introduction
15
oTl in the wei/sPs study
16
oTl information collected from national experts
16
oTl information collected from teachers
1
The reading oTl instrument
1
difficulty of the reading materials used in Grade 4 classes
19
Types of reading materials used in Grade 4 classes
182
Types of questions and activities used in reading lessons
186
emphasis put on various types of reading activities
188
Perceived difficulty of the various reading tasks for Grade 4 pupils
193
within-country differences
199
conclusion
201
Country profiles
203
Chapter 10: Summary and conclusions
209
contexts of the wei-sPs schools
209
school and classroom resources
209
school buildings
210
staffing of schools
211
instructional time and teaching load
212
Behaviour problems in schools
213
school management and parental involvement
213
Grade 4 teachers’ perceptions, attitudes and work satisfaction
214
opportunity to learn (oTl)
214
References
21
Appendix A: statistical tables
221
Appendix B: construction of indices and other derived measures from variables in the school
and teacher questionnaires
29
Appendix C: Principal participants in the project
289
© Unesco-Uis 2008
TABlE OF CONTENTS
List of text tables
Table 1.1
Structure of pre-primary to lower secondary education
22
Table 1.2
Net enrolment rate (NER) and gross enrolment ratio (GER) at the primary level of education
23
Table 1.3
Expenditure on educational institutions by level
26
Table 1.4
Pre-service training requirements for new teachers in public institutions at the primary level
of education, 2000
27
Table 1.
years of education required for Grade 4 teachers
27
Table 1.6
Set instruction time for 9-year-old pupils in public institutions
28
Table 1.7
Set instruction time across subjects in primary schools.
28
Table 2.1
Distance to nearest public amenities (in kilometres)
34
Table 2.2
Number of pupils enrolled in primary school, by school location
38
Table 2.3
Percentage of pupils in schools with electricity and water
43
Table 2.4
Percentage of pupils in schools with sufficient resources
43
Table 2.
Percentage of pupils in schools with basic facilities
44
Table 2.6
Percentage of pupils in schools with special teaching rooms
44
Table 2.7
Percentage of pupils in schools with basic equipment
4
Table 2.8
Percentage of pupils in schools with computers
46
Table 2.9
Correlation between number of school resources and the index of Social advantage of school intake
48
Table 2.10 Results of ANOVA analysis for total resources among regions
49
Table 3.1
School head's perception of characteristics of pupil intake
6
Table 3.2
School head's perception of pupils’ school engagement
9
Table 3.3
Correlation between the index of Pupils’ school engagement and selected school characteristics
61
Table 3.4
Correlation between the index of Pupils’ positive behaviour and selected school characteristics
63
Table 4.1
Participation of school heads in pre-service teacher training and management courses
78
Table 4.2
Percentage of pupils in schools with less than 70% staff stability, by school location
82
Table 4.3
Percentage of pupils with teachers with behavioural problems
88
Table 4.4
Correlation between the index of Teacher behavioural problems and index of Social advantage
of school intake
88
Table .1
Administrative activities of school heads
93
Table .2
Instructional support activities of school heads
94
Table .3
Emphasis of school head’s work, by school size and school head's level of education
9
Table 6.1
Correlation between Perceived pupil motivation and selected variables of the classroom environment
118
Table 7.1
years of education and training of teachers
136
Table 7.2
Correlation between the index of Pupil-centred teaching practices and selected teacher
and classroom variables
14
Table 7.3
Correlation between the index of Active pupil learning and selected teacher and classroom variables 149
Table 7.4
Percentage of pupils assessed on their responses in class
149
Table 7.
Percentage of pupils assessed on teacher-made tests
10
Table 7.6
Percentage of pupils assessed on their work in exercise books
10
Table 7.7
Percentage of pupils assessed on homework assignments
10
Table 7.8
Percentage of pupils assessed on externally-made tests
11
8
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
A VIEW INSIDE PRIMARy SCHOOlS
Table 8.1
Correlation between the index of Emphasis on academic achievement and selected characteristics
of pupils
17
Table 8.2
Correlation between the index of Vision of school objectives and selected characteristics
of the classroom environment
160
Table 8.3
Correlation between the index of Teacher complaints and selected characteristics of the pupils taught 163
Table 8.4
Correlation between reported data and teacher perceptions of class size and classroom resources 16
Table 8.
Correlation between the index of Teacher professional satisfaction and selected variables
16
Table 8.6
Correlation between the index of Perceived social status of teachers and selected characteristics
of teachers and the classroom environment
168
Table 9.1
Number of reading OTl questionnaires returned by country
177
Table 9.2
National experts’ perceptions of the level of difficulty of reading material in their national
textbooks in comparison to the benchmark text
179
Table 9.3
Teachers' perceptions of difficulty of materials used in reading lessons
180
Table 9.4
Overall index of Difficulty of national reading materials
181
Table 9.
National experts’ description of the intended curriculum: Types of reading materials
to be used in Grade 4 classes
182
Table 9.6
Teachers’ description of the implemented curriculum: Reading material typically used
in Grade 4 classes
183
Table 9.7
Overall index of Variety of reading materials used in Grade 4
18
Table 9.8
Emphasis on various types of reading activities
189
Table 9.9
National experts’ perceptions of the emphasis placed on various reading activities in
Grade 4 curricula
192
Table 9.10 Teachers’ perceptions of the difficulty of selected reading activities
194
Table 9.11 National experts’ perceptions of the difficulty of various reading activities for Grade 4 pupils
and the grade for which it would be most appropriate
196
Table 9.12 Index of Perceived difficulty of reading activities
197
Table 9.13 Index of Grade when the reading activities would be appropriate
197
Table 9.14 Mean values of the index of Perceived difficulty of reading activities and index of Grade when
reading activities would be appropriate, by school location and type
199
Table 9.1 Correlation between the index of Perceived difficulty of reading activities and selected characteristics
of the classroom environment
200
Table 9.16 Correlation between the index of Grade when reading activities would be appropriate and selected
characteristics of the classroom environment
201
List of figures
Figure 1.1 Net enrolment rates by single year of age at pre-primary and primary education levels
24
Figure 2.1 Distribution of primary pupils by school location
31
Figure 2.2 Comparison of village schools and enrolment as shares of the totals
32
Figure 2.3 Distance to nearest public amenities by distribution of the primary pupil population
36
Figure 2.4 Percentage of primary pupils in public and private schools
37
Figure 2. Enrolment in city/town private schools as a percentage of total private school enrolment
39
Figure 2.6 Percentage of primary pupils in villages and their enrolment in private schools as a percentage
of the total private school population
39
Figure 2.7 Primary pupils in schools with poor infrastructure
40
Figure 2.8 Number of school resources by distribution of the primary pupil population
42
Figure 2.9 Mean values of indices of school resource groups
47
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
9
Table of conTenTs
figure 3.1 criteria for admission into primary schools
53
figure 3.2 admission on the basis of academic ability (pupil selection), by school type
54
figure 3.3 admission on the basis of academic ability, by school location
55
figure 3.4 comparing pupil backgrounds of school intake
58
figure 3.5 Differences in mean values of the index of Pupils’ school engagement, expressed as effect sizes
60
figure 3.6 school heads’ perceptions of pupils' behaviour at school
62
figure 3.7 Differences in mean values of the index of Pupils’ positive behaviour, expressed as effect sizes
63
figure 3.8 Percentage of pupils attending single-sex schools
64
figure 3.9 Variation in instructional time across and within countries
65
figure 3.10 Mean number of school hours per year for Grade 4 pupils, by school type
66
figure 3.11 number of days school was officially open, by distribution of primary pupils
67
figure 3.12 lost school days as a percentage of total number of official school days, by distribution of primary pupils 68
figure 3.13 lost school days as a percentage of total number of official school days, by school type
69
figure 4.1 Mean age of school heads
73
figure 4.2 female school heads and female teachers
74
figure 4.3 female school heads by school location
75
figure 4.4 level of education attained by school heads
75
figure 4.5 school heads with tertiary education, by school location
76
figure 4.6 average number of years of pre-service teacher training
77
figure 4.7 average number of days of management training of school heads
77
figure 4.8 average pupil-teacher ratio, by school location
79
figure 4.9 average number of teachers per school, by school location
79
figure 4.10 large class sizes in primary schools
80
figure 4.11 average number of years of staff education, by school location
81
figure 4.12 staff stability in primary schools
81
figure 4.13 Percentage of pupils in schools with permanent and temporary vacancies
83
figure 4.14 school heads' perceptions of teacher shortages
83
figure 4.15 Teachers with in-service training
84
figure 4.16 Types of in-service training courses completed by teachers
85
figure 4.17 school heads' perception of teacher behavioural problems
86
figure 4.18 Mean values of the index of Staff behavioural problems, by school location
87
figure 4.19 Mean values of the index of Staff behavioural problems, by school type
87
figure 5.1 Teaching obligations of school heads
92
figure 5.2 comparing the emphasis of school heads’ work across schools
96
figure 5.3 Presence of governing boards across schools
97
figure 5.4 composition of school governing boards
97
figure 5.5 school autonomy on decision-making
99
figure 5.6 extent of autonomy of primary schools
100
figure 5.7 Differences in decision-making autonomy between public and private schools, by issue
101
figure 5.8 school self-evaluations and teacher appraisals
103
figure 5.9 external inspections of schools
104
figure 5.10 Purpose of external inspections
105
figure 5.11 Purposes of school assessments
106
figure 5.12 Parental involvement in various school activities
108
figure 5.13 Parents’ financial involvement in procuring school supplies
109
figure 5.14 Involvement of parental organizations in procuring school supplies
110
10
© Unesco-UIs 2008
A View inside PrimAry schools
Figure 6.1 Background characteristics of pupils as perceived by teachers
116
Figure 6.2 mean scores of the index of Social advantage of classroom intake, by school location
117
Figure 6.3 Grade 4 teachers’ perceptions of pupil attitudes
119
Figure 6.4 comparing teacher-perceived pupil motivation across schools
120
Figure 6.5 Percentage of Grade 4 pupils expected to be promoted to Grade 5
121
Figure 6.6 Percentage of pupils expected to be promoted to lower secondary school
122
Figure 6.7 Percentage of pupils in schools in single-grade or multi-grade classes, by school location
123
Figure 6.8 Average class size by school location
124
Figure 6.9 Percentage of pupils with subject matter and general class teachers
125
Figure 6.10 number of weeks the school operated during the previous year
125
Figure 6.11 Annual number of hours for reading and mathematics instruction
126
Figure 6.12 number of hours of teaching time, by school location and subject
126
Figure 6.13 Percentage of pupils sharing textbooks for reading/language instruction
127
Figure 6.14 Percentage of pupils sharing textbooks for mathematics instruction
128
Figure 6.15 Access to basic classroom resources
129
Figure 6.16 number of classroom resource items, by school location
130
Figure 6.17 Percentage of pupils who were able to borrow and take books home
130
Figure 7.1 Teacher compensation as a percentage of current total primary school expenditure
133
Figure 7.2 mean age of teachers
134
Figure 7.3 Percentage of Grade 4 pupils with female teachers
134
Figure 7.4 Percentage of Grade 4 pupils with male teachers, by school location
135
Figure 7.5 mean years of employment as a teacher, teaching Grade 4 and teaching in the current school
136
Figure 7.6 workload of teachers working at one school only
137
Figure 7.7 workload of teachers working at more than one school
138
Figure 7.8 Percentage Grade 4 pupils with teachers working at more than one school
138
Figure 7.9 Percentage of pupils with teachers who participated in different types of in-service training activities 139
Figure 7.10 structure of Grade 4 lessons
141
Figure 7.11 Use of teacher-centred teaching practices
143
Figure 7.12 Use of strongly-structured teaching practices
143
Figure 7.13 Use of pupil-centred teaching practices
144
Figure 7.14 Teaching practices compared within countries
145
Figure 7.15 Use of active learning approaches
146
Figure 7.16 Use of group work approaches
147
Figure 7.17 Use of rote repetition approaches
148
Figure 7.18 mean values of indices of learning approaches
148
Figure 8.1 Teachers’ perception of Emphasis on academic achievement among school staff
156
Figure 8.2 Teachers’ satisfaction with the role of the school head in implementing a shared Vision of school
objectives among school staff
158
Figure 8.3 Teacher complaints about lack of discipline and administrative workload
159
Figure 8.4 Teachers’ satisfaction with salary and teaching conditions
161
Figure 8.5 Teacher complaints about lack of discipline and administrative workload
162
Figure 8.6 differences in mean values of the index of Teacher complaints, by school location and type,
expressed as effect sizes
162
Figure 8.7 Teacher satisfaction about salary and teaching conditions
164
Figure 8.8 differences in mean values of the index of Teacher professional satisfaction, by school location
and type, expressed as effect sizes
166
© Unesco-Uis 2008
11
Table of conTenTs
figure 8.9 Percentage of Grade 4 pupils whose teacher perceived the social status of primary teachers
in their country as lower than, same as or higher than that of other professionals with the same
amount of education
167
figure 8.10 Mean values of the index of Perceived teacher status, by country
168
figure 8.11 Differences in mean values of the index of Perceived teacher status, by school location and
type, expressed as effect sizes
169
figure 8.12 standardized differences for selected indices, by teacher gender
170
figure 9.1 Index of Perceived difficulty of national reading materials across WeI-sPs countries
181
figure 9.2 national profiles of use of reading materials
184
figure 9.3 national profiles of Emphasis on various types of reading activities
190
figure 9.4 Rasch scale of Perceived difficulty of reading activities
195
figure 9.5 overall indices of Perceived difficulty of reading activities and Grade when the activities
would be appropriate
198
List of text boxes
box 2.1
How to read statistical tables in this report?
33
box 2.2
How to read box plots?
35
box 3.1
comparing the magnitude of differences among groups
58
box 9.1
The benchmark text
178
box 9.2
Question on the difficulty of own reading materials
179
box 9.3
Question on types of materials used
182
box 9.4
Questions on the types of reading activities used in Grade 4 classes
186
box 9.5
Types of reading questions used
186
List of statistical tables
Table a2.1 Distribution of primary pupils by school location
222
Table a2.2 Percentage of primary schools and pupils in villages
222
Table a2.3 Distance to nearest public amenities by distribution of the primary pupil population (in kilometres)
222
Table a2.4 Distribution of primary pupils, by school type
223
Table a2.5 Distribution of private school enrolment, by school location
223
Table a2.6 Percentage of primary pupils attending school, by condition of the infrastructure
223
Table a2.7 number of school resources by the distribution of the primary pupil population
224
Table a2.8 Mean values of indices of school resource groups
224
Table a3.1 factors considered as high priority or prerequisite for admission of primary pupils
225
Table a3.2 consideration given to performance on school entry tests for admission of primary pupils,
by school type and location
225
Table a3.3 composition of pupil intake as reported by school heads
226
Table a3.4 Differences in mean values of the index of Social advantage of school intake, expressed as effect sizes 226
Table a3.5 Percentage of primary pupils with various attitudes and behaviours in school, as reported
by school heads
227
Table a3.6 Differences in mean values of the index of Pupil’s school engagement, expressed as effect sizes
227
Table a3.7 school head's perception of pupils’ behaviour at school
228
Table a3.8 Differences in mean values of the index of Pupils’ behavioural problems, expressed as effect sizes
228
12
© Unesco-UIs 2008
A VIEW INSIDE PRIMARy SCHOOlS
Table A3.9 Percentage of pupils attending single-sex schools
229
Table A3.10 Number of hours of instruction per year by distribution of the pupil population
229
Table A3.11 Mean number of hours of instruction per year, by school type
229
Table A3.12 Number of days school was officially open, by distribution of primary pupils
230
Table A3.13 lost school days as a percentage of the total number of official school days, by distribution
of primary pupils
230
Table A3.14 Days lost as a percentage of days of instruction, by school type
230
Table A4.1 Mean age of school heads and percentage of pupils with female heads
231
Table A4.2 Percentage of pupils with female teachers, by school location
231
Table A4.3 Percentage of primary pupils by level of education of their school heads, by school location
231
Table A4.4 Pupil-teacher ratio and teacher-per-school ratio
232
Table A4. Percentage of pupils in large classes
232
Table A4.6 Number of years of education and pre-service training of teachers
232
Table A4.7 Percentage of pupils by levels of staff stability
233
Table A4.8 Permanent and temporary vacancies in schools
233
Table A4.9 Percentage of pupils in schools with teacher shortages
233
Table A4.10 Teachers’ attendance in in-service training in previous 12 months, by school location
234
Table A4.11 Percentage of pupils by type in-service training courses followed by their teachers
234
Table A4.12 Percentage of pupils with teachers with behavioural problems, by school location
234
Table A4.13 Mean values of the index of Teacher behavioural problems, by school location and type
23
Table A.1 Percentage of primary pupils whose school heads reported having weekly teaching obligations
236
Table A.2 Administrative activities carried out by school heads once a week or daily
236
Table A.3 Instructional support activities carried out by school heads once a week or daily
237
Table A.4 Differences in mean values of the index of Emphasis of school head’s work, by school type and location 237
Table A. Percentage of primary pupils in schools with a governing board, by school type
238
Table A.6 Composition of school governing boards
238
Table A.7 Areas in which schools had major responsibility
239
Table A.8 Mean values of the index of School autonomy on various decisions
239
Table A.9 Index of School autonomy by issue and school type
240
Table A.10 Frequency of school self-evaluations and teacher appraisals in the previous five years
241
Table A.11 Percentage of primary pupils in schools that had not been visited by an external inspector
in the previous two years
241
Table A.12 Purpose of external school insepctions done in the previous two years
241
Table A.13 Percentage of pupils in schools with selected types of assessments
242
Table A.14 Parental involvement in selected school activities
244
Table A.1 Parents' financial involvement in procuring school supplies
244
Table A.16 Percentage of pupils who received school supplies from parent-teacher associations or other
parental groups
244
Table A6.1 Percentage of Grade 4 pupils with selected background characteristics
24
Table A6.2 Mean values of the social advantage of classroom intake
246
Table A6.3 Percentage of Grade 4 pupils whose teachers reported ‘most’ or ‘all’ pupils had
the following attitudes
246
Table A6.4 Differences in the index of Teacher-perceived pupil motivation, expressed as effect sizes
247
Table A6. Percentage of Grade 4 pupils repeating or being promoted
247
Table A6.6 Percentage of pupils in single-grade or multi-grade class, by school location
247
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
13
TABlE OF CONTENTS
Table A6.7 Class size by school location
248
Table A6.8 Percentage of pupils by subject matter or general class teachers
248
Table A6.9 Number of weeks the school operated during the previous year
248
Table A6.10 Number of weekly and annual hours for reading and mathematics instruction
249
Table A6.11 Annual number of hours for reading and mathematics instruction, by school location
249
Table A6.12 Percentage of Grade 4 pupils who shared textbooks for reading/language instruction
249
Table A6.13 Percentage of Grade 4 pupils who shared textbooks for mathematics instruction
20
Table A6.14 Percentage of Grade 4 pupils with access to basic classroom resources
20
Table A6.1 Index of Classroom resources, by school location
20
Table A7.1 Expenditure on teacher compensation as a percentage of current total primary school expenditure
21
Table A7.2 Background characteristics of Grade 4 teachers
21
Table A7.3 Percentage of Grade 4 pupils by gender of their teachers and school location
21
Table A7.4 Workload of teachers working at one school only, in hours per week
22
Table A7. Workload of teachers working at more than one school, in hours per week
22
Table A7.6 Percentage of Grade 4 pupils by workload of their teacher
22
Table A7.7 Percentage of time spent on selected classroom activities during a typical lesson
23
Table A7.8 Percentage of pupils whose teachers reported teacher-centred teaching practices
24
Table A7.9 Percentage of pupils whose teachers reported strongly-structured teaching practices
2
Table A7.10 Percentage of pupils whose teachers reported pupil-centred teaching practices
26
Table A7.11 Index of Teaching practices
26
Table A7.12 Teacher-centred factor loadings
27
Table A7.13 Strongly-structured factor loadings
27
Table A7.14 Pupil-centred factor loadings
27
Table A7.1 Percentage of pupils whose teachers engaged in active learning approaches
28
Table A7.16 Percentage of pupils whose teachers engaged in group work learning approaches
29
Table A7.17 Percentage of pupils whose teachers engaged in rote repetition learning approaches
29
Table A7.18 Index of Learning approaches
260
Table A7.19 Active learning factor loadings
260
Table A7.20 Group work factor loadings
260
Table A7.21 Rote repetition factor loadings
261
Table A7.22 Correlation between Group work pupil learning and selected teacher and classroom variables
261
Table A7.23 Correlation between Rote repetition pupil learning and selected teacher and classroom variables
261
Table A7.24 Percentage of teachers reporting to use the following assessment strategies on a daily or weekly basis 262
Table A7.2 Mean values of the index of Active pupil learning, by school type and location
262
Table A7.26 Mean values of the index of Group work pupil learning, by school type and location
262
Table A7.27 Mean values of the index of Rote repetition pupil learning, by school type and location
263
Table A7.28 Mean values of the index of Teacher-centred teaching practice, by school type and location
263
Table A7.29 Mean values of the index of Strongly-structured teaching practice, by school type and location
263
Table A7.30 Mean values of the index of Pupil-centred teaching practice, by school type and location
264
Table A7.31 Percentage of Grade 4 pupils with teachers who participated in in-service training activities
264
Table A8.1 Percentage of Grade 4 pupils whose teachers reported that the school placed great emphasis on
academic achievement
26
Table A8.2 Percentage of Grade 4 pupils whose teachers perceived the school head to implement a shared
vision of the school’s objectives among staff
266
Table A8.3 Percentage of Grade 4 pupils whose teachers complained about lack of discipline and
administrative workload
267
14
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
A View inside PrimAry schools
Table A8.4 Percentage of Grade 4 pupils whose teachers reported their level of professional satisfaction
268
Table A8.5 mean values for selected indices
269
Table A8.6 differences in mean values of the index of Emphasis on academic achievement, expressed
as effect sizes
269
Table A8.7 differences in mean values of the index of Vision of school objectives, expressed as effect sizes
270
Table A8.8 differences in mean values of the index of Teacher complaints, expressed as effect sizes
270
Table A8.9 differences in mean values of the index of Teacher professional satisfaction, expressed as effect sizes
271
Table A8.10 Percentage of Grade 4 pupils whose teachers perceived the social status of primary teachers
in their country as lower than, same as or higher than that of other professionals with
same amount of education
271
Table A8.11 differences in mean values of the index of Perceived teachers status, expressed as effect sizes
272
Table A8.12 standardized differences for selected indices, by teacher gender
273
Table A9.1 Percentage of Grade 4 pupils by the level of difficulty of the material used in their reading lessons
compared to a reference text from Pirls
274
Table A9.2 Patterns of emphasis on selected types of reading activities (standardized scores)
275
Table A9.3 Teachers' perceptions of the difficulty of selected reading activities
276
Table A9.4 index of Perceived difficulty of reading activities
277
© Unesco-Uis 2008
15
Reader’s guide
The data presented in this report are based on national probability samples in all participating countries except
India. The data for India cover four states only: Assam, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu.
Data interpretation
The statistics represent sample estimates generalized to pupils on the basis of responses provided by school
heads and teachers, rather than values that would have been calculated if data were collected from schools and
classes attended by every student in every country. Consequently, it is important to have measures of the degree
of uncertainty of the estimates. For this reason, each estimate is accompanied by the standard error of sampling
measure.
The use of confidence intervals provides a way to make inferences about the population means and proportions in
a manner that reflects the uncertainty associated with the sample estimates. From an observed sample statistic it
can, under the assumption of a normal distribution, be inferred that the corresponding population result would lie
within the confidence interval in 95 out of 100 replications of the measurement on different samples drawn from
the same population.
In many cases, readers are primarily interested in whether a given value in a particular country is different from a
second value in the same or another country, e.g. whether teachers of Grade 4 pupils in rural schools on average
have the same number of years of schooling as their counterparts in schools located in urban areas. In Chapter 2,
where such estimates have been presented for the first time, a detailed presentation of an example of confidence
limits is given. It is crucial for readers to examine the certainty associated with estimates in order to make valid
interpretation of differences between two estimates. Furthermore, if any country undertakes a similar study in
the future, it will be possible to check whether any observed change over time in the indicators of interest is
statistically significant.
In most cases, the values in tables are presented in terms of pupils. The survey data appearing in this report
are based on responses provided by school heads and teachers, but the data are presented in all cases from the
perspective of pupils. To achieve this perspective, school and teacher data are weighted by pupil enrolment, i.e. the
‘weight’ of a school or a teacher in the aggregate national result is proportionate to its primary or Grade 4 pupil
enrolment. In other words, pupils are the unit of analysis even though the variables described in Chapters 2 to 9
refer to teachers and schools. For example, a percentage for a variable that describes schools should be interpreted
as ‘the stated percentages of pupils who are in schools with that particular characteristic’. Similarly, where the mean
of a variable is presented for a teacher or school, it means that the average pupil has a teacher with, or is in a school
with, the stated characteristic.
More specifically, in Chapters 2 to 5 the data are weighted to represent pupils in primary schools. Thus, the results
shown are proportional to the number of primary school pupils in each country. In Chapters 6 to 8, the data are
weighted to represent all Grade 4 pupils. In Chapter 9, the data are weighted to represent all Grade 4 pupils of
teachers teaching in the mother tongue.
More information on the weighting scheme is presented in the Technical Report of the WEI-SPS (UNESCO-UIS,
forthcoming).
Data underlying the figures
The data referred to in the analyses are presented in Appendix A.
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
17
REAdER’S GUIdE
Three symbols are used to denote missing data:
a The category does not apply in the country concerned. data are, therefore, missing.
m data are unavailable. Unless otherwise noted, these data were collected but subsequently removed
from the publication for technical or other reasons at the request of the country concerned.
n Magnitude is nil.
Calculation of international trends
A WEI-SPS median is presented for most indicators. This measure of central tendency, rather than an average, was
selected because there are only 11 countries.
Reporting of standardized indices
Some of the summary indices used in this report have been standardized for each country, while others were
standardized across the participating countries. When standardized for each country, the values of the indices
represent deviations from the mean of the country, and the unit of the scale represents the national standard
deviation, i.e. the average of the squared deviations of each school’s or teacher’s score from the country mean.
When standardized across participating countries, the values of the indices represent deviations from the cross-
country mean, and the unit of the scale represents the international standard deviation, i.e. the average of the
squared deviations of each school’s or teacher’s score from the cross-country mean.
Rounding of figures
Because of rounding, some figures in the tables may not add up exactly to the totals. Totals, differences and averages
are always calculated on the basis of exact numbers and are rounded only after calculation.
Abbreviations and acronyms
The following abbreviations are used:
EFA Education for All
GER Gross enrolment ratio
ISCEd International Standard Classification of Education
NER Net enrolment rate
OECd Organisation of Economic Co-operation and development
PPP Purchasing power parity
Sd Standard deviation
SE Sampling error
UIS UNESCO Institute for Statistics
WEI World Education Indicators programme
WEI-SPS World Education Indicators’ Survey of Primary Schools
Further documentation
For more information on the Survey of Primary Schools, please visit: www.uis.unesco.org.
18
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
1 Introduction
Yanhong Zhang and Hélène Tran (UNESCO Institute for Statistics)
In 2005 and 2006, 11 of the 19 countries involved
which pupils and teachers face, and the support for
in the World Education Indicators (WEI) programme
change available in both education systems and the
participated in the Survey of Primary Schools (SPS). The
communities they serve.
aim was to collect more detailed information about
the context, conditions and conduct of their primary
Survey objectives
schools. The results of the study have been summarized
The objective of the WEI-SPS study was to obtain
and presented in this report.
cross-national data on how schools function, including
the level of school resources and potential indicators
Background
of practices related to quality and equality issues in
The WEI programme was founded in 1997 as a joint
education. The participating countries wanted to use
endeavour of the UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS)
the data collected to explore questions about school
and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
inputs, policies and processes. The countries were also
Development (OECD). Its work has focused on the
interested in learning the extent to which resources
consolidation of basic education statistics, as well as
and good practices were equitably distributed among
special projects to collect data on current and emerging
schools in their education systems.
issues in education. Part of the value of these studies has
Specifically, the countries hoped that the data would
been to bring other information gaps to light, notably
help address the following questions:
the lack of authoritative and comparable data around
• How did the contexts of primary schools compare
quality and equality issues in education. The WEI-SPS was
across countries? What were the levels of material
conceived in 2002 with the goal of addressing that gap.
and human resources, and how did they compare
The WEI-SPS study took place against a global backdrop
across countries? How equitable is distribution of
of rapid progress on access to schooling, which is
these resources within countries?
central to the achievement of the Education for All
• What were the basic characteristics of the pupil
(EFA) goals for 2015. In 2004, 86 percent of primary
population served by primary schools in each
school-age children around the world were enrolled
country? What were the transition patterns at the
in school, compared to 78 percent in 1990 (UNESCO,
end of primary school and between the primary and
2006). However, EFA also calls for greater quality of
lower secondary levels?
education, which is indicated by both higher levels of
• To what extent did countries vary in the official
learning achievement and little variation in schooling
number of school days per year and the number of
outcomes (UNESCO, 2006).
lost school days per year? To what extent and at what
Various international and national studies1 show that
level was educational leadership provided in schools,
both across and within participating countries?
many countries, particularly low- and middle-income
countries, have both large numbers of pupils with low
• How much did countries vary in the way that reading
levels of learning achievement and great variation
and mathematics were taught and in the emphasis
in learning achievement among schools. In other
placed on different aspects of these two subjects?
words, these countries have a long way to go to realize
the companion EFA goals of quality and equality of
1. Studies include International Association for the Evaluation
schooling outcomes.
of Educational Achievement (IEA) research such as ‘Trends
in Mathematics and Sciences’ and ‘Progress in International
Reliable and meaningful information is crucial
Literacy’ (Martin et al, 2004; Mullis et al, 2004; Mullis
for making informed decisions and developing
et al, 2003); the Southern and Eastern Africa Consortium
appropriate policies. The issues of quality and
for Monitoring Educational Quality (or SACMEQ,
http://www.sacmeq.org/); and the Latin American
equality of education require data on how schools
Laboratory for Assessment of the Quality of Education
function and teachers teach, the learning conditions
(or LLECE, http://llece.unesco.cl/esp/).
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
19
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
• To what extent was the school climate conducive
of evaluation and monitoring of pupil progress; and
to acceptable levels of instruction, learning,
frequent and appropriate reinforcement.
achievement orientation and discipline across
countries? How equitable was the distribution of
Conducting the survey
these conditions within countries?
The survey involved two phases: i) instrument
• How did countries compare in terms of teaching
development organized jointly by OECD and the
strategies and styles?
UIS; and ii) data collection, analysis and reporting
organized by the UIS. The survey was developed to
Conceptual framework
collect data about primary schools in general and
The overall goal of school systems is, generally, to
about Grade 4 teachers and their pupils in particular.
provide children with the values, knowledge, skills and
The respondents were primary school heads, Grade
behaviours to live well as children, as adults and as
4 teachers and national curriculum experts. Some
citizens. To this end, it is valuable to compare countries
technical information is presented below but greater
on a range of factors, identified through research,
detail is available in the Technical Report of the WEI-SPS
that are associated with success in basic domains like
(UNESCO-UIS, forthcoming).
literacy and numeracy. Some factors relate to malleable
Questionnaire development
conditions at the school and classroom levels,
i.e. conditions that can be changed by the actions of
WEI national coordinators worked together with OECD
the school or an outside agency. Such factors can be
and UIS staff and international experts to develop three
grouped into contexts, inputs, policies and processes.
questionnaires for the WEI-SPS study: one for school
heads; one for Grade 4 reading/mathematics teachers;
Contexts are the environments in which individual
and one on the ‘opportunity’ for Grade 4 pupils to learn
schools operate. One important aspect of context is the
reading and mathematics.
composition of pupil intake: it plays an important role
in shaping pupil interaction with educators, schooling
The school head questionnaire was designed to collect
experiences and schooling outcomes. For example, the
data that describe a wide range of primary school
broader legal and regulatory context determines the
characteristics, including:
role and impact of private schools in the education
• community profile, type of school administration,
system.
funding sources, enrolment size, grades and classes
Inputs are the material and human resources available to
offered, and school hours;
schools. These resources range from budget allocations
• school resources, the school head’s perception of the
to the experiences and qualifications of teachers.
adequacy of resources and staff, and maintenance of
Typically, resource levels are determined by high-level
school buildings;
education authorities or other government agents.
However, individual schools may have some latitude in
• composition of pupil intake, admission policies, pupil
how to use resources to achieve their goals.
attitudes and behaviours;
Policies and processes are the most readily changed
• profiles of the school head and staff, e.g. age, sex, level
variables. Research finds that effective schools are
of education, pre- and in-service training, stability of
characterized by high levels of strong educational
staff, school job vacancies and time to fill them, daily
leadership; achievement orientation; orderly
activities and tasks, and teaching hours; and
atmosphere; formal structure and quality content in
• school management, e.g. visits by school inspectors
the curriculum; cooperative planning among teachers;
and advisors for various reasons, decision-making
and continuous evaluation aimed at improvement.
procedures, parental involvement in schools and use
Effective instruction is associated with structured
of pupil assessments.
teaching; efficient use of time spent on tasks (including
homework); meaningful opportunities for pupils to
Grade 4 teachers were asked about their pupils, their
learn; high expectations of pupil progress; a high degree
work and their schools, including:
20
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
A VIEW INSIDE PRIMARy SCHOOLS
• background characteristics, such as sex, age,
In each selected school, every teacher teaching
experience as a teacher, level of education and in-
language/reading and/or mathematics/arithmetic to
service training;
Grade 4 students was included in the sample.
• working conditions, such as self-perceived status,
In each participating country, the target population was
satisfaction with salary, class size and number of
supposed to include all primary schools but, in some
work shifts;
cases, for reasons of cost, it was decided to exclude
• professional satisfaction;
remote schools. It was agreed, however, that exclusions
• instructional conditions, such as classroom resources,
would not exceed 5 percent of the pupil population.
instruction time, classroom management and
All participating countries agreed to maintain a
organization, classroom climate, student assessment
minimum response rate of 85 percent for schools and
at classroom level, teaching styles, school goals and
85 percent for Grade 4 teachers. The school response
achievement expectations; and
rate was greater than 85 percent in all countries but
• opportunities for pupils to learn reading and
Sri Lanka (73.7%); the teacher response rate was above
mathematics.
the threshold in all countries.2 (Details on sampling
implementation and response rates are presented in
In addition, there was a questionnaire for national
the companion Technical Report of the WEI-SPS.)
curriculum experts in each country about activities in
reading and mathematics in official curriculum.
The development and implementation of national
sampling plans was a collaborative and interactive
The survey questions were derived from a number
exercise between each participating country and the
of international and national studies or were written
UIS. However, the UIS was responsible for the final
especially for this study. The resulting questions were
approval of all national sampling plans. UIS personnel
reviewed by WEI national coordinators and then piloted
and international sampling experts were responsible for
on judgement samples of schools and Grade 4 teachers
the design and implementation of variance estimation
in each of the participating countries. Frequency
of the sample statistics as well as the analyses.
distributions and comments were reviewed, and
necessary changes made to the questions.
Context of primary schools in WEI-SPS
countries
Sampling
To understand and interpret WEI-SPS results, it is
The purpose of the WEI-SPS study was to provide a
important to appreciate the context of primary
profile of schools and classrooms serving all Grade 4
schooling in participating countries. The following
pupils and, more specifically, in the areas of language
sections are intended to respond to questions such as:
and mathematics. To this end, all schools in participating
• How was ‘primary education’ defined and
countries that had full-time 4th grade pupils formed the
classified? – i.e. how many grades comprised primary
international desired target population.
school in each country and what was the official
The WEI-SPS study employed a stratified sample design.
starting age for primary school?
All participating countries but one used the single-stage
procedure, where the sample of schools was selected
2. The response rate of schools in Sri Lanka was low because
directly from a list of eligible schools that covered the
of very low response rates in the Northern, Eastern and Uva
entire country. Only India used the two-stage procedure
provinces due, to a great extent, to the impacts of armed
which involved the selection of Primary Sampling
conflicts or tsunami. A disproportionately large number
of schools in the Northern and Eastern provinces were
Units (PSUs) – in this case, school districts in four
poorly resourced, had higher grade repetition rates and
states (Assam, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Tamil
lower mastery in the language of instruction, mathematics
Nadu) – followed by the selection of sample schools
and English. In addition, the Uva province was the second
from the list of eligible PSU schools. For each defined
least-populated province in Sri Lanka. Given these features,
caution should be exercised in interpreting the results
stratum, schools were selected using a systematic
presented in this report for Sri Lanka and in making
sampling technique that assures equal probability.
generalizations for the entire country.
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
21
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
• What percentage of primary school-age children were
it is 4 years old, and highest in Malaysia and the
actually in school at different grade levels?
Philippines, at 5 years old. The duration of pre-primary
• How prevalent was participation in pre-primary
school is three years, except in Malaysia, the Philippines
programmes? How were these programmes
and Sri Lanka where it is 1 year.
structured?
The official starting age of primary school is 6 years old
in 9 out of 11 WEI-SPS countries; children in Sri Lanka
• To what extent did different countries invest in the
start primary school at age 5, and in Brazil, at age 7.
schooling of children at the national level?
(Enrolment figures have been presented in a later
• What were the requirements to become a primary
section.) The duration of primary schooling also varies
school teacher?
across countries: Brazil is shortest at four years, followed
• What were the roles of central government and local
by three Indian states (Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and
authorities in setting curriculum?
Tamil Nadu) and Sri Lanka at five years. The rest of the
WEI-SPS countries have a duration of six years.
• What were the set instructional times for pupils?
Some countries include lower secondary education in
• Were reforms underway and, if so, what were their
basic education. For example, in all WEI-SPS countries
features?
except Malaysia and the Philippines, compulsory
education extends beyond the primary level.
Structure of primary education
A few countries, like Argentina and Uruguay, include a
Education systems in WEI-SPS countries vary
year of pre-primary schooling in compulsory education.
considerably in structure and curricula. In Table 1.1,
For example, in 2007, Argentina had 13 years of
information on the starting age and duration of pre-
compulsory schooling – one year of pre-primary and
primary, primary and lower secondary education is
six years each of primary and secondary education.
presented.
Pre-primary education is the start of organized
Participation in primary education
instruction. In most WEI-SPS countries, the starting age
WEI-SPS countries have made substantial progress in
for pre-primary education, according to government
expanding access to primary schooling: as of 2005,
regulations, is 3 years old. In Brazil and Sri Lanka,
participation in primary education was universal in
TABLE 1.1 StruCturE of PrE-PrImary to loWEr SECondary EduCatIon
Pre-primary
Primary
Lower secondary
Duration of
Theoretical
Theoretical
Theoretical
compulsory
starting age
Duration (years)
starting age
Duration (years)
starting age
Duration (years)
education
Argentina
3
3
6
6
12
3
10
Brazil
4
3
7
4
11
4
8
Chile
3
3
6
6
12
2
8
India1
3
3
6
5
11
3
8
Malaysia
5
1
6
6
12
3
6
Paraguay
3
3
6
6
12
3
9
Peru
3
3
6
6
12
3
11
Philippines
5
1
6
6
12
3
6
Sri Lanka
4
1
5
5
10
4
9
Tunisia
3
3
6
6
12
3
9
Uruguay
3
3
6
6
12
3
10
1. Only the states of Assam, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu were in the WEI-SPS study. In Assam, the duration of primary education is six years and
lower secondary is two years.
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics database.
22
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
A VIEW INSIDE PRIMARy SCHOOLS
TABLE 1.2 nEt EnrolmEnt ratE (nEr) and groSS EnrolmEnt ratIo (gEr) at thE PrImary lEvEl
of EduCatIon
NER
GER
% of repeaters in primary education
2005
2005
2005
Argentina
99-1
113-1
6.3-1
Brazil
95-1
140-1
18.6-1
Chile
90**
104
2.2
India
89**
119**
3.3
Malaysia
95-1
96-1
a
Paraguay
88-1
104-1
6.3-1
Peru
96
112
8.8
Philippines
94
112
2.2
Sri Lanka
97-1,**
98-1,**
0.8
Tunisia
97
109
8.5
Uruguay
93-1,**
109-1
7.5-1
WEI-SPS median
95
109
6.3
a Malaysia practices automatic grade promotion, thus grade repetition does not exist.
** Estimated by the UIS.
-1 Data refer to 2004.
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics database.
these countries. As shown in Table 1.2, the median
represents the percentage of an age group enrolled in
net enrolment rate (NER) for WEI-SPS countries was
the education level. For example, in Argentina about
95 percent; that means 95 out of every 100 children
30 percent of 3-year-olds and 100 percent of 5-year-
of primary school age were, in fact, enrolled in
olds were enrolled in pre-primary. Grades highlighted
primary school. This ratio was lower in Paraguay
in grey represent years of compulsory education;
(88%), India (89%) and Chile (90%) and higher in
for example, in Argentina this spanned from the
Sri Lanka (97%), Tunisia (97%) and Argentina (99%).
last grade of pre-primary to the end of Grade 9. On
the right side of the boxes, the arrow indicates that
In most WEI-SPS countries, however, significant numbers
basic education includes the primary and lower
of primary school pupils start school late and/or repeat
secondary levels.
grades, as seen in Table 1.2. When the gross enrolment
ratio (GER) – the number of pupils enrolled in primary
In all WEI-SPS countries, children appeared to have
school in relation to the number of children of primary
ready access to the first grade of primary education,
school age – is higher than the NER, it usually means
with some 85 percent enrolled in Grade 1. Overall,
that older children are enrolled in a particular grade.
there appeared to be almost universal participation
in primary grades, with the notable exception of India
During the course of primary education, 6.3 percent
where enrolment fell off starting in Grade 4 so that
of pupils in WEI-SPS countries repeat grades. Brazil
only 60 percent of 10-year-olds were enrolled in
has the highest share of repeaters (18.6%), followed
Grade 5. This may be explained by the high dropout
by Peru (8.8%), Tunisia (8.5%), Uruguay (7.5%)
rate where one out of every four pupils did not
and Argentina (6.3%). There is no grade repetition
go beyond Grade 5 (Ministry of Human Resource
in Malaysia because of a policy of automatic
Development, Government of India, 2005).
promotion.3
The structure of the first three levels of education
and the share of the relevant age group enrolled in
3. Chapter 6 contains results on the grade repetition of Grade 4
each grade at the pre-primary and primary levels
pupils as reported by teachers, which may include repetition
are presented in Figure 1.1. The width of a box
of earlier grades.
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
23
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
FIGURE 1.1
net enrolment rate by single year of age at pre-primary and primary education levels
argEntIna
BrazIl
2004
2004
Age Grade
Age Grade
14
9
14
8
13
8
Lower secondary
13
7
Lower secondary
12
7
12
6
11
6
11
5
10
5
10
4
9
4
Primary
9
3
Primary
8
3
8
2
7
2
7
1
6
1
6
Pre-primary
5
0
5
4
4
3
100% of the age group
100% of the age group
ChIlE1
IndIa2
2005
2005
Age Grade
Age Grade
13
8
Lower secondary
13
8
12
7
Lower secondary
12
7
11
6
(2 years in Assam)
11
6
10
5
10
5
9
4
Primary
9
4
8
3
Primary
8
3
7
2
(6 years in Assam)
7
2
6
1
6
1
5
Pre-primary
4
3
100% of the age group
100% of the age group
malaySIa
Paraguay
2004
2004
Age Grade
Age Grade
14
9
14
9
13
8
Lower secondary
13
8
Lower secondary
12
7
12
7
11
6
11
6
10
5
10
5
9
4
Primary
9
4
Primary
8
3
8
3
7
2
7
2
6
1
6
1
5
Pre-primary
5
Pre-primary
4
4
3
100% of the age group
100% of the age group
[continued…]
24
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
A VIEW INSIDE PRIMARy SCHOOLS
FIGURE 1.1 (continued)
net enrolment rate by single year of age at pre-primary and primary education levels
PEru
PhIlIPPInES1
2005
2005
Age Grade
Age Grade
16 11
Upper secondary
15 10
14
9
14
9
13
8
Lower secondary
13
8
Lower secondary
12
7
12
7
11
6
11
6
10
5
10
5
9
4
Primary
9
4
Primary
8
3
8
3
7
2
7
2
6
1
6
1
5
5
Pre-primary
4
Pre-primary
3
100% of the age group
100% of the age group
SrI lanKa2
tunISIa3
2005
2005
Age Grade
Age Grade
14
9
13
9
13
8
Lower secondary
12
8
Lower secondary
12
7
11
7
11
6
10
6
10
5
9
5
9
4
Primary
8
4
8
3
7
3
Primary
7
2
6
2
6
1
5
1
5
Pre-primary
100% of the age group
100% of the age group
uruguay1
2004
Age Grade
14
9
13
8
Lower secondary
12
7
11
6
10
5
9
4
Primary
8
3
7
2
6
1
5
0
Pre-primary
4
3
100% of the age group
1. Dotted line represents an estimation. Full line represents actual reported data.
2. No data available for pre-primary education in India and Sri Lanka.
3. Data are nil for ages 3 and 4 in Tunisia.
Note: Grades which are shaded represent compulsory years of schooling.
Sources: Tables 1.1 and 1.3; UNESCO Institute of Statistics database.
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
25
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Financing of primary schools
When looking at resources spent per pupil, it is also
Adequate resources are a necessary, though not
important to recognize that countries of similar
necessarily sufficient, condition for a school system to
wealth may invest very different levels of resources
in education. As seen in Table 1.3, Tunisia and Chile
provide acceptable standards of learning opportunities
invested the largest proportions of their national wealth
and support instructional innovations.
in education: 7.3 percent and 6.4 percent of GDP
As is shown in Table 1.3, there was enormous
respectively. Tunisia and Malaysia devoted a greater
variation among WEI-SPS countries in the amount
share of their economic resources than the other
of resources available to each primary school pupil.
eight WEI-SPS countries – at least twice that of those
For international comparison, expenditure data
investing the least: Peru, the Philippines and Uruguay.
were converted into Purchasing Power Parities (PPPs
The relative amount of education expenditure from
expressed in US$), which are international units that
public sources is an indication of the importance and
equalize the purchasing power of different currencies
commitment that governments assign to education.
by reflecting the price of the same basket of goods and
So, how much of public expenditure was devoted to
services in any country.
primary education as a share of GDP? Overall, WEI-SPS
Educational expenditure per primary school pupil
countries dedicated 3.7 percent of public expenditure
was highest in Chile (PPP$ 2,120), followed by
to education, including 1.4 percent for primary
Argentina (PPP$ 1,605), Malaysia (PPP$ 1,552), Brazil
education. Paraguay led the WEI-SPS group by investing
(PPP$ 1,159) and Uruguay (PPP$ 1,063). In contrast,
2.0 percent in primary education; Uruguay was lowest,
expenditure per primary school pupil was less than
investing less than one-half of that share (0.8%).
PPP$ 700 in India, Paraguay, Peru and the Philippines.
Another issue associated with financing education is
In other words, on a per capita basis, Chile spent over
the source of funds: public versus private. At the pre-
three times more on its primary school pupils than the
primary and primary levels, WEI-SPS countries typically
latter four WEI countries.
rely on funding from public sources. It is striking,
TABLE 1.3 ExPEndIturE on EduCatIonal InStItutIonS By lEvEl
Expenditure on all levels of
Distribution of expenditure
Expenditure
educational institutions as a % of GDP
Public
on primary education
per pupil for
expenditure4 on
primary education
From public2
From private3
primary education
From public
From private
Financial year
(PPP US$)
sources
sources
as a % of GDP
sources
sources
Argentina
2004
16051
3.8
0.8
1.4
87.6
12.4
Brazil
2004
11591
3.9
…
1.5
…
…
Chile
2005
2120
3.3
3.1
1.3
69.4
30.6
India
2004
484
3.6
1.2
1.2
65.8
34.2
Malaysia
2004
15521
5.8
…
1.8
…
…
Paraguay
2003
681
4.3
1.6
2
83.1
16.9
Peru
2005
4791
2.7
0.7
1
88.8
11.2
Philippines
2004
4581
2.7
1.9
1.5
…
…
Tunisia
2005
…
7.3
…
…
…
…
Uruguay
2004
10631
2.7
…
0.8
84.9-1
15.1-1
WEI-SPS median
3.7
1.4
1.4
84
16
-1 Data refer to 2003;
… Data are not available.
1. Public institutions only.
2. Including public subsidies to households paid to educational institutions; it includes direct expenditure on educational institutions from international sources,
which may be substantial in some countries.
3. Net of public subsidies attributable to educational institutions.
4. Public expenditure presented in this column includes public subsidies to households for living costs, which are not spent on educational institutions.
Source: UNESCO-UIS/WEI (2007), Tables 2.a.i, 2.b.ii, 2.c and 3.a.
26
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
A VIEW INSIDE PRIMARy SCHOOLS
however, that in Chile and India about one-third of
compared to non-tertiary qualifications a decade
funding for primary education comes from private
earlier. One consequence is that many current teachers
sources such as families, enterprises, foundations and
lack comparable qualifications.
religious organizations.
The qualification profile of primary teachers in public
schools varies among WEI-SPS countries (see Table 1.4).
Teacher training
Secondary education is the minimum attainment in
Since the 1960s, the requirements to becoming a
some countries, e.g. Brazil and Paraguay, but most
primary school teacher in WEI-SPS countries have
countries require tertiary-level degrees. Complementary
changed both in level of education and amount of
information in Table 1.5 shows the total number of
pre-service training. In 2005, for example, a teacher in
years of schooling teachers typically had to attain to
Chile needed a minimum of a tertiary education degree
teach Grade 4: values vary from 11 to 19 years.
TABLE 1.4 PrE-SErvICE traInIng rEQuIrEmEntS for nEW tEaChErS In PuBlIC InStItutIonS at
thE PrImary lEvEl of EduCatIon, 2000
Teacher
Qualification Duration of pre-service teacher training
qualification
to enter
(years)
level after
teacher
Total duration of
Total duration of
Option
training
training
pre-service training tertiary training
Provider of training programme
Argentina
1
5B
3A
2.5
2.5
Institutos de Formación Docente (teaching career institutes)
1
3A
2A
4
n
Secondary education institutions
Brazil
2
5A
3A
4
4
Universities
3
5B
3A
3
3
Tertiary institutions (university and non-university)
Chile
1
5A
3A. 3B
4
4
Universities or professional institutes
Teachers training college, special teachers training institute or
Malaysia
1
5B
3A. 3C
3
3
Islamic Teacher Training college
1
3 (A or B)
2A
3
n
Secondary education institutions
Paraguay
2
5B
3 (A or B)
3
3
Teachers training institute o Centros Regionales
3
5A
3 (A or B)
4.0 - 5.0
4.0 - 5.0
Universities
Peru
1
5A. 5B. 6
3
5
5
Universities, teacher training institutes
Philippines1
1
5A
3A
4
4
Universities offering teacher training
Administración de Educación Pública, Dirección de
Uruguay
1
5B
3A. 3B
3
3
Formación Docente
1. year of reference is 1998.
n Magnitude is nil.
Note: The levels are based on ISCED97.
Source: UNESCO-UIS (2001), Table 34.
TABLE 1.5 yEarS of EduCatIon rEQuIrEd for gradE 4 tEaChErS
Number of years of schooling
Argentina
15-16
Brazil
11-19
Chile
17
India
14
Malaysia
14-15
Paraguay
11-16
Peru
16
Philippines
14
Sri Lanka
15 (including 2 years of primary school teacher training)
Tunisia
15
Uruguay
15
Sources: UNESCO Institute for Statistics database; UNESCO-UIS (2001), Table 34.
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
27
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
TABLE 1.6 SEt InStruCtIon tImE for 9-yEar-old PuPIlS In PuBlIC InStItutIonS
Year
Instruction time for 9-year-olds (minutes per year)
Duration (minutes per lesson)
Argentina
2004
729
45
Brazil
2003
800
60
Chile
2004
1140
45
India
2003
1051
35
Malaysia
2004
964
30
Paraguay
2003
792
40
Peru
2005
855
45
Tunisia
2005
733
55
Uruguay
2002
740
60
Source: UNESCO-UIS/WEI (2007), Table 5.e.
SEt InStruCtIon tImE aCroSS SuBjECtS In PrImary SChoolS
Percentage of intended instruction time devoted to various subject areas within the total
TABLE 1.7 compulsory curriculum for 9- to 11-year-olds
Compulsory
TOTAL
Reading and
TOTAL compulsory
flexible
compulsory
Year
writing
Mathematics
Other subjects1
core curriculum
curriculum
curriculum
Argentina
2004
19
19
56
93
7
100
Chile
2004
14
14
51
79
21
100
India
2003
19
17
60
96
4
100
Malaysia
2004
21
15
64
100
a
100
Paraguay
2004
26
13
54
93
7
100
Peru
2005
…
…
…
67
33
100
Philippines
2005
16
16
68
100
a
100
Tunisia
2005
21
17
62
100
n
100
Uruguay
2004
24
23
39
86
14
100
WEI-SPS median
2005
20
17
58
93
11
100
1. Includes science, social studies, modern foreign languages, technology, arts, physical education, etc.
… Data are not available.
a Data are not applicable.
n Magnitude is nil.
Source: UNESCO-UIS/WEI (2007), Table 5.e.w.
Curriculum4
The number of annual hours of instruction required
The majority of WEI-SPS countries exerted national
for primary pupils by statute varied among WEI-SPS
countries, as shown in Table 1.6. For example, a 9-year-
jurisdiction over school curriculum to ensure that
old pupil should receive 1,140 hours of teaching in
Grade 4 pupils across the country were taught the
Chile, compared to 729 hours in Argentina. The extent
same scope and level of learning. By exception,
to which these statutory hours were met has been
Argentina, Brazil and India had a mix of national and
examined later in this Report.
local control over curriculum. In Argentina, a broad
Data on instruction time per subject as a percentage
outline of the curriculum was determined nationally,
of total compulsory instruction time are presented in
and then each province determined the details of
Table 1.7. According to the WEI-SPS median, 20 percent
its local curriculum. In Brazil, national curricular
of the compulsory curriculum was spent on reading and
parameters defined a core curriculum for Grades 1
writing, compared to 17 percent on mathematics.
to 4, but by law, states and municipalities also had
a great deal of autonomy in structuring education
4. Based on information from two sources: country education
systems and developing curricula, as did schools in
profiles from the International Bureau of Education’s World
Education Database (http://www.ibe.unesco.org/countries/WDE/
terms of curriculum as long as they fell within the
WorldDataE.htm, accessed on 1 October 2007) and background
national parameters.
materials provided by national WEI-SPS project managers.
28
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
A VIEW INSIDE PRIMARy SCHOOLS
Current reforms affecting primary schools
Summary
In addition to basic data, current reforms indicate the
Primary education – or the first stage of basic
educational issues which are being given priority by
education as it is called in Argentina, Brazil, Chile,
WEI-SPS governments. Based on information provided
Paraguay and Tunisia – generally starts at age 6,
by the countries, major reforms in WEI-SPS countries
lasts six years and is part of compulsory education.
emphasized curriculum redesign and quality control.
In WEI-SPS countries, 95 percent of primary school-
Educational reforms in India, Malaysia and Peru focused
age children were enrolled in primary school. While
on primary level curricula. In India, the new National
promotion is automatic in Malaysia, in other countries
Curriculum Framework (NCF) was introduced in 2005,
the percentage of pupils who repeated primary grades
while the WEI-SPS was being conducted. The NCF guiding
varied from 1 percent to almost 19 percent.
principles included moving away from rote learning and
In terms of financing, WEI-SPS countries spent an
enriching the curriculum beyond textbooks. Nationally,
average of just over PPP$ 1,000 per primary pupil,
new textbooks were introduced in 2006 for Grades 1, 3,
though there was considerable variation among
6, 9 and 11.5 In 2007, new textbooks were prepared for
countries. Malaysia and Tunisia devoted a greater share
Grades 2, 4, 7, 10 and 12. This new curriculum is being
of their economic resources to education than did
implemented at different rates in different states; at the
other WEI-SPS countries. Funding for primary education
time of the WEI-SPS survey, the reforms were underway
largely came from public sources.
in Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh.
Since the 1960s, the minimum requirements to
In Malaysia, the Grade 4 curriculum was revised in
become a primary school teacher have changed so
2003 for the teaching of English, mathematics and
that teachers who are currently active have different
science. The skills emphasized remained the same –
amounts of training. By 2005, however, most WEI-SPS
listening, reading and writing – but the language of
countries required new teachers to have tertiary-level
instruction for mathematics and science changed from
diplomas or degrees.
the national language (Bahasa Malaysia) to English.
In most WEI-SPS countries, the national government sets
The government believed the switch was necessary for
the curriculum content; by exception, Argentina, Brazil
the country to keep up with rapid scientific advances
and India have a mix of national and local authority over
and to remain competitive in a globalized marketplace
curriculum. Statutory instructional hours varied greatly
(Chan and Tan, 2006).
among countries but the median was 867 hours per
In Peru, the 2005 National Curriculum Design of
year for 9-year-olds. It was also found that 20 percent
Regular Basic Education was introduced to implement
of the compulsory curriculum was spent on reading and
changes set out in a new 2003 education law covering
writing and 17 percent on mathematics.
the pre-primary, primary and secondary levels.
Lastly, current school reforms in some WEI-SPS
Changes included clearly defined learning targets for
countries emphasize the revision of curriculum
all general-purpose curriculum areas; prioritization
to ensure updated content and quality control
of the specific competencies to be achieved by
mechanisms.
pupils at each level; introduction of extra-curricular
teaching (10 hours per week) related to priorities like
organization of the report
language and mathematics; and, in 2006 and 2007,
distribution of textbooks developed according to the
The SPS results have been presented in two parts:
new curriculum.
Chapters 2 through 5 focus on primary schools and
the overall characteristics of pupils, school heads
Meanwhile, Tunisia introduced a national promotion
and school staff; Chapters 6 to 9 provide a more
exam at the Grade 4 level in 2006/07 to evaluate
detailed description of classrooms and teachers at
the acquisition of basic competencies. The aim was
the Grade 4 level.
to improve the quality of education by identifying
problem areas and appraising teachers of high-scoring
5. In the national system, these are referred to as ‘Classes I, III,
classes.
VI, IV and XI’ and ‘Classes II, IV, VII, X and XII’ respectively.
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
29
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
More specifically, in Part I:
• Chapter 9 deals with ‘opportunity-to-learn’ (OTL)
• In Chapter 2, a detailed description is given of the
in reading. This has been done by looking at the
context of schooling, which includes an overview of
perceived difficulty and types of reading materials
the basic characteristics of the school systems in the
used in Grade 4 classes, as well as the most common
participating countries, with a particular focus on the
tasks and activities proposed to pupils at this level.
overall conditions of school facilities, general school
The analyses also include how OTL varies according
resources and related shortages.
to the characteristics of pupils taught.
• Chapter 3 starts with an overview of the criteria
• The conclusions of the study are presented in Chapter
commonly used for primary schools to admit their
10 with some comments on possible ways to improve
pupils and the background characteristics of the pupil
some facets of the systems.
intake, which are generally related to admissions
policies. Then the pupils' attitudes to school and the
extent of various student behavioural problems have
been presented.
• A detailed picture of the general characteristics of
school heads, including age, sex, education and
training, has been presented in Chapter 4. The
education and pre- and in-service training of teaching
staff have also been described, along with the
stability of school staff, vacant posts, teacher morale
and expectations, and teacher behavioural problems.
• The focus of Chapter 5 is on the management of
schools, including the school head's activities, school
governing boards and their composition, the locus
of decision-making in the schools, the frequency
of inspection and its purposes, as well as parental
involvement.
In Part II, the emphasis has been on Grade 4 pupils,
their classrooms and teachers:
• Chapter 6 deals with basic characteristics of Grade 4
pupils and their general attitudes, and general
characteristics of classrooms, such as the prevalence
of single- or multi-grades, size of class, textbooks
available, classroom resources, etc.
• In Chapter 7 a more detailed picture of Grade 4
teachers has been presented, their demographic
profiles, education and pre- and in-service training,
teaching experience and allocation of time along
different activities, their interaction with pupils and
the use of assessment methods.
• The analysis in Chapter 8 focuses on teachers' views
of the school climate, the rest of the teaching staff’s
expectations and attitudes, their perception of the
social status of teachers and the reasons for teacher
satisfaction.
30
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
2 The context of primary schooling
Michael Bruneforth (UNESCO Institute for Statistics) and T. Neville Postlethwaite (University of Hamburg)
In Chapter 1 a brief description was given for each of
lower limit of enrolment accepted to run a school.
the 11 systems of education that form the focus of
Cross-country comparisons should, therefore, consider
this publication. The aim was to provide some general
variations in countries with respect to the composition
information about primary schooling and the place
of their populations. In this report, many of the results
of Grade 4 in the system. In the current chapter,
have been broken down by village and city/town
further information has been provided on the kinds
schools.
of communities in which the primary schools were to
In WEI-SPS, school heads were asked which of the
be found, enrolment in private and public schools, the
following best described the community in which their
conditions of the school buildings and the resources
school was located. The response categories were:
available. The results are based on responses provided
by school heads, and unless otherwise noted, they
• village, hamlet or rural area (fewer than 3,000
inhabitants);
have been reported in terms of the number of primary
school pupils within each country.
• small town (3,000 to 15,000 inhabitants);
• town (15,001 to 100,000 inhabitants);
In what types of communities did primary
• city (100,001 to 1,000,000 inhabitants);
pupils live?
• close to the centre of a city with over 1,000,000
The location of schools is an important context
inhabitants; or
variable for education policy. Authorities frequently
• elsewhere in a city with over 1,000,000 inhabitants.
face difficulties in recruiting school heads or teachers
for schools in village areas. When building schools
Throughout this report, the term ‘village’ refers to
in villages, there is often a need to strike a balance
'hamlet, village or rural area' and the term ‘city/town’
between the distance pupils should travel and the
covers the rest of the categories.
FIgUrE 2.1
Distribution of primary pupils by school location
Village (<3,000 inhabitants)
Small town (3,000-15,000 inhabitants)
Town (15,001-100,000 inhabitants)
City (100,001-1,000,000 inhabitants)
Close to city centre (>1,000,000 inhabitants)
Elsewhere in city centre
%
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
e
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chil
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
Philippines
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A2.1.
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
31
ChAPTEr 2: ThE CONTExT Of PrImAry SChOOlING
The distribution of primary school pupils by the location
has an impact on costs and resources. In Figure 2.2,
of their schools has been presented in Figure 2.1. In
the percentage of village schools can be compared
Argentina, Chile and Uruguay, less than 15 percent
with the percentage of pupils enrolled in them. In all
of all primary pupils were enrolled in village schools.
except three of the countries, village schools formed
In Chile, pupils located in communities with more than
the majority of all schools. It must be noted that,
100,000 inhabitants accounted for almost two-thirds
when the sample of schools was drawn, a deliberate
of the total enrolment. In Argentina, Brazil, Peru and
decision was made by Argentina to exclude all schools
Uruguay, they accounted for more than one-third. On
with fewer than 25 pupils. These schools were rural
the contrary, more than one-half of the enrolment
schools and, hence, the share of schools in villages is
in India, the Philippines and Sri lanka was in village
an underestimate. Chile also had a small share, as did
schools and less than 17 percent in cities with more
Uruguay. In Brazil, village schools made up 54 percent
than 100,000 inhabitants.
of all primary schools in the country but enrolled just
Education planners are interested not only in
23 percent of the primary pupil population. In Peru,
enrolment data but also in the number of schools. Not
70 percent of schools were in village communities,
surprisingly, a typical village school enrols substantially
which enrolled just 38 percent of the country’s primary
fewer pupils than a typical city/town school. When
school pupils. Similarly, about four out of five schools
there are many small and very small village schools,
in the Philippines and Sri lanka were village schools,
challenges are encountered when planning the
which enrolled slightly more than one-half of the
logistics of a school system. The size of schools also
primary pupil population.
FIgUrE 2.2
Comparison of village schools and enrolment as shares of the totals
%
100
90
Sri Lanka
80
Philippines
Peru
70
India
Paraguay
Malaysia
60
Tunisia
50
Brazil
centage of schools 40
Argentina
Per
30
Uruguay
Chile
20
10
0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 %
Percentage of pupils
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A2.2.
32
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
A View inside PrimAry schools
Box 2.1 How to read statistical taBles in tHis report?
The graphs presented in this report are derived from tables in Appendix A. The tables provide more
detailed information by including summary statistics together with their standard errors of sampling. This
box gives some information on how to correctly interpret these tables.
samples were drawn in order to yield standard errors of sampling for primary schools or for pupils in
Grade 4 in primary schools of not more than ±2.5 percent. For this level of sampling accuracy, 19 out
of 20 times the population value of a percentage lies within ±5 percent of the estimate derived from the
sample. The sampling errors for means have also been given in the tables and the same principle applies
for limits of two standard errors of sampling.
where a percentage or a mean is presented for a sub-group of pupils or schools (e.g. different educational
regions, for boys and girls, or pupils from types of schools), then the standard error will be greater than for
the sample for a whole country. This occurs, in part, because the sample sizes for sub-groups are smaller
than the total sample sizes. had smaller standard errors for sub-groups been required, this would have
increased the size of the total sample and also of the budget required to undertake much larger field data
collections and data analyses.
To illustrate, consider the first column of entries in Table 2.1. The average distances to selected amenities
at the time of data collection are presented separately for each country, and the median is presented
for all wei-sPs countries. The standard error (se) of each estimate is also given. For the first country,
Argentina, the average distance to a health clinic was 3.0 km, with the standard error of 0.22 km.
Thus, there were 19 chances in 20 that, for the average child in Argentina, the average distance from a
clinic was 3.0 km ± 2 km (0.22 km). in other words, it can be said with 95 percent confidence that the
population value for Argentina was between 2.56 km and 3.44 km.
The median values for the wei-sPs countries have been given rather than the mean. since data are
provided for only 11 countries, a median is better than a mean as a measure of central tendency.
in interpreting the values in the data tables, it is important to remember that the percentages and means
are, for the most part, presented in terms of learners. That is, learners are the units of analysis – even
when the variables in this report refer to teachers or schools. where a percentage for a variable that
describes teachers is presented, it should be interpreted as 'the estimated percentage of learners who
were in schools with teachers having the particular characteristic'. similarly, a percentage for a variable
that describes schools should be interpreted as 'the stated percentage of learners who were in schools
with the particular characteristic.' This approach aims to help educational planners. For example, if a
country has many small rural schools and computers have been allocated to schools, is it more important
to know that 90 percent of pupils are in schools where there are computers or is it more important to
know that computers were available in 50 percent of the schools? The authors have taken the view that, if
90 percent of pupils have access to computers, this is more important than knowing that there are many
small rural schools without them. if the problem proves to be important, it is always possible then to look
at the kinds of schools in which resources, for example, are missing.
© Unesco-Uis 2008
33
ChAPTEr 2: ThE CONTExT Of PrImAry SChOOlING
What was the distance to public
libraries and bookshops, important sources of reading
amenities?
material for pupils.
The context of village and remote schools typically
As a summary measure for further use in this report,
involves consideration of the availability of community
an index of School remoteness has been calculated:
resources, reliability of transportation to school and
total kilometres divided by five (which represents the
ability of rural and remote areas to attract and retain
number of public amenities measured). The average
teachers. Access to amenities is a very important
distances have been presented in Figure 2.3 for village
factor.
and city/town schools (see Box 2.2).
School heads were asked to provide the distance
The plots in figure 2.3 represent the average distance
in kilometres between the school and the nearest
in kilometres that primary schools serving different
facilities, e.g. health centre/clinic, tarred or tarmac
proportions of pupil populations had from various
road, public library, bookshop and a school offering
public amenities. for Argentina, the green dot on
lower secondary education. The mean values of the
the top corresponds to 39.2, which means that on
distances have been presented in Table 2.1 for all
average primary schools serving 10 percent of pupils
schools and just for village schools. The results reflect
in village communities were 39 km or more from the
important cross-country differences in terms of the
five types of public amenities. Village primary schools
infrastructure with which primary schools function.
serving one-half of pupils had on average a distance of
While in Uruguay primary school pupils were in schools
less than 7.5 km from these amenities, and the other
that were on average just 2.3 km away from the
half, more than 7.5 km, as represented by the line in
nearest library, the average was 28 km in Paraguay. In
the middle of the box. The top and bottom lines of the
Peru, schools were on average 22 km away from the
box represent the average distance of village schools
nearest tarmac road.
serving the 25th and 75th percentiles of pupils, or the
It can be seen from Table 2.1 that pupils in village
middle half. In Argentina, the average distance ranged
schools were further away from amenities than pupils
from about 3 km to 20 km for the middle half of
in cities/towns. This was particularly true for public
primary pupils.
TABlE 2.1 DIstanCe to nearest publIC amenItIes (In kIlometres)
all schools
Village schools
School
School
offering
offering
lower
lower
public
secondary
public
secondary
Clinic
Tarmac road
library
Bookshop
education
Clinic
Tarmac road
library
Bookshop
education
Mean
SE
Mean
SE
Mean
SE
Mean
SE
Mean
SE
Mean
SE
Mean
SE
Mean
SE
Mean
SE
Mean
SE
Argentina
3.0
0.22
1.6 0.19
4.0 0.39
4.5 0.46
1.9
0.16 12.7 1.55
9.5 1.56 19.1 2.67 23.7 3.23
9.5 1.45
Brazil
4.4
0.46
3.9 0.54
7.4 0.61 10.2 0.88
3.1
0.43 13.6 1.81
9.8 1.48 20.1 1.90 25.6 2.71
7.6 1.32
Chile
3.3
0.24
1.4 0.18
4.2 0.37
4.3 0.47
m
13.9 1.71
5.4 1.36 15.7 1.99 17.9 2.08
m
India
3.0
0.27
1.8 0.24
3.8 0.63
5.3 0.54
1.1
0.18
4.0 0.42
2.0 0.24
5.0 0.89
7.5 0.76
1.5 0.29
malaysia
4.0
0.32
1.5 0.36 12.4 0.88
9.6 0.77
4.7
0.59
6.4 0.78
3.4 0.97 21.1 2.20 20.1 2.06
8.4 1.15
Paraguay
6.2
0.38 12.1 0.71 28.0 1.45
8.3 0.55
1.4
0.13 11.3 0.84 20.9 1.52 49.1 2.97 15.5 1.13
2.8 0.31
Peru
2.8
0.17 22.6 2.22 11.6 1.60 11.5 1.65
2.7
0.21
5.1 0.38 52.8 5.48 27.5 4.12 27.0 4.20
5.9 0.55
Philippines
1.8
0.18
6.5 1.01 11.2 1.04 18.4 1.45
2.3
0.14
2.1 0.26
7.9 1.54 15.6 1.64 23.7 2.12
2.9 0.17
Sri lanka
2.7
0.16
1.2 0.15
3.9 0.31
7.0 0.52
1.2
0.15
4.0 0.28
1.6 0.26
6.1 0.58 10.7 0.82
1.7 0.26
Tunisia
1.4
0.08
0.5 0.07
6.2 0.31
3.7 0.23
5.7
0.29
2.3 0.19
1.0 0.17 13.4 0.73
8.6 0.58 10.3 0.57
Uruguay
1.6
0.10
0.6 0.04
2.3 0.19
3.0 0.31
1.8
0.09
3.1 0.50
1.1 0.20
5.4 1.09
9.2 2.05
3.9 0.44
WeI-sps median
3.0
1.6
6.2
7.0
2.1
5.1
5.4
15.7
17.9
4.9
Source: WEI-SPS database.
34
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
A View inside PrimAry schools
in Paraguay and Peru, some village schools tended to
Turning to city/town schools (bearing in mind that some
be a long way from public amenities. in Peru, more
towns had only between 3,000 and 15,000 inhabitants),
than 10 percent of pupils were in schools that were
10 percent of pupils in Paraguay and the Philippines were
nearly 60 km from such amenities. even in Argentina
more than 10 km from public amenities. in nearly all
and Brazil, 25 percent of pupils were in schools that
countries, all pupils in city/town schools were within easy
were 20 km on average from public amenities.
walking distance to public amenities.
Box 2.2 How to read Box plots?
Box plots are used to present the 'five-number summary' of the distribution of continuous variables across
countries: 10th and 90th percentiles of values, upper and lower quartiles (or 25th and 75th percentiles of
values), and the median (or 50th percentile).
top dot showing the 90th percentile:
schools serving 90% of primary school pupils are below this point
and schools serving 10% of primary schools are above this point
70
the upper edge of the box showing the 75th percentile:
60
schools serving 75% of primary school pupils are below this point
and schools serving 25% of primary schools are above this point
50
the median or the 50th percentile:
40
schools serving one-half of primary school pupils are below this
point and schools serving the other half of primary schools are
above this point.
30
the lower edge of the box showing the 25th percentile:
20
schools serving 25% of primary school pupils are below this point
and schools serving 75% of primary schools are above this point.
10
Bottom dot showing 10th percentile:
0
schools serving 10% of primary school pupils are below this point
and schools serving 90% of primary schools are above this point.
The relative distance between two of these numbers is an indication of the spread or concentration of
data points. in the example above, the distance between the 75th and 90th percentiles is much longer
than that between the 25th and 10th percentiles. This means that the 15 percent of observations at the
lower end of the distribution were much more concentrated than the 15 percent of observations at the
upper end. similarly, if the upper and lower edges of the box representing the middle 50 percent of the
cases are close, it would mean the gaps between the 25th and 75th percentiles were relatively small, and
vice versa.
© Unesco-Uis 2008
35
ChAPTEr 2: ThE CONTExT Of PrImAry SChOOlING
FIgUrE 2.3
Distance to nearest public amenities by distribution of the primary pupil population
average distance to the nearest clinic, tarmac road, public library, bookshop and school
offering lower secondary education
Pupils in village schools
60
Percentile:
90th
50
75th
Median
40
25th
es
30
10th
Kilometr
20
10
0
a
y
a
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
ank
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
Philippines
Pupils in city/town schools
60
Percentile:
90th
50
75th
Median
40
25th
es
30
10th
Kilometr
20
10
0
a
y
a
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
ank
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
Philippines
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A2.3.
36
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
A VIEW INSIdE PrImAry SChOOlS
FIgUrE 2.4
percentage of primary pupils in public and private schools
Public school
Private school
%
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
a
y
a
y
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Paragu
Sri L
Philippines
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A2.4.
How many pupils were enrolled in public
heads were asked to categorize their school as ‘public’,
and private schools?
‘government-dependent private’ or ‘independent
for the purpose of international comparison, the
private’, and these responses were mapped to
distinction between public and private schools is
international categories. In this report, the latter two
made according to their type of management. The
were combined into ‘private’.
main criterion is whether a public agency or a private
The percentage of primary school pupils in private
entity has ultimate control over the school, which
and public schools has been presented in Figure 2.4.1
refers to who has the power to determine the general
In general, most primary pupils in WEI-SPS countries
policies and activities of the institution and to appoint
were enrolled in public schools. Chile reported the
the managing officers. As many schools are under
highest percentage of pupils in private schools (50%).
the operational control of a governing body, the
In India, almost one-third of primary pupils were in
constitution of that body has also been considered.
private schools. In Argentina, private schools accounted
for 23 percent of total enrolment at the primary level,
A school is considered private if it is controlled
and in Brazil, Paraguay, Peru and Uruguay, private
and managed by a non-governmental organization
enrolment was between 10 percent and 16 percent.
(e.g. church, trade union or business enterprise) or
finally, provision of education was almost exclusively
its governing body consists mostly of members not
public in Sri lanka and Tunisia.
selected by a public agency. Whether an institution
receives its funding from public or private sources
does not determine the classification status. To ensure
consistency nationally and internationally, the WEI-SPS
1. The information on the distinction between public and private
schools was not available for malaysia. data on private
project team in each country prepared a list of national
schools for Sri lanka and Tunisia were omitted since the
school types mapped to this classification. School
number of such schools was too few for reliable estimates.
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
37
ChAPTEr 2: ThE CONTExT Of PrImAry SChOOlING
Where were the private schools?
What was the total enrolment in primary
Private education in WEI-SPS countries was almost
schools?
exclusively a phenomenon of cities and towns. As
The number of pupils in schools is an important measure
shown in Figure 2.5, enrolment in private schools
because size interacts with resources and learning
located in cities or towns made up approximately
opportunities. In a large school (e.g. more than 1,000
90 percent or more of the total private school pupil
pupils), unit costs for equipment are lower than in a small
population in most of the WEI-SPS countries for
school. At the same time, it is sometimes presumed that
which data were available. The exception was in
primary school children often feel lost in large schools
India, where one out of every four private school
and can cope much better in small schools (Cotton,
pupils was enrolled in a private school in the village
1996). What was the situation in the WEI-SPS study?
community.
In Table 2.2, the average size of village and city/town
On the flip side, private schools were relatively rare in
schools, as well as the range from the 10th to the 90th
village communities. This conclusion is obvious from
percentiles, have been presented. It can be seen that
Figure 2.6. In Paraguay, 43 percent of pupils were in
the total enrolment was larger in city/town than in
schools in village communities, yet only 7.3 percent
village schools. however, the village school attended
of those in private schools were in villages. In Brazil,
by a typical primary school pupil in malaysia and the
village private enrolment was just 2.4 percent of
Philippines (enrolment of 258 and 296 respectively)
total private enrolment, even though 23 percent of
was larger than a city/town school attended by a typical
pupils lived in rural communities. furthermore, in
primary school pupil in India (enrolment of 184). In
India, which had almost 60 percent of pupils living
malaysia, the Philippines and Sri lanka, there were some
in villages, pupils in private village schools accounted
very big schools serving primary school pupils.
for only 25 percent of total private enrolment. In
These indicators should be read carefully because of
Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Peru and Uruguay, less
certain limitations. for example, in Brazil, primary school
than 5 percent of private enrolment was in village
consists of Grades 1 to 4, whereas in other countries
communities – far less than the proportion of pupils
this level comprises more grades. Secondly, Argentina
living in these communities.
excluded all schools with fewer than 25 pupils.
TABlE 2.2 number oF pupIls enrolleD In prImary sCHool, by sCHool loCatIon
Number of pupils per school
range
Village schools
City/town schools
Mean
SE
Mean
SE
Village schools
City/town schools
Argentina
96.1
6.06
380.5
5.66
27 -197
128 -691
Brazil
62.7
5.49
247.4
11.47
14-150
44-544
Chile
93.8
7.08
360.8
7.99
24-195
133-658
India
120.3
4.35
183.6
8.76
45-217
69-374
malaysia
258.2
10.38
757.2
22.68
86-488
195-1,408
Paraguay
107.2
2.49
275.2
7.66
43-177
73-608
Peru
74.6
3.38
264.0
6.92
20-151
37-695
Philippines
296.0
8.87
836.1
56.33
113-546
172-1,803
Sri lanka
151.4
4.58
467.5
31.60
50-290
91-1010
Tunisia
194.7
4.49
434.8
10.12
95-336
196-692
Uruguay
130.4
7.93
330.0
6.89
20 -321
106-580
WeI-sps median
125.4
345.4
Note: The range refers to the 10th and 90th percentiles.
Source: WEI-SPS database.
38
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
A VIEW INSIdE PrImAry SChOOlS
FIgUrE 2.5
enrolment in city/town private schools as a percentage of total private school enrolment
%
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
a
y
a
y
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
rgentina
Urugu
A
Paragu
Philippines
Note: The information on the distinction between public and private schools was not available for malaysia. data on
private schools for Sri lanka and Tunisia were omitted since the number of such schools was too few for reliable
estimates.
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A2.5.
FIgUrE 2.6
percentage of primary pupils in villages and their enrolment in private schools
as a percentage of the total private school population
%
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
India
centage of pupils in private schools in villages 20
Per
Argentina
Philippines
10
Uruguay
Paraguay
Brazil
Chile
Peru
0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 %
Percentage of pupils in villages
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Tables A2.1 and A2.5.
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
39
ChAPTEr 2: ThE CONTExT Of PrImAry SChOOlING
What was the perceived physical
one-half or more of pupils in cities and towns were also
condition of school buildings?
reported to be in poor condition. In Sri lanka, schools
In the WEI-SPS study, school principals reported their
serving about one-half of pupils in both village and
perceptions of the condition of buildings. It is of
city/town communities were reported to be in need of
interest to note that in other studies (see, for example,
major repairs or complete rebuilding. In Brazil, while
the Namibian report of the SACmEQ study – makuwa,
primary schools serving one-half of pupils in village
2005) this variable had a high correlation with school
communities were deemed to be in poor condition, this
achievement. for this report, if a school head reported
was the case for schools serving less than 30 percent
that the ‘school needs complete rebuilding' or ‘some
of pupils in city/town communities. The disparities
classrooms need major repairs', then the school would
between village and city/town schools also seemed
be considered as being in ‘poor condition’. On the
large in Argentina, Chile, India and Paraguay. The only
other hand, if the school heads reported that ‘most
exception was malaysia, where schools serving around
classrooms need minor repairs’ or ‘school is in good
30 percent of pupils in both villages and cities/towns
condition’, then the school would be considered as
were reported to be in a poor condition.
being in ‘good condition’.
It must be reiterated that these figures have been
The extent to which schools were in ‘poor condition’
based on the perceptions of school heads. It is quite
was analysed and has been presented in Figure 2.7.
plausible that, the better the school head, the more he
In general, schools in villages were more likely to
or she is likely to be dissatisfied with the condition of
be perceived to be in poor condition than those in
the buildings. Although the perception of school heads
cities or towns. In Peru and the Philippines, the heads
may have been very subjective, the differences between
of schools in villages serving more than 70 percent
schools should be investigated independently and, if
of pupils deemed that their schools were in poor
confirmed, taken into consideration when allocating
condition. In these countries, primary schools serving
resources for repairs and renovations.
FIgUrE 2.7
primary pupils in schools with poor infrastructure
percentage of pupils in schools whose school heads stated that the ‘school needs complete rebuilding’
or ‘some classrooms need major repairs’
Village schools
City/town schools
%
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
S median
Philippines
WEI-SP
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A2.6.
40
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
A VIEW INSIdE PrImAry SChOOlS
What school resources were available?
laboratories) and computers. In addition, there is no
School heads were presented a list of 31 items
information about the quality of the resources or the
representing various resources and were asked if they
extent to which they are effectively used for instruction
had each one in their school. The list contained basic
and learning. for example, a school may have
items, including sufficient sitting places (e.g. benches
computers, but the teachers may not know how to use
and chairs for pupils) and sufficient toilets for boys
them, especially for instruction or a school may have a
and girls. The list also includes other less common
library but few books.
resources, such as special rooms or computers for
A more detailed analysis was conducted by grouping
administrative and instructional purposes.
the 31 resource items into six categories or sub-sets as
To what extent did primary schools in the WEI-SPS
follows:
countries have these items? To address this question,
i) Electricity/water (2 items).
the data were analysed and have been presented from
the pupils’ perspective in Figure 2.8.
ii) Sufficiency, which comprised six resources, namely
a blackboard in each classroom, sufficient writing
A detailed explanation of how to interpret figure 2.8
places (desks, tables) for pupils, sufficient sitting
has been provided in Box 2.2. In this case, the box plots
places (benches, chairs), sufficient toilets for
represent the number of resources possessed by schools
boys and for girls, safety equipment (e.g. fire
serving different percentages of the pupil population.
extinguisher, cyclone shelters, etc.) (6 items).
for Argentina, the top dot corresponds to 20,
iii) Facilities, which comprised school library, staff
implying that 10 percent of primary pupils attended
room, refectory/cafeteria, sports field and first-aid
schools in village communities with more than 20
kit (5 items).
resource items. Put in another way, schools serving
90 percent of pupils in village communities had 20
iv) Special teaching rooms, which comprised an audio-
or fewer resources. The bottom dot corresponds to 7
visual room and a science laboratory (2 items).
for Argentina, meaning that primary schools serving
v) Equipment, which comprised microscope, telephone,
10 percent of pupils in village communities had fewer
fax machine, duplicator or photocopier, TV set,
than seven resource items. The lower and upper edges
radio, tape recorder, overhead projector, a video-
of the box correspond to 11 and 17 respectively,
cassette recorder (VCr) and maps (10 items).
meaning that schools serving the middle half of pupils
in village communities reportedly had between 11 and
vi) Computers, which comprised computers for
17 items. finally, the bar in the box corresponds to
administrative use, computer-based management
14, indicating that schools serving one-half of primary
system, computers for pupils to use with access to
pupils in village communities had less than 14 items,
the Internet, computers for pupils to use without
and those serving the other half had more than 14.
access to the Internet, website of the school on the
Internet, intranet site within the school. (6 items)
It can be seen that malaysia and Chile had the best-
resourced pupils both in villages and cities/towns.
electricity and running water
Tunisia was the only country to report schools with
Two of the most basic resources are electricity and
all 31 selected resources, but only for 10 percent of
running water. In Table 2.3 it can be seen that most
pupils in city/town schools. meanwhile, village schools
pupils in WEI-SPS countries were in schools with
serving the best-resourced 10 percent of pupils in the
these items. however, over one-half of pupils in
Philippines, Sri lanka and Tunisia offered just 17 of the
India (the four states in question) were in schools
31 resource items. In India, Paraguay and Peru, these
lacking electricity. This was also the case for schools
schools had less than one-half of the resource items
serving more than 20 percent of pupils in Peru and
(13, 14 and 14 respectively).
Sri lanka. In Argentina, Brazil, India, Paraguay, Peru,
It should be noted that the resource list included
the Philippines and Sri lanka, there were more than
items related to special teaching rooms (like science
10 percent of pupils in schools without running water.
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
41
Chapter 2: the Context of primary sChooling
Figure 2.8
Number of school resources by distribution of the primary pupil population
Pupils in village schools
30
Percentile:
90th
25
75th
Median
20
c
e
s
25th
esour 15
10th
Number of r 10
5
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
Philippines
Pupils in city/town schools
30
Percentile:
90th
25
75th
Median
20
c
e
s
25th
esour 15
10th
Number of r 10
5
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
Philippines
Sources: Wei-sps database; table a2.7.
42
© UnesCo-Uis 2008
A VIEW INSIdE PrImAry SChOOlS
TABlE 2.3 perCentage oF pupIls In sCHools WItH eleCtrICIty anD Water
Electricity
running water
%
SE
%
SE
Argentina
98.7
0.25
86.8
1.26
Brazil
94.5
1.03
87.2
1.52
Chile
99.4
0.28
98.5
0.57
India
47.6
2.93
86.4
1.71
malaysia
98.4
0.68
96.5
0.95
Paraguay
96.6
0.50
81.3
1.06
Peru
76.4
1.35
83.8
1.42
Philippines
89.0
1.36
70.1
2.21
Sri lanka
79.1
1.89
76.8
2.07
Tunisia
98.3
0.74
90.2
1.18
Uruguay
100.0
0.00
99.1
0.41
WeI-sps median
96.6
86.8
Source: WEI-SPS database.
sufficiency
were in schools with insufficient writing and sitting
Blackboards are almost indispensable for teaching. It
places. These resources were also scarce in Peru and
must be useable in the sense that it is not too shiny or
the Philippines. Only Chile and malaysia had over
worn for the pupils to see what is written on it. In this
90 percent of pupils in schools with sufficient writing
case, no question was asked about the usability of the
and sitting places. Brazil joined them for writing places.
blackboard but only if there was one in each classroom.
Peru, the Philippines and especially Sri lanka were
In WEI-SPS countries, this resource was available in
badly off for toilets. India, Paraguay and Tunisia were
schools serving the majority or all primary pupils.
not much better. Only Chile and malaysia can claim a
As seen in Table 2.4, in Sri lanka only 91 percent
high level of prevalence of safety equipment in primary
of pupils were in schools with a blackboard in each
schools. Thus, it can be concluded that resources,
classroom, and in India, the figure was 95 percent.
such as sitting and writing places, toilets and safety
In Sri lanka and India, school heads reported that
equipment, are clearly a problem in several WEI-SPS
over 40 percent and 50 percent respectively of pupils
countries.
TABlE 2.4 perCentage oF pupIls In sCHools WItH suFFICIent resourCes
Blackboard in each
Sufficient writing
Sufficient sitting
Sufficient number
Sufficient number
classroom
places
places
of toilets for boys
of toilets for girls
Safety equipment
%
SE
%
SE
%
SE
%
SE
%
SE
%
SE
Argentina
98.9
0.44
88.9
1.31
88.0
1.39
80.0
1.58
79.5
1.62
66.6
1.45
Brazil
99.4
0.28
92.7
1.16
88.3
1.42
82.5
1.82
82.2
1.83
45.2
2.43
Chile
99.5
0.27
99.0
0.42
98.6
0.52
92.5
1.23
92.4
1.25
96.7
0.87
India
95.2
0.81
40.6
2.33
43.2
2.21
62.0
2.22
60.4
2.56
22.4
2.52
malaysia
100.0
0.00
95.4
1.07
95.5
1.00
89.4
1.69
88.8
1.78
95.3
1.05
Paraguay
99.0
0.28
84.7
1.24
87.4
1.20
69.7
1.57
69.5
1.57
9.5
1.13
Peru
98.0
0.54
70.3
2.15
68.4
2.21
53.0
2.32
52.7
2.29
24.9
1.82
Philippines
98.9
0.52
72.7
2.47
64.3
2.67
51.0
2.85
53.0
2.76
33.9
2.60
Sri lanka
91.1
1.55
57.5
2.73
58.4
2.56
32.5
2.81
32.8
2.59
0.7
0.48
Tunisia
98.7
0.68
84.9
1.93
88.5
1.69
70.0
2.30
61.7
2.41
21.6
1.80
Uruguay
99.7
0.30
87.8
1.36
85.3
1.52
84.3
1.43
83.8
1.44
31.5
1.74
WeI-sps median
98.9
84.9
87.4
70.0
69.5
31.5
Source: WEI-SPS database.
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
43
ChAPTEr 2: ThE CONTExT Of PrImAry SChOOlING
Facilities
special teaching rooms
Given the importance of libraries for learning to read,
In the WEI-SPS study, school heads were asked about
it was surprising to learn that, according to the WEI-
the availability of two types of special teaching rooms:
SPS median, only 64 percent of pupils were in schools
an audio-visual room and a science laboratory. It
with a library. As shown in Table 2.5, in Paraguay,
is indicated in Table 2.6 that in malaysia and Chile
the Philippines, Sri lanka and Tunisia, only every
approximately 70 percent of pupils attended schools
second child was in a school with a library. In Chile
with an audio-visual room. In the rest of the countries,
and malaysia, most schools had a staffroom, but this
this figure ranged from 15 percent in Paraguay to
was uncommon in Paraguay, Peru, Sri lanka and
47 percent in Uruguay.
Tunisia. Cafeterias were relatively rare except in Chile
and malaysia. Sports fields were more frequent except
A science laboratory was even more uncommon, except
in Tunisia. Then only 55 percent of pupils were in a
in malaysia where 79 percent of pupils were in schools
school with a sports field. finally, most primary pupils
with this facility. In Chile, such schools only covered
in WEI-SPS countries were in schools with a first aid kit.
approximately 47 percent of primary pupils, and fewer
however, this was not the case for more than one-half
than 20 percent in Brazil, India, Paraguay, Tunisia and
of pupils in Brazil and 40 percent in Paraguay.
Uruguay.
TABlE 2.5 perCentage oF pupIls In sCHools WItH basIC FaCIlItIes
School library
Staff room
Cafeteria
Sports field
First aid kit
%
SE
%
SE
%
SE
%
SE
%
SE
Argentina
79.7
1.35
57.1
1.82
17.2
1.37
44.8
1.82
81.5
1.44
Brazil
62.0
2.32
72.8
1.97
65.6
2.52
53.3
2.49
44.7
2.48
Chile
85.6
1.65
93.6
1.04
82.7
1.74
80.7
1.82
93.2
1.15
India
64.5
2.54
46.3
2.27
32.2
2.63
63.0
2.49
64.8
2.29
malaysia
96.6
0.90
95.3
1.09
89.1
1.49
83.6
1.74
99.0
0.51
Paraguay
53.3
1.63
23.4
1.62
59.4
1.31
73.0
1.53
58.0
1.63
Peru
63.9
2.08
32.5
2.09
32.5
2.06
69.8
1.92
69.8
2.02
Philippines
53.1
2.57
38.0
2.47
38.3
2.49
43.9
2.87
63.8
2.28
Sri lanka
47.6
2.76
17.4
2.09
36.1
2.80
54.8
2.46
81.2
1.78
Tunisia
54.6
2.51
26.5
2.06
14.3
1.46
29.9
2.01
83.1
1.78
Uruguay
93.4
1.04
38.8
1.96
13.0
1.29
47.0
1.88
92.5
1.11
WeI-sps median
63.9
38.8
36.1
54.8
81.2
Source: WEI-SPS database.
TABlE 2.6 perCentage oF pupIls In sCHools WItH speCIal teaCHIng rooms
audiovisual room
Science laboratory
%
SE
%
SE
Argentina
39.8
1.81
41.0
1.69
Brazil
36.2
2.45
13.5
1.80
Chile
69.0
2.22
46.7
2.33
India
20.1
1.85
14.8
2.08
malaysia
71.7
2.29
78.8
2.02
Paraguay
15.0
1.24
9.5
1.10
Peru
29.7
2.12
27.5
1.94
Philippines
17.5
1.90
26.1
2.65
Sri lanka
25.0
2.41
26.2
2.15
Tunisia
22.3
1.93
15.2
1.53
Uruguay
46.7
1.88
19.4
1.53
WeI-sps median
29.7
26.1
Source: WEI-SPS database.
44
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
A VIEW INSIdE PrImAry SChOOlS
TABlE 2.7 perCentage oF pupIls In sCHools WItH basIC equIpment
Video
Cassette
duplicator/
Tape
Overhead
recorder
Microscope
Maps
Telephone Fax machine photocopier
TV set
radio
recorder
projector
(VCr)
%
SE
%
SE
%
SE
%
SE
%
SE
%
SE
%
SE
%
SE
%
SE
%
SE
Argentina
67.3 1.63 91.6 1.19 80.4 1.26 28.7 1.38 34.9 1.78 88.8 1.27 79.0 1.61 74.2 1.53 26.5 1.65 70.8 1.71
Brazil
25.9 2.25 85.0 1.68 72.4 1.97 37.9 2.26 77.8 1.96 85.6 1.53 80.0 2.18 65.9 2.42 55.3 2.34 78.6 2.15
Chile
74.9 2.00 91.7 1.39 94.4 0.96 72.8 1.96 83.1 1.75 96.5 1.05 95.6 1.04 90.2 1.41 63.1 2.22 80.8 1.95
India
16.4 1.90 91.6 1.15 19.6 2.30
3.5 1.09
5.4 1.39 19.4 2.76 37.7 2.66 32.6 2.46
4.9 1.06
6.4 1.20
malaysia
86.4 1.87 89.3 1.56 95.4 0.85 84.5 1.59 95.3 0.95 98.0 0.72 98.2 0.72 84.2 1.95 84.7 1.72 74.9 2.20
Paraguay
27.3 1.70 86.1 1.23 36.1 1.50 10.0 1.10 12.7 1.22 37.2 1.62 59.2 1.56 57.8 1.60 10.1 1.18 27.2 1.60
Peru
32.7 2.33 84.4 1.46 46.8 1.74
7.3 0.91 25.5 2.10 55.9 1.76 55.0 2.10 58.2 1.78 13.0 1.85 34.5 1.94
Philippines
51.0 2.51 74.9 2.04 36.3 2.14 16.5 2.26 12.3 1.35 56.6 2.30 66.9 2.46 48.5 2.89 21.2 1.94 28.2 2.17
Sri lanka
47.5 2.56 63.4 2.54 28.1 2.30
2.5 0.97
6.4 1.42 43.2 2.85 84.5 1.99 64.8 2.70 29.4 2.75 19.7 2.29
Tunisia
37.1 2.31 84.6 1.66 41.3 2.06 16.0 1.55 62.8 2.21 19.3 1.84 44.0 2.31 62.7 2.33 36.5 2.38 16.9 1.71
Uruguay
91.9 1.15 93.9 0.98 97.3 0.66 44.3 1.83 51.2 2.06 95.4 0.91 95.1 1.00 89.5 1.29 44.3 1.96 66.0 2.05
WeI-sps median
47.5
86.1
46.8
16.5
34.9
56.6
79.0
64.8
29.4
34.5
Source: WEI-SPS database.
It should be emphasised that there is no information on
Computers
the quality of these facilities nor pupil access to them.
Engagement with new information and
equipment
communication technologies is represented by access
to and use of computers and the Internet. data
The following 10 items are included in this group:
on the share of pupils who attended schools with
microscope, maps, telephone, fax machine,
computers and data on their use have been presented
photocopier, TV set, radio, tape recorder, overhead
in Table 2.8. Computer use for administrative
projector and video cassette recorder (VCr). These
purposes was quite common in five WEI-SPS countries
items are considered to be fundamental for the
(Argentina, Brazil, Chile, malaysia and Uruguay) but
development of normal school activities. The
lacking in India, Paraguay, Sri lanka and Tunisia.
percentage of pupils in schools with each of these
Overall, computer-based management systems were
resources has been presented in Table 2.7.
less common, but progress appears to have been
Primary schools serving most pupils in Argentina, Chile,
made in Brazil, Chile, malaysia and Uruguay. At the
malaysia, the Philippines and Uruguay reported having
same time, school websites and Intranet sites were
a microscope. maps were also relatively common.
even less common, especially in India, Paraguay, the
however, schools serving one out of four primary
Philippines and Sri lanka.
pupils in the Philippines and those serving one in three
in Sri lanka still did not have this resource. In India,
A major question was how many pupils were in schools
Paraguay, Peru, the Philippines, Sri lanka and Tunisia,
with computers for pupil use. These percentages are
close to one-half of pupils were in schools that did not
given at the end of the second part of Table 2.8. It
have a telephone. relatively few were in schools with
is evident that, in 7 out of the 11 WEI-SPS countries,
a fax machine, except in Chile and malaysia. With the
primary schools serving over one-half of the pupils
exception of India, Paraguay, Sri lanka and Tunisia,
did not have a computer for them to use. This group
more than one-half of pupils were in schools with a
consisted of Brazil (64%), India (85%), Paraguay (86%),
TV set. many were in schools with a radio and tape
Peru (55%), the Philippines (76%), Sri lanka (80%)
recorder. But teaching aids, such as overhead projectors
and Tunisia (57%). On the other hand, only 3 percent
and video cassette recorders, were rare except for
of pupils were without school computers in Chile,
schools in Brazil, Chile, malaysia and Uruguay.
followed by malaysia at 21 percent.
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
45
ChAPTEr 2: ThE CONTExT Of PrImAry SChOOlING
TABlE 2.8 perCentage oF pupIls In sCHools WItH Computers
Computers for
Computers for
Computer-based
website of the
pupils to use
pupils to use with
Computer for
management
school on the
Intranet site
without access to
access to the
pupils without
administrative use
system
Internet
within the school
the Internet
Internet
computers
%
SE
%
SE
%
SE
%
SE
%
SE
%
SE
%
SE
Argentina
75.3
1.61
35.5
1.60
18.0
1.40
7.7
0.91
44.0
1.75
22.9
1.34
48.0
1.73
Brazil
70.4
1.91
50.0
2.46
10.7
1.66
20.1
2.22
23.4
2.09
22.8
2.13
63.5
2.29
Chile
93.4
1.07
67.7
2.08
48.6
2.42
47.3
2.58
46.4
2.38
90.2
1.49
2.7
0.82
India
12.8
1.80
9.8
1.62
2.9
1.05
5.7
1.55
9.9
1.54
8.8
1.61
85.3
1.69
malaysia
95.2
1.10
62.2
2.49
33.9
2.73
18.9
2.20
61.8
2.55
59.4
2.62
21.1
2.25
Paraguay
29.0
1.71
12.6
1.36
5.0
0.81
3.2
0.64
10.4
1.14
6.5
0.92
86.2
1.27
Peru
52.7
2.00
28.2
1.92
12.1
1.78
7.8
1.23
33.5
2.04
22.1
1.86
54.5
1.95
Philippines
47.8
2.44
16.9
1.83
5.6
0.93
4.7
0.73
22.9
2.16
5.8
0.69
76.0
2.18
Sri lanka
21.3
2.40
5.7
1.20
2.0
0.85
8.5
1.61
18.9
2.23
3.1
0.99
79.5
2.26
Tunisia
21.9
1.97
33.5
2.07
14.3
1.48
13.3
1.41
31.3
2.15
23.1
1.96
56.8
2.30
Uruguay
93.4
1.00
62.4
2.01
19.9
1.62
7.9
1.09
43.1
2.16
36.8
1.88
38.5
1.96
WeI-sps median
52.7
33.5
12.1
7.9
31.3
22.8
56.8
Source: WEI-SPS database.
The percentage of pupils attending schools with or
The mean values of the indices were calculated for
without Internet access has been shown in Table 2.8.
each resource group separately for schools located
how can the percentage of pupils having computers
in village communities and those in city/town
with and without access to the Internet be interpreted?
communities. The results have been presented in
In Argentina, for example, there were 48 percent of
Table A2.8, as well as displayed in Figure 2.9. Chile
pupils in schools without computers and, therefore,
and malaysia seemed to have the best-resourced
52 percent in schools with computers. The schools
village schools, although special rooms and computers
had some computers without access to the Internet
were relatively rare. for computers, the figures were
and some with access. Of the 52 percent in schools
between 3 percent and 16 percent, except in Chile,
with computers, there were about twice as many that
malaysia and Uruguay. India, Paraguay, Peru, the
did not have access (44%) as those who did have
Philippines, Sri lanka and Tunisia were relatively
access (23%). In Chile, 97 percent of pupils attended
poorly resourced with equipment.
schools that had computers and most had access to the
In general town/city schools were much better resourced
Internet, although not all of the computers had access.
than those in villages. With the exceptions of India, the
In short, the WEI-SPS countries seem to have a long
Philippines, and Sri lanka, nearly all town/city schools
way to go before equipping their primary schools with
had water and electricity. Between 15 percent and
computers for pupils to use.
66 percent of pupils in city/town schools had access to
resources by school location
computer-related resources, and between 19 percent
and 83 percent possessed special teaching rooms.
It is informative to look at school claims on the six
resource categories based on location, i.e. village
It is important to stress that the sufficiency resource
or city/town communities. To this end, an index was
group includes such essential items as blackboards,
created for each of the six resource groups showing
good sitting and writing arrangements, as well as good
the percentage of items in each group that schools
toilet facilities. In India, Paraguay, Peru, the Philippines,
possessed. By way of illustration, School A has only
Sri lanka and Tunisia, less than 75 percent of pupils in
running water and School B has both running water and
schools in city/town communities had these basic items.
electricity; School A scores 50 on the electricity/water
In village communities, even fewer than 67 percent
index, while School B scores 100. Similarly, School A
of primary pupils in some of these countries attended
scores 50 if it has electricity but no running water.
schools with these facilities.
46
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
A VIEW INSIdE PrImAry SChOOlS
FIgUrE 2.9
mean values of indices of school resource groups
Electricity/water
Sufficiency resources
Facilities
Special rooms
Equipment
Computers
%
Pupils in village schools
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
Philippines
%
Pupils in city/town schools
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
Philippines
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A2.8.
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
47
ChAPTEr 2: ThE CONTExT Of PrImAry SChOOlING
resource levels and background
for instance, the square of the correlation coefficient
characteristics of pupils served by the
for India (0.51) was 0.256, meaning that almost 26
schools
percent of the variation in the number of resources
Providing all schools with adequate resources,
items across the primary schools in the four Indian
regardless of their location and the types of pupils
states is related to or explained by the index of Social
they serve, is an important part of guaranteeing equal
advantage of pupil intake of these schools. The square
educational opportunities. As shown above, city/town
of the correlation coefficient for each country has been
schools in the WEI-SPS countries were generally better-
shown in the last column of Table 2.9. Among the WEI-
resourced than village schools. Another way to look at
SPS countries, the link between the number of resource
the level of equality of resource distribution across the
items and the social advantage of pupil intake was
schools is by the background characteristics of pupils
the weakest in Sri lanka. Still, almost eight percent of
served by the schools.
the variation in one variable was related to that of the
other, which is not negligible. Particularly striking were
Table 2.9 provides a summary of the coefficients of
Argentina and Peru, where almost 40 percent of the
correlation between the number of resources items and
variation in the number of resource items was related
an index of Social advantage of pupil intake (see Chapter
to the variation in the index of Social advantage of pupil
3 for more details about the index). As can be seen, the
intake.
correlation coefficients were positive for all countries,
indicating that schools enrolling pupils from more
These results suggest that in the WEI-SPS countries
advantaged backgrounds tended to provide more of the
the level of school resources was to a large extent
31 school resource items.
dependent on the background characteristics of
the pupils enrolled in the schools. Inequality in
The values of the correlation coefficients reflect the
school resources goes against the goal of equal
strength of the relationship between the two variables.
educational opportunities. When the distribution of
The values ranged from 0.28 for Sri lanka to 0.63
school resources is linked to the backgrounds of a
for Peru, which are substantial. An explanation of
school's pupil population, it means that pupils from
the correlation coefficients and the variance would
disadvantaged backgrounds are subject to double
help understand this point. Taking the square of the
jeopardy, i.e. such pupils generally already suffer from
coefficient is equal to the percent of the variation in
a deficit in their home environment, and on top of
one variable that is related to the variation in the other.
this, they attend relatively poorly-resourced schools.
TABlE 2.9 CorrelatIon betWeen number oF sCHool resourCes anD tHe InDex oF Social advantage
of School intake
percent of variation in one variable
Correlation coefficient
SE
related to that in the other
Argentina
0.62
0.025
38.9
Brazil
0.39
0.040
15.4
Chile
0.42
0.034
17.9
India
0.51
0.037
25.7
malaysia
0.38
0.053
14.7
Paraguay
0.49
0.030
24.5
Peru
0.63
0.030
39.1
Philippines
0.44
0.034
19.6
Sri lanka
0.28
0.046
7.8
Tunisia
0.34
0.040
11.8
Uruguay
0.44
0.035
19.4
WeI-sps median
0.44
19.4
Source: WEI-SPS database.
48
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
A VIEW INSIdE PrImAry SChOOlS
TABlE 2.10 results oF anoVa analysIs For total resourCes among regIons
regions
rho
Argentina
North, Central, South
17.0
Brazil
North, Central, South
34.7
India
Assam, madhya Pradesh, rajasthan, Tamil Nadu
22.8
Paraguay
region 1, region 2, region 3, region 4, region 5
17.1
Philippines
National Capital region (NCr), mindanao, Visayas, luzon
33.1
Sri lanka
Central, Eastern, North Central, North Western, Northern, Sabaragamuwa, Southern Uva, Western
5.4
Tunisia
Northwest, midwest, South, mideast, Northeast
26.1
Uruguay
montevideo / rest of the country
22.1
Source: WEI-SPS database.
The results shown above imply that there is room
have to work together to improve variation among
for improvement in strengthening compensatory
regions (national responsibility) and equity among
policies and programmes in WEI-SPS countries to level
schools within regions (regional responsibility).
the playing field for pupils from all sections of the
As can be seen, 5 percent of the variation was
socioeconomic spectrum.
among regions in Sri lanka and 35 percent in Brazil.
Differences in school resources within
Table 2.10 suggests that national authorities in
regions
Brazil, the Philippines, and Tunisia must help the
regions to establish more equity among them. In
finally, the equity of resource allocation among regions
the other countries, more effort is needed by the
within countries was also examined. The analysis of
regional authorities to ensure more equal conditions
variance (ANOVA) in the total number of resources of all
among their schools. At the same time, it is shown in
sampled schools was conducted for eight countries with
figure 2.9 that resources were less plentiful in India
available information. The statistic called rho (or intra-
and Sri lanka, where national and regional authorities
class correlation) represents the amount of variation
must work to raise their levels in order to increase the
in the number of resources among regions within
level of resources.
countries. A high rho value (closer to 1) means that
there is more variation in the school resources reported
Conclusion
across the regions within a country. In other words,
In the WEI-SPS countries, there was wide variation
there are large regional disparities in the allocation of
among countries in the percentage of pupils in village
school resources. In contrast, a low rho (closer to zero)
schools. more than one-half of the pupils in India, the
represents less regional variation in school resources,
Philippines and Sri lanka were in village schools, but in
indicating that their allocation was relatively equitable.
Argentina, Chile and Uruguay, less than 15 percent of
The results of rho estimations have been presented in
all primary pupils were enrolled in village schools. In
Table 2.10 where each value was multiplied by 100 for
Chile, pupils in schools in communities with more than
easier understanding. In Argentina, for example, this
100,000 inhabitants accounted for more than two-
coefficient was 17.0. This means that 17 percent of the
thirds of the total enrolment. In Argentina, Brazil, Peru
variation in resources was across regions, and in turn,
and Uruguay, they accounted for more than one-third.
this means that 83 percent of the variation was among
In Brazil, even though just 23 percent of the enrolment
schools within regions. In this case, the onus is on the
was in village schools, their schools accounted for
regional authorities to ensure that there is more equity
54 percent of schools. In Peru, 69 percent of schools
of resources among schools within regions. Normally,
were in village communities but hosted just 38 percent
it is said that, if the variation among regions exceeds
of the country’s enrolment. for countries with very high
25 percent, then both national and regional authorities
village school enrolment, the share of village schools
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
49
ChAPTEr 2: ThE CONTExT Of PrImAry SChOOlING
was even higher. Almost four out of five schools in the
both in village and city/town schools. But even in the
Philippines and Sri lanka were village schools.
best case, malaysia, there were only about 30 percent
The average distance in kilometres was calculated from
of pupils in schools with all resources. Village schools in
a school to a public library, bookshop, tarmac road,
India, Paraguay, Peru, the Philippines and Tunisia had
secondary school and health centre or clinic. Some village
few pupils in schools with all resources, although the
schools were, on average, over 20 km from a library or
list included some relatively rare items, such as special
bookshop (both important sources of reading materials).
teaching rooms and computer-related resources.
In Paraguay, village schools were 49 km from a public
Slightly more than one-half of pupils in India (the four
library. Village schools were nearest to public amenities in
states in question) were in schools without electricity.
India. The distance to secondary schools in villages was,
In Peru and Sri lanka, there were more than 20 percent
on average, higher in Argentina, malaysia and Tunisia.
of pupils in schools without electricity. In Argentina,
An examination was made of the percentage of pupils
Brazil, India, Paraguay, Peru, the Philippines, and Sri
in public and private schools. In Sri lanka, there were
lanka, there were more than 10 percent of pupils in
no private schools. In malaysia and Tunisia, there were
schools without running water.
very few. Chile had the most pupils in private schools
There were several countries where many school heads
(50%), followed by India (about 34%). Nearly all
perceived their schools to be without sufficient sitting
private schools were in towns and cities.
and writing places, toilets and safety equipment.
School total enrolment was larger in town/city schools
It is extremely difficult to teach and learn in these
than in village schools. With the exception of the
conditions. It takes a particularly dedicated child to
Philippines and malaysia (average of 836 and 757
learn while sitting on a mud floor (sometime a wet
pupils respectively in town schools), the schools can
mud floor) having to share a textbook with others and
be considered as not being too large so that young
only being able to write by placing the paper or slate on
children did not feel lost in them.
the floor or on the shoulder of the next child.
City/town schools tended to have a greater share of
Just over one-half of the WEI-SPS pupils were in primary
pupils in schools where buildings are perceived to be
schools that had a computer for administrative use.
in good condition than did village schools in the same
But there were relatively few in schools with such a
country. Chile had the highest share of pupils in schools
computer in India, Paraguay, Sri lanka and Tunisia.
that were deemed to be in good condition, and the
There were fewer pupils in schools with a computer-
Philippines had the highest share of pupils in schools
based management system, but good progress
where some classrooms were deemed to need major
appeared to have been made – about 43 percent
repairs. In Peru, education officials face an enormous
of pupils were in schools with computers in Brazil,
task: more than 30 percent of pupils in village schools
Chile, malaysia, and Uruguay. Only in Chile nearly all
were in buildings that needed to be completely rebuilt
schools were equipped with computers for pupil use
and another 38 percent of pupils were in village
with access to the Internet. Very few countries had
schools with classrooms that needed major repairs. In
a website and Intranet system within the schools. It
Peru, again, as well as the Philippines and Sri lanka,
is too early to expect schools in middle-income and
a substantial percentage of pupils attended city/town
low-income countries to have many computers in their
schools that had some classrooms in need of major
schools, either for use by the school administration or
repairs. It must be emphasized that these values are
by the pupils. As the cost of computers decreases, it
based on the perceptions of school heads. It is quite
can be expected that more and more schools will have
plausible that the better the school condition, the more
them. Across the WEI-SPS countries, schools serving
the school head is likely to be dissatisfied with the
pupils from more advantaged backgrounds seemed to
condition of the buildings.
have more resource items, suggesting that equalizing
As expected, relatively few pupils were in schools where
school inputs for disadvantaged populations remains a
all resource items were available. It can be seen that
challenge. There was quite large variations in resources
malaysia and Chile had the best-resourced schools,
among regions in Brazil, the Philippines and Tunisia.
50
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
A View inside PrimAry schools
Country profiles
Both in village and city/town schools, the majority of
Argentina: less than 15 percent of pupils were in village
students were in schools that were considered by their
schools, but it must be remembered that Argentina
school heads to be in good condition. chile had well-
had opted not to include schools with fewer than 25
resourced schools in villages, as well as in cities/towns.
pupils in the sample and these would surely have been
science laboratories and a website or intranet are
in villages. These schools catered to less than 5 percent
the items to which the majority of pupils still did not
of all primary pupils. one-third of pupils were in
have access.
cities/towns with over 100,000 inhabitants. in village
India: more than one-half of all primary school children
schools, enrolment ranged from 27 to 197, and in town
were in village schools. in these schools, enrolment
schools, from 128 to 691. Village schools tended to
ranged from 45 to 217, and in town schools, from
be a long distance from a bookshop and public library.
69 to 374. only about 65 percent of pupils were
nearly 77 percent of pupils were in public schools
in public schools and the rest in private schools.
and 23 percent in private. in village schools, school
The schools were never far from public amenities.
heads felt that 36.9 percent of pupils were in schools
in villages, school heads deemed that 40 percent
where the buildings might be considered to be in poor
of pupils were in schools of poor condition. in town
condition. in towns, this was only about 24.1 percent
schools, the percentage was 25 percent. more than
of pupils in such schools. in terms of resources, more
50 percent of pupils were in schools that did not have
than 50 percent of pupils were in schools that did
electricity, sufficient writing and sitting places, staff
not have a cafeteria, sports field, audio-visual room,
room, cafeteria, audio-visual room, science laboratory,
science laboratory, fax machine, duplicator or overhead
microscope, telephone, fax machine, duplicator, TV set,
projector. in Argentina, the number of resource items
radio, tape recorder, overhead projector, video cassette
a school had depended, to a great extent, on the
recorder or computers.
backgrounds of the pupils of the school.
Malaysia: enrolment in village schools ranged from
Brazil: 54 percent of all schools were village schools but
86 to 488, and in town schools, from 195 to 1408.
only enrolled 23 percent of all primary school pupils.
The few private schools that existed tended to be in
one-third of pupils were in schools in towns with over
towns. over 70 percent of pupils in village schools
100,000 inhabitants. in villages, school enrolment
were in buildings that the school heads considered
ranged from 14 to 150, and in town schools, from
were in good condition. in town schools, the situation
44 to 544. nearly 90 percent of pupils were in
was similar. malaysia had the best-resourced schools
public schools and the rest in private schools. About
in this study. Typically 80 percent to 100 percent of
50 percent of pupils in village schools were deemed
pupils were in schools that had every resource item
to have buildings that were in poor state. in towns,
listed.
however, the percentage was 26 percent. more than
Paraguay: nearly 43 percent of pupils were in village
50 percent of pupils were in schools that did not have
schools. in village schools, enrolment ranged from 43
a first aid kit, audio-visual room, science laboratory,
to 177, and in city/town schools, it was 73 to 608.
microscope, fax machine, or computers for pupils.
Village schools were quite a long distance (about
Finally, 35 percent of the variation of resources was
11 km to 49 km) away from public amenities. over
among regions and 65 percent among schools within
85 percent of pupils were in public schools and
regions.
15 percent in private schools. in village schools, school
Chile: Two-thirds of primary school pupils were in
heads declared that about 45 percent of pupils were
schools in towns with over 100,000 inhabitants. less
in schools that were in poor condition. in city/town
than 15 percent of pupils were in village schools.
schools, this was 31.4 percent of pupils. more than
Village school enrolment ranged from 24 to 195,
50 percent of pupils were in schools that did not have
and in town schools, from 133 to 658. nearly
a staff room, audio-visual room, science laboratory,
50 percent of pupils attended private schools, and
microscope, telephone, fax machine, duplicator, TV set,
the vast majority of them were in cities and towns.
overhead projector, Vcr or computers.
© Unesco-Uis 2008
51
ChAPTEr 2: ThE CONTExT Of PrImAry SChOOlING
Peru: Nearly 38 percent of all primary pupils were
a school library, staff room, cafeteria, audio-visual
in village schools that constituted 69 percent of all
room, science laboratory, microscope, telephone, fax
schools. Enrolment in village schools ranged from
machine, duplicator, TV set, overhead projector, VCr
20 to 151, and in town schools, from 37 to 695.
or computers.
many village schools were a long distance from public
Tunisia: Nearly 39 percent of primary pupils were in
amenities. About 16 percent of pupils were in private
village schools that constituted 62 percent of all schools.
schools. In village schools, just over 70 percent of
Enrolment in village schools ranged from 95 to 336
pupils were in schools deemed to be in poor condition
pupils, and in town schools, from 196 to 692 pupils.
by the school heads. In town schools, it was 50 percent
Almost all pupils were in public schools. In general,
of pupils deemed to be in schools in poor condition.
schools were relatively close to public amenities.
more than 50 percent of pupils were in schools that
Almost one-half of pupils in village schools were in
did not have a staff room, cafeteria, audio-visual
buildings in poor condition, according to school heads;
room, science laboratory, microscope, telephone, fax
some 40 percent of pupils in city/town schools were
machine, duplicator, TV set, overhead projector, VCr
also in buildings in poor condition. more than one-
or computers. Peru stood out among the WEI-SPS
half of pupils were in schools that lacked a staff room,
countries in the extent to which schools enrolling pupils
cafeteria, sports field, audio-visual room, science
from more advantaged backgrounds tended to be
laboratory, microscope, telephone, fax machine,
better resourced.
television set, radio, overhead projector, video-cassette
Philippines: Approximately 56 percent of all primary
recorder or computers. There was a certain amount
pupils were enrolled in village schools, and these
of variation of resources among regions, suggesting
schools represented 78 percent of all primary schools.
that the national authorities need to act to have more
Enrolment in village schools ranged from 113 to 546,
equity among regions.
and in town schools, from 172 to 1,803. The average
Uruguay: less than 15 percent of pupils were in village
distance from the village schools to public libraries
schools, with enrolment from 20 to 321. Town schools
and bookshops was about 20 km. Approximately
had enrolment from 106 to 580. Just over 12 percent
95 percent of all children were in public schools. There
of pupils were in private schools. In general, schools
were 75 percent of pupils in village schools where the
were relatively close to public amenities. Just over
heads deemed the buildings to be in poor condition. for
34 percent of pupils were in village schools where the
towns, this was over 60 percent. more than 50 percent
heads deemed the buildings to be in poor condition.
of pupils were in schools that did not have a staff
In town schools, this figure was 30 percent. more than
room, cafeteria, sports field, audio-visual room, science
50 percent of pupils were in schools that did not have
laboratory, telephone, fax machine, duplicator, tape
a staff room, cafeteria, sports field, audio-visual room,
recorder, overhead projector, VCr or computers. About
science laboratory, fax machine, overhead projector or
one-third of the variation in resources in schools was
computers for pupils.
among regions, suggesting that the national authorities
need to act to establish more equity of provision among
regions.
Sri Lanka: four-fifths of all primary schools were in
villages and enrolled about one-half of all primary
children. Enrolment in village schools was from 50
to 290, and in city/town schools, from 91 to 1,010.
Nearly all pupils were in public schools. In general,
schools were not too far from public amenities.
One-half of pupils were in village schools where the
heads deemed the buildings to be in poor condition.
more than 50 percent of pupils were in schools that
did not have sufficient toilets for boys and for girls,
52
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
3 Characteristics of pupils in schools
Yanhong Zhang (UNESCO Institute for Statistics)
There is considerable variation in the extent to which
socio-economic range of the larger environment. If
pupils are ready or prepared to enter school. This is
school enrolment reflects selection criteria, such as
shaped by personal traits, family circumstances and
academic ability or socio-economic status, the mix of
prior education. Thus, any study of school policies
pupil characteristics may be relatively uniform. Either
and processes must take into consideration pupil
way, there may be relatively large differences among
characteristics and their school experiences.
schools within the same system.
In this chapter a number of pupil characteristics at the
In the WEI-SPS survey, school heads responded to
primary level in WEI-SPS countries have been examined,
a question about the extent to which the following
including admission policies, the background of pupil
criteria were used when admitting pupils: permanent
intake and pupil attitudes and behaviours. In particular,
residence in a particular area; pupil’s performance
the issue of co-education versus gender-specific
on school entry tests; parental education; parents’
schooling is analysed.
endorsement of the school philosophy; and preference
given to family members of current or former students.
Admission policies of primary schools
The extent was measured as: prerequisite; high priority;
How teachers teach and how schools function on a
considered; or not considered. The detailed responses
daily basis are linked to the characteristics of pupils
have been presented in Table A3.1. The percentage
in the classrooms. For example, if school enrolment
of pupils attending schools where principals reported
is limited to a geographic catchment area, the
these criteria as a ‘prerequisite’ or ‘high priority’ has
composition of the pupil population will reflect the
been displayed in Figure 3.1.
FIgUrE 3.1
Criteria for admission into primary schools
Percentage of primary pupils whose school heads reported that the following factors
were used as ‘high priority’ or ‘prerequisite’ when admitting pupils
Permanent residence in a particular area
School philosophy
Student’s performance on school entry tests
Preference given to family members of current students
%
Parental education
75
60
45
30
15
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
Philippines
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A3.1.
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
53
CHAPTEr 3: CHArACTErISTICS OF PUPIlS IN SCHOOlS
residence was the most important criterion for
India (26%), the Philippines (21%), Sri lanka (17%)
admitting pupils in almost all WEI-SPS countries.
and Chile (13%).
In Malaysia, 71 percent of pupils were enrolled on
Academic entry tests appeared to play a larger role in
the basis of residency, followed by Sri lanka (54%),
admissions among private rather than public schools,
Uruguay (46%), Tunisia (43%), Argentina (30%),
as is shown in Figure 3.2. In Chile, Paraguay, Peru and
the Philippines (29%), India (24%) and Brazil (18%).
the Philippines, the share of pupils admitted to private
At the same time, about 10 percent or more of
schools on the basis of entry test scores was more than
primary pupils in each of the WEI-SPS countries
double that of public schools.
attended schools where ‘parents’ endorsement of
school philosophy’ was reported to be a high priority
A high priority on academic admission tests was
or prerequisite for admission. This criterion was more
also more common among schools in cities/towns
commonly used in Argentina (30% – mostly in private
rather than in villages. Figure 3.3 illustrates that,
schools), India (29%), Chile (19%), Uruguay (16%),
in Chile, Peru, Sri lanka and Tunisia, the share of
the Philippines (13%) and Tunisia (12%). In addition,
pupils attending city/town schools based on academic
principals reported that ‘preference is given to family
selection was more than double that of village schools.
members of current or former students’ in Uruguay
There are many arguments in favour of streaming
(27%), Argentina (25%), Sri lanka (21%), India (20%),
pupils on the basis of academic abilities and providing
Malaysia (15%) and Chile (14%). According to school
them with differentiated instruction. However,
heads in India, more than 13 percent of primary pupils
the adverse effects of this practice have been well
were admitted on the basis of ‘parent’s education’.
documented in research (Oakes, 1994; Barr, 1994).
Pupil performance on a school entry test was also
Negative impacts include: exacerbated inequalities in
considered to be important. This was the case in
cognitive outcomes associated with home background;
FIgUrE 3.2
Admission on the basis of academic ability (pupil selection), by school type
Percentage of pupils whose school heads reported that performance on entry tests were considered
as ‘high priority’ or ‘prerequisite’ when admitting pupils
All schools
Public schools
%
Private schools
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
a
y
a
y
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
Paragu
Urugu
Philippines
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A3.2.
54
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
A VIEW INSIdE PrIMAry SCHOOlS
FIgUrE 3.3
Admission on the basis of academic ability, by school location
Percentage of pupils whose school heads reported that performance on entry tests
were considered as ‘high priority’ or ‘prerequisite’ when admitting pupils
All schools
Village schools
%
City/town schools
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
Urugu
Philippines
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A3.2.
polarized attitudes towards school, especially
Characteristics of pupil intake at the
decreased motivation among pupils assigned to low-
school level
ability groups; and lower educational attainment
Schools, including their teachers and administrators,
and fewer life chances in the long term for pupils in
do not operate in a vacuum. Family background and
the low-ability groups. These groups tend to have
personal traits of pupils play an important role in
less demanding curricula and fewer learning tasks,
shaping school policies and processes, and in turn, affect
resulting in lower levels of achievement. Pupils then
the extent to which curriculum goals are achieved. In
tend to internalize the belief early that they are less
other words, policies and processes are only meaningful
able and less likely to succeed. In turn, they are less
motivated to work hard.
when teachers, school administrators and policymakers
have a thorough understanding of the characteristics of
In the next section, it has been shown that schools
the population served by the school system.
that admit pupils on the basis of academic abilities
were also more likely to have pupils from advantaged
In the WEI-SPS study, information about pupils’
backgrounds. This means that streaming pupils on
background characteristics was obtained from two
the basis of academic abilities also reinforces socio-
sources. First, school heads were asked for the share
economic inequities. Thus, it might be necessary for
of pupils in their schools who: have a first language
educational authorities in WEI-SPS countries to review
other than that used for instruction; had learning
admission policies and regulations for primary schools
problems needing special attention (such as dyslexia);
and to strike a balance between tailoring content and
had to walk more than 5 km or travel for more than
methods of instruction to individual abilities, while
an hour to get to school; received support for school
providing equally challenging learning opportunities for
attendance; have parents without a complete primary
all pupils to flourish academically.
education; and travel to and from school by subsidized
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
55
CHAPTEr 3: CHArACTErISTICS OF PUPIlS IN SCHOOlS
transportation. The responses were: ‘no’, ‘some’, ‘most’
schools. Schools and teachers needed to take these
or ‘all’ pupils. Principals were also asked how the
different linguistic backgrounds into account, not only
average family income of pupils compares to the gross
in the development of language instruction but in other
domestic product (GdP) per capita.
parts of the curriculum to ensure that all pupils had the
Second, the study asked teachers similar questions
opportunity to succeed academically.
about their Grade 4 pupils. For example, the extent to
Between 1 percent and 10 percent of primary pupils
which these pupils came from single-parent families,
attended schools where most or all pupils were
had learning problems, and travelled a long distance or
reported to have learning problems that needed special
a long time to come to school. (See Chapter 6 for these
attention. The Philippines and Uruguay had the largest
responses.)
share (approximately 10%) attending such schools. It
Caution must be exercised in the interpretation of the
should be noted, however, that there was a great range
responses since the accuracy of the information rests
among WEI-SPS countries in regard to the definition
on the principal’s and teacher’s familiarity with the
of ‘special learning needs’ and practices related to
family backgrounds of their pupils, knowledge that may
identifying such pupils and placing them in schools.
vary among principals and teachers – and, indeed, by
Thus, the results do not necessarily mean that the share
pupil. Similarly, responses about special learning needs,
of pupils with special learning needs is actually greatest
distance and travel time are also subjective. However,
in the Philippines and Uruguay. (The detailed responses
since perceptions of their pupils usually shape how
have been presented in Table A3.3.)
principals and teachers approach and interact with
A high percentage of primary pupils went to schools
those pupils, the survey responses can be valuable in
where the principals reported that most or all of
understanding the context of policies and practices at
the pupils received support for school attendance
the school and classroom levels.
in the form of school uniforms, textbooks, meals
As shown in Table 3.1, almost one in every five primary
and various financial assistance schemes. This share
pupils in India and Peru attended schools where,
ranged from about 12 percent in the Philippines to
according to their principals, the first language of most
approximately 68 percent in India and Peru. It should
or all of the pupils was different from the language of
be emphasized that this does not necessarily mean that
instruction. In Paraguay and the Philippines, more than
12 percent and 68 percent of pupils in the Philippines
one-half of the primary school pupils attended such
and Malaysia, respectively, received such support.
SChool heAd'S perCeption of ChArACteriStiCS of pupil intAke
Percentage of primary pupils in schools where school heads reported that ‘most’ or ‘all’ pupils
TABlE 3.1
had the following characteristics
Have to walk more
First language
than 5 km or travel receive support for
different from
Learning problems
for over 1 hour
school attendance
Parents with less
Travel to and from
language of
that need special
(by bike, bus, etc.)
(e.g. uniform,
than primary
school by subsidized
instruction
attention
to come to school
textbooks, etc.)
education
transportation
Argentina
2.3
5.9
4.6
29.0
21.9
7.7
Brazil
4.1
3.8
8.9
52.4
49.3
13.0
Chile
2.5
5.1
7.0
25.6
18.7
16.2
India
19.1
4.2
1.9
68.3
39.6
3.7
Malaysia
m
1.4
6.5
41.2
10.9
0.7
Paraguay
63.5
3.9
8.8
36.5
45.7
1.4
Peru
18.5
5.0
5.3
68.7
36.9
0.2
Philippines
79.7
10.5
8.0
12.2
23.4
5.6
Sri lanka
7.4
2.5
18.3
14.5
19.6
3.2
Tunisia
7.4
6.6
6.1
33.7
39.0
0.8
Uruguay
6.9
9.6
1.1
27.7
14.3
3.2
Source: WEI-SPS database; Table A3.3.
56
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
A VIEW INSIdE PrIMAry SCHOOlS
rather, school heads reported that these percentages
to have a mean of zero and a standard deviation of
of pupils attended schools where the majority received
1.0 for each country (see Appendix B for more details).
support for attendance.
Therefore, the absolute values cannot be compared
across countries. However, the index can be used to
In Brazil, Paraguay and the Philippines, schools serving
compare the relative levels of social advantage of the
almost 10 percent of primary pupils had most or all
pupil populations across different schools within a
of their pupils walking long distances or travelling for
country.
a long time to school. Only three WEI-SPS countries –
Argentina, Brazil and Chile – had 10 percent or more
The average values of the index of Social advantage
of pupils attending schools that used subsidized
by type of school are presented in Figure 3.4 and
transportation for most or all of the children.
Table A3.4. In the left panel of Figure 3.4, the
bars represent the differences in the index scores
Approximately one out of four pupils across WEI-
between pupils attending private and public schools.
SPS countries attended schools where the principals
These differences are also called ‘effect sizes’ (see
reported that most or all pupils had parents with
Box 3.1). This comparison could not be made in
less than primary education. The proportion actually
Malaysia, Sri lanka and Tunisia due to the limited
varied from about one in ten pupils in Malaysia to one
number or lack of private schools. On average, pupils
in two pupils in Brazil and Paraguay.
attending private schools were from more advantaged
Again, it should be emphasized that these results are the
backgrounds than their counterparts in public schools.
perceptions of the school heads and do not necessarily
Chile had the smallest socio-economic gap between
reflect the actual distribution of the educational
private and public school pupils, but the effect
attainment of the parents. But this information is useful
size was still 0.87, which is large by conventional
to the extent that the perceptions of principals play a
standards. In the remaining countries, the gaps were
role in making and enforcing school policies.
even larger. These were particularly pronounced in
Brazil and the Philippines, with effect sizes of 2.0 or
index of Social advantage of pupil intake
greater.
An index of the Social advantage of pupil intake was
It can be seen in Figure 3.4 that, in all WEI-SPS countries,
created on the basis of responses by school heads and
pupils going to city/town schools generally came from
Grade 4 teachers. Further analysis has found that the
more advantaged backgrounds than their counterparts
following responses provided by the principals captured
in village schools. Judging by effect size, the gaps were
the socio-economic background of pupil intake:
largest in Peru (1.01), Tunisia (0.98), Argentina (0.85)
support for school attendance, parents’ education and
and Chile (0.84). The differences were also notable in
the relative level of family income.
Malaysia (0.79), India (0.66), Sri lanka (0.65), Brazil
The index was also based on the following responses
(0.55) and Paraguay (0.51), and relatively smaller in
by teachers concerning the shares of their pupils
the Philippines (0.45) and Uruguay (0.31).
who: received support for school attendance; had
According to Figure 3.4, on average pupils attending
not eaten breakfast or lunch before coming to
academically selective schools enjoyed greater social
school; likely had fewer than 25 books at home;
advantages than those in schools without entry exams.
worked long hours to support the family income; had
The gaps were particularly large in Uruguay (2.31),
heavy housework duties at home; and faced serious
Chile (1.02), Paraguay (0.99) and Peru (0.83). The
problems in the home or neighbourhood. These
only exception to this pattern was Malaysia, but the
variables were re-coded so that, the greater the value,
recorded difference was statistically insignificant.
the more advantaged the average social background of
the pupil population.
pupil engagement in school as perceived
Given the subjective nature of the responses, the index
by school heads
of Social advantage was created to reflect the specific
Ultimately, pupil success in school depends upon
context of each country. The index was standardized
participation and intrinsic interest in academic studies.
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CHAPTEr 3: CHArACTErISTICS OF PUPIlS IN SCHOOlS
FIgUrE 3.4
Comparing pupil backgrounds of school intake
differences in mean values of the index of Social advantage of school intake,
by school type, location and academic selection, expressed as effect sizes
On average private
On average schools
On average schools that
schools more advantaged
in towns/cities more
selected based on entry test
than public
advantaged than in villages
more advantaged
Argentina
Argentina
Brazil
Brazil
Chile
Chile
India
India
Malaysia
Malaysia
Paraguay
Paraguay
Peru
Peru
Philippines
Philippines
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka
Tunisia
Tunisia
Uruguay
Uruguay
-0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Note: A bar in dark shade means the difference is statistically different from zero.
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A3.4.
BOx 3.1 COmParINg THE magNITUdE OF dIFFErENCES amONg grOUPS
In this report, the mean values of an index have been compared between pairs of pupil groups, e.g. pupils
attending private schools and those attending public schools, or pupils attending schools located in villages
and those located in cities and towns. When an index is standardized with a mean of zero and standard
deviation of 1.0 for each country, a difference in an index between groups can be called an ‘effect size’.
In accordance with common practices, this report considers effect sizes of less than 0.20 as small; effect
sizes in the order of 0.50 as medium; and those greater than 0.80 as large. In this chapter, differences
are considered to be worthy of mention if the effect sizes are equal to or great than 0.20, even if smaller
differences are still statistically significant.
For detailed information on the construction of the indices, see Appendix B.
Positive attitudes and behaviours towards school,
they tend to display motivation, self-confidence,
often referred to as ‘school engagement’, are
enthusiasm, interest and pride in success. Engaged
crucial elements in learning and success. research
students learn, retain and enjoy learning activities
shows that successful students persevere when
more than students who are not engaged (Finn and
encountering difficulties, make greater effort to learn
rock, 1997; Newmann, 1989; OECd, 2002; Voelkl,
and pay attention to their school work. In addition,
1995).
58
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A VIEW INSIdE PrIMAry SCHOOlS
TABlE 3.2 SChool heAd’S perCeption of pupilS’ SChool enGAGeMent
results for ‘most’ or ‘all’ pupils only
Pupils
value the
Pupils do
Pupils have
education
their best
high respect
Pupils enjoy
Pupils
Pupils take Pupils value
they can
to learn as
for their
Pupil-teacher
being at
work with pride in this academic
Pupils are
Pupils are
receive in
much as
classroom relationships
school
enthusiasm
school
achievement cooperative respectful
this school
possible
teachers
are positive
Argentina
97.9
95.1
95.4
89.1
91.6
93.5
92.1
86.2
94.6
97.8
Brazil
99.6
96.7
98.1
92.9
96.0
95.4
92.7
91.5
97.3
98.6
Chile
99.5
98.3
99.1
96.3
98.4
98.4
98.2
94.3
99.0
99.7
India
98.8
98.0
97.8
95.7
97.6
99.1
97.4
95.9
98.9
99.0
Malaysia
98.8
97.9
99.1
99.0
99.1
99.3
99.2
98.2
99.4
99.2
Paraguay
98.9
99.0
98.6
97.9
98.8
98.8
99.0
97.6
98.6
99.0
Peru
98.1
97.3
97.2
93.0
95.2
97.3
95.6
94.9
98.3
99.6
Philippines
99.9
99.4
98.9
98.4
99.2
99.0
98.6
98.6
99.9
99.9
Sri lanka
100.0
98.5
98.8
96.8
97.8
98.8
99.5
97.0
99.6
99.7
Tunisia
97.8
91.4
96.8
93.5
93.2
93.9
92.3
91.9
96.2
96.2
Uruguay
99.6
98.4
97.0
92.9
96.0
96.0
93.5
94.1
96.1
99.4
Source: WEI-SPS database.
In this section, data have been presented about the
aspects. Even in the rest of the countries, almost all
perceptions of school heads on school engagement
pupils were perceived to have very positive attitudes
(see Chapter 6 for teacher responses related to Grade 4
and behaviours in all aspects. The exceptions included
pupils). They were asked the extent to which the
Tunisia, where principals – representing 91 percent
following statements applied to their schools: ‘none
of pupils – reported that most or all of their pupils
or few’, ‘most’ or ‘all’ pupils enjoyed being at school;
‘work with enthusiasm’ and ‘do their best to learn’,
worked with enthusiasm; took pride in the school;
and Argentina, where principals – representing about
valued academic achievement; were cooperative; were
91 percent of pupils – said that most or all of their
respectful; valued the education they could receive in
pupils ‘value academic achievement’, ‘are cooperative’
the school; did their best to learn as much as possible;
and ‘do their best to learn’.
had high respect for their classroom teachers; and had
Again, it must be stressed that these results are indirect
positive relationships with teachers.
measures. yet, despite this constraint, it is encouraging
It should be noted that school heads and teachers are
that school heads in WEI-SPS countries generally
often reluctant to criticize their students, particularly in
had very positive evaluations of their pupils’ school
a questionnaire circulated by their education ministry.
engagement.
In other words, the responses may be too positive and
It is interesting to consider whether the responses
the results may not be free of social desirability bias.1
varied by type of school. A national index of Pupil
However, one can still glean information from the
engagement was, therefore, created on the basis of
variation reported in perceptions.
the principals’ responses. The index has a mean of zero
According to Table 3.2 and Table A3.5, school heads
and a standard deviation of 1.0 for each country. The
overwhelmingly reported that their pupils had very
differences in the index scores between different types
positive attitudes and behaviours towards school. More
of schools have presented in Figure 3.5 and Table A3.6.
than 96 percent of pupils in WEI-SPS countries attended
schools where their principals said that most or all of
1. In survey research, respondents may have a tendency to
their pupils enjoyed being at school and student-teacher
over-report socially desirable behaviours and views and
relationships were positive. In Malaysia, Paraguay, the
under-report socially undesirable behaviours. This inclination
to answer questions in a manner that is believed to be
Philippines and Sri lanka, principals reported virtually
socially acceptable or desirable is often referred to as ‘social
all pupils had positive attitudes and behaviours in all
desirability bias’.
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Chapter 3: CharaCteristiCs of pupils in sChools
Figure 3.5
Differences in mean values of the index of Pupils’ school engagement, expressed as effect sizes
Pupils in public
Pupils in private
Pupils in villages Pupils in cities
Pupils in
Pupils in selective
schools having
schools having
having more having more
non- selective
schools having
more positive
more positive
positive positive
schools having more
more positive
attitudes
attitudes
attitudes attitudes
positive attitudes
attitudes
Argentina
Argentina
Brazil
Brazil
Chile
Chile
India
India
Malaysia
Malaysia
Paraguay
Paraguay
Peru
Peru
Philippines
Philippines
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka
Tunisia
Tunisia
Uruguay
Uruguay
-0.5 -0.3 -0.1
0.1
0.3
0.5 -0.5 -0.3 -0.1
0.1
0.3
0.5 -0.5 -0.3 -0.1
0.1
0.3
0.5
Note: a bar in dark shade means the difference is statistically different from zero.
Sources: Wei-sps database; table a3.6.
pupils attending private schools had higher levels of
analyses were conducted between the index of
school engagement than their counterparts in public
Pupil engagement and the index of Social advantage
schools for all Wei-sps countries with available data.
with the size of school enrolment. the results have
a negligible difference was noted for paraguay. in
presented in Table 3.3.
most Wei-sps countries, school engagement was
in the first column in table 3.3, it can be seen
reportedly higher for pupils in village schools than
that the correlation coefficients between school
their counterparts in city/town schools. the exceptions
engagement and social advantage were positive in all
were india, peru and tunisia although differences,
Wei-sps countries. this means that principals reported
when they existed, were quite small. in figure 3.5,
that pupils from more advantaged backgrounds also
the right panel shows that schools that used entry
tended, on average, to have higher levels of school
tests had higher levels of school engagement but,
engagement. the correlation coefficients ranged
again, the differences were quite small or statistically
from a modest 0.35 in uruguay to 0.20 or less
insignificant. the exceptions were paraguay and
in argentina, Brazil, Chile, india and peru. it was
sri lanka.
very small or statistically insignificant in Malaysia,
how does school engagement differ according to
the philippines, sri lanka and tunisia. this means
family background of pupils? Do pupils attending
that there was no strong evidence to suggest a link
larger schools tend to have lower levels of school
between pupils’ school engagement and pupils’ social
engagement? to explore these questions, correlational
advantage, as viewed by school heads.
60
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A VIEW INSIdE PrIMAry SCHOOlS
TABlE 3.3 CorrelAtion between the index of PuPilS' School engagement And SeleCted SChool
ChArACteriStiCS
Index of Social advantage of school intake
Enrolment in primary schools (school size)
Correlation
SE
Correlation
SE
Argentina
0.21
0.037
-0.04
0.033
Brazil
0.21
0.060
-0.20
0.043
Chile
0.21
0.039
-0.08
0.058
India
0.15
0.048
0.03
0.053
Malaysia
0.08
0.053
-0.11
0.055
Paraguay
0.07
0.034
-0.09
0.037
Peru
0.12
0.047
-0.09
0.047
Philippines
0.07
0.042
0.11
0.115
Sri lanka
0.01
0.059
-0.04
0.064
Tunisia
0.08
0.050
0.03
0.074
Uruguay
0.35
0.036
-0.14
0.039
Note: Correlations that are significant at P <0.5 appear in bold characters.
Source: WEI-SPS database.
According to the second column in Table 3.3, pupils
a sense of competence and accomplishment. Finally,
in larger schools tended to be seen as less engaged
pupils’ engagement in school work depends upon having
in school by their school heads, as indicated by the
meaningful and challenging educational environments
negative correlation coefficients, which were relatively
that reward perseverance and hard work.
small. The positive coefficients were statistically
insignificant. Overall, the link between school size and
pupil behavioural problems as perceived
school engagement as perceived by school heads was
by school heads
weak.
An orderly and safe environment is the foundation
These findings may be of use to authorities aiming to
for positive teaching and learning experiences. A
target policies and programmes better. For example,
positive disciplinary climate contributes to school
city/town schools tend to have greater resources than
goals by minimizing distractions, as well as physical,
those in villages (see Chapter 2). yet, heads of village
psychological and social hazards. Such a school is also
schools reported greater engagement or commitment
more likely to be a place where pupils and school staff
on the part of their pupils, compared to their
do their best work.
counterparts in cities/towns. Clearly, there is a need to
WEI-SPS collected data by asking school heads to
bridge resources among the various types of schools.
what extent they dealt with pupils’ behavioural
But, at the same time, educators and parents can do a
problems – ‘not at all’, ‘very little’, ‘to some extent’
great deal to assist and encourage pupils in the learning
or ‘a lot’ – which includes pupils arriving late; pupil
process, independent of available resources.
absenteeism; classroom disturbances by pupils; use of
abusive language by pupils; vandalism by pupils; and
A range of policies and policy tools are needed to
intimidation or bullying of pupils by pupils.
strengthen school engagement. For example, at a
broad level, it is important to create a strong sense
The results have been presented in Table A3.7. In
of belonging for pupils by developing and sustaining
Figure 3.6 the variation in results for the category ‘not
a supportive, caring social environment where adults
at all’ have been shown. In Malaysia, 94 percent or
show interest in the life of the pupil in and out of school.
more of pupils were in schools where, according to the
Furthermore, it is clearly important to implement
school heads, behavioural problems did not exist or
personalized instruction, for example. Educational
existed only to a very small extent. On the other hand,
authorities and schools must set clear and consistent
principals in Chile, Paraguay and Peru complained
goals that are at an appropriate level, i.e. goals that
about the widespread problem of late arrival and those
both challenge pupils and allow them to experience
in Paraguay and the Philippines about absenteeism.
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CHAPTEr 3: CHArACTErISTICS OF PUPIlS IN SCHOOlS
FIgUrE 3.6
School heads’ perceptions of pupils’ behaviour at school
Percentage of primary pupils whose school heads reported that they did ‘not at all’
deal with the following behavioural problems
%
Malaysia
Malaysia
100 Malaysia
Malaysia
India
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka
Malaysia
Malaysia
Sri Lanka
Peru
Peru
90
India
India
India
Argentina
Sri Lanka
Peru
Peru
Uruguay
Argentina
80
Peru
Brazil
Chile
Brazil
Sri Lanka
Tunisia
Tunisia
Chile
Uruguay
Uruguay
Brazil
70
Sri Lanka
Peru
Philippines
Tunisia
Uruguay
Philippines
India
Argentina
Argentina
Uruguay
Paraguay
India
Argentina
60
Chile
Uruguay
Paraguay
Philippines
Chile
Brazil
Philippines
Argentina
Brazil
50
Paraguay
Philippines
Chile
Paraguay
Tunisia
Paraguay
Paraguay
Brazil
40
Chile
Philippines
30
20
10
0
Late arrival
Absenteeism
Classroom
Use of
Vandalism
Intimidation
disturbance
abusive
or bullying
language
of students
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A3.7.
In the Philippines, approximately one-quarter or more
Pupils attending academically selective schools tended
of primary pupils attended schools which reportedly
to have higher levels of positive behaviour than their
experienced the full range of behavioural problems
counterparts in non-selective schools in almost all
often. In Paraguay, 20 percent of pupils were in schools
WEI-SPS countries. It is important to note that these
where these problem behaviours were said to be quite
differences were generally modest and that the opposite
common.
trend was reported in India and Paraguay.
An index was created by summarising these responses
Again, how did pupils’ problem behaviour differ
in order to facilitate comparison of pupil behaviour in
according to family background? Were pupils who
different types of schools. The values of the responses
attended larger schools more likely to have behavioural
were inverted so that greater values represent more
problems? In Table 3.4 the results have been
positive attitudes and smaller values represent less
summarized of the correlation analysis between the
positive attitudes. The differences in the index scores
index of Perceived pupil behaviour and the index of Social
have been presented in Figure 3.7.
advantage with school size. Overall, principals of schools
In general, pupils in private schools had higher levels
with higher scores on the social advantage index tended
of positive behaviour than those in public schools. The
to report more positive pupil behaviours. The link was
difference was statistically significant for most countries,
stronger in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, India, Peru, Sri lanka
with the exception of the Philippines. In addition, the
and Uruguay than in other WEI-SPS countries. The
mean scores were higher for village rather than city/town
exception was Malaysia, where positive behaviour was
schools, particularly in Argentina, Brazil and Malaysia.
somewhat more prevalent in less advantaged schools;
62
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A View inside PrimAry schools
Figure 3.7
Differences in mean values of the index of Pupils’ positive behaviour, expressed as effect sizes
Pupils in public
Pupils in private
School in village School in cities
Non-selective
Selective school
schools having
schools having
having more having more
school pupils
pupils having
more positive
more positive
positive positive
having more
more positive
behaviour
behaviour
behaviour behaviour
positive behaviour
behaviour
Argentina
Argentina
Brazil
Brazil
Chile
Chile
India
India
Malaysia
Malaysia
Paraguay
Paraguay
Peru
Peru
Philippines
Philippines
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka
Tunisia
Tunisia
Uruguay
Uruguay
-0.5 -0.3 -0.1
0.1
0.3
0.5 -0.5 -0.3 -0.1
0.1
0.3
0.5 -0.5 -0.3 -0.1
0.1
0.3
0.5
Note: Bar in dark shade means the difference is statistically different from zero.
Sources: wei-sPs database; Table A3.8.
TABle 3.4 Correlation between the inDex of PuPils’ Positive behaviour anD seleCteD sChool
CharaCteristiCs
index of Social advantage of school intake
enrolment in primary schools (school size)
Correlation
Se
Correlation
Se
Argentina
0.38
0.033
-0.12
0.031
Brazil
0.31
0.042
-0.28
0.056
chile
0.37
0.034
0.01
0.046
india
0.29
0.045
0.05
0.040
malaysia
-0.08
0.054
-0.22
0.053
Paraguay
0.07
0.037
-0.12
0.041
Peru
0.27
0.049
-0.23
0.057
Philippines
0.06
0.045
-0.08
0.081
sri lanka
0.17
0.059
0.04
0.068
Tunisia
0.05
0.049
-0.17
0.055
Uruguay
0.43
0.032
-0.19
0.042
Note: correlations that are significant at P <0.5 appear in bold characters.
Source: wei-sPs database.
however, the standard errors of sampling were so large
There is a conventional argument that, in terms of
that it was impossible to establish a link between the
pupil behaviour, the disciplinary climate tends to be
two indices on the basis of the data. in Paraguay, the
more positive in smaller rather than large schools. it is
Philippines and Tunisia, there was also no adequate
assumed that pupils in smaller schools are more likely
evidence to confirm the existence of a relationship
to get more attention and have their needs better
between family background and pupil behaviour.
met. To test this hypothesis, a correlational analysis
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CHAPTEr 3: CHArACTErISTICS OF PUPIlS IN SCHOOlS
was conducted between the index of Perceived
yet, research around gender equality in education has
positive behaviour and school size (see Table 3.4). The
found evidence that boys tend to derive more benefits
correlation coefficients were negative in all WEI-SPS
from co-education than girls in terms of academic
countries except Chile, India and Sri lanka. This means
achievement and self-confidence (especially in the
that, overall, smaller schools tended to have higher
fields of mathematics and sciences) and aspirations for
levels of positive behaviour.
higher levels of schooling and prestigious careers (dale,
1974; Faulstich-Wieland, 2001; lockheed and lee,
In light of the responses from principals, it can be
concluded that more action is needed to improve
1994). Similarly, in some research studies it was seen
the school disciplinary environment in many WEI-SPS
that girls accelerated in single-gender classes aimed
countries. For example, it is important to establish
at rectifying traditional deficits in areas such as maths
rules and to enforce them through both rewards
and sciences; the same was true for boys in areas such
and sanctions. Generally speaking, rewards improve
as reading. But ultimately, in communities where the
discipline more than sanctions do. Another key element
school population is limited – especially villages in WEI-
involves the engagement of parents.
SPS countries – it is simply more cost-effective to have
boys and girls together rather than separately.
Gender equality in single-sex and
In WEI-SPS, school heads were asked to provide
co-educational schools
information on the gender composition of the pupil
Gender equality is a critical component in the goals
population. As shown in Table A3.9 and Figure 3.8,
of Education for All. While separate education for girls
single-sex schooling at the primary level was rare or
and boys is the convention in some countries, co-
virtually non-existent in Brazil, Paraguay, Tunisia and
educational schools are generally the norm globally.
Uruguay. In Argentina, Malaysia and the Philippines,
Traditionally, gender-segregated schools reflect societies
approximately one percent or less of primary pupils
and communities that have different social expectations
attended girls-only or boys-only schools. In India and
(often associated with religious conventions) for
Peru, close to 4 percent of primary pupils attended
girls and boys. This distinction raises questions as to
single-sex schools, with girls somewhat more likely
whether the school system limits aspirations of girls.
than boys.
FIgUrE 3.8
percentage of pupils attending single-sex schools
Boys only
Girls only
%
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
Philippines
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A3.9.
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A VIEW INSIdE PrIMAry SCHOOlS
Single-sex schools were relatively more common in
Across WEI-SPS countries, primary pupils varied
Chile and Sri lanka, where they covered approximately
greatly in terms of hours of instruction per year.
7 percent of the primary pupil population. In general,
Consider the median number of annual hours of
girls were more likely than boys to attend single-sex
schooling – the point where one-half of pupils receive
schools. The only exception was Malaysia, where
more hours and one-half receive less. The median
slightly more boys (1.3%) than girls (0.7%) attended
number was 720 school hours per year in Uruguay,
these schools.
740 in Argentina, 760 in Paraguay and 800 in Brazil.
The median in Peru and Malaysia was 874 and 984
hours of instruction and lost school days
hours respectively, 21 percent and 37 percent more
The amount of time devoted to classroom instruction
than in Uruguay. With a median of more than 1,000
and other school activities is a direct input in the
school hours per year, Chile, India and the Philippines
operation of schools. There is ample research indicating
had 43 percent, 69 percent and 71 percent more
that the actual hours spent on instructional activities
instructional time than Uruguay (see Figure 3.9).
determine the amount of learning achievements, when
School heads also reported variation within most of the
all other factors are equal.
countries. Take two pupils from a school system where
In WEI-SPS countries, school heads were asked about
schools are ranked from the fewest to the most annual
the number of weeks that the school was open for
school hours for Grade 4 pupils as reported by their
instruction in the previous year and the number of
school heads. The pupil attending a school where the
hours of instruction in a typical week for Grade 4
total amount of instruction time was less is located at
pupils. The results have been presented in Figure 3.9.
the 10th percentile on the whole distribution. Another
(See Chapter 6 for more detailed responses about Grade 4
pupil attending a school with more instruction time was
instruction in maths and sciences.)
located at the 90th percentile of the distribution. The
FIgUrE 3.9
Variation in instructional time across and within countries
Number of hours of instruction per year by distribution of the pupil population
1,700
Percentile:
1,600
90th
1,500
75th
1,400
Median
1,300
25th
1,200
tion per year
1,100
10th
1,000
900
Hours of instruc
800
700
600
500
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Philippines
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A3.10.
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CHAPTEr 3: CHArACTErISTICS OF PUPIlS IN SCHOOlS
pupil at the 10th percentile received 960 school hours
Was there a difference in instructional time between
of instruction per year in Malaysia, while the pupil at
public and private schools? Figure 3.10 illustrates the
the 90th percentile received 1,056 hours of instruction,
mean number of annual school hours for public and
with a difference of 10 percent. (See Box 2.2 on how to
private schools. Pupils in private schools in some WEI-
read a box plot.) In Paraguay, the difference between
SPS countries received more instructional time than
the two pupils was similarly modest. However, the
those in public schools. In Argentina, pupils in private
gaps between the less instructed and more instructed
schools received 57 hours more instruction annually
pupils were greater in Uruguay (43%), Brazil (39%) and
than their counterparts in public schools; in Paraguay
Peru (34%) and are particularly large in India (69%)
47 hours more; in Peru 76 hours more; and, in
and Chile (65%). In Argentina and the Philippines, the
Uruguay, an additional 101 hours. Private school pupils
difference in the total amount of instruction time was
in India were reported to have more instructional time
also more than 50 percent between the two pupils.
than public school pupils, though the difference was
statistically insignificant. On the other hand, private
When between-country and within-country differences
school pupils in Brazil, Chile and the Philippines
are considered together, the gaps in instructional
had less instructional time than their public school
time in WEI-SPS schools are also apparent. For
counterparts, though the differences were quite small
example, schools serving one-half of primary pupils
or statistically insignificant.
in Chile and the Philippines had more school hours
than 90 percent of pupils in all WEI-SPS countries,
Another way to look at instruction time is the extent of
except India. Similarly, schools serving 10 percent of
lost school days. The WEI-SPS study asked school heads
primary pupils in Argentina, Brazil, India, Paraguay and
about the number of official school days for Grade 4
Uruguay received approximately one-half of the annual
pupils in the previous year and the number of these
instructional enjoyed by 10 percent of pupils in Chile
days without teaching as a result of late start of term,
and the Philippines.
organization of examinations, school or local festivals,
FIgUrE 3.10
Mean number of school hours per year for Grade 4 pupils, by school type
All schools
Public schools
Private schools
1,400
1,300
1,200
1,100
tion per year
1,000
900
Hours of instruc
800
700
a
y
a
y
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
rgentina
Urugu
A
Paragu
Philippines
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A3.11.
66
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
A VIEW INSIdE PrIMAry SCHOOlS
accidents, natural disasters, strikes and absence of
differences in the number of official school days across
teachers. A summary of the results is presented in
countries were also apparent. For example, schools
Figure 3.11 and in Table A3.12.
serving 90 percent of pupils in India were open for
The number of official school days in a year varied
204 days a year, much longer than primary schools in
both within and across the 11 WEI-SPS school systems,
other WEI-SPS countries.
especially in Argentina, Chile, India and Paraguay. In
It should be noted that the number of official school
India (in the four states reporting), for example, the
days reported by school heads may differ from the
median number of official school days in the year was
number of open days stipulated by educational
220, represented by the horizontal dash in the bar
authorities in each country. If there is such a gap,
in Figure 3.11. The bottom dot (or 10th percentile)
educational authorities should investigate and address
indicates that 10 percent of the least-instructed
the reasons.
primary pupils went to schools that were open for 204
days or less. The top dot (or 90th percentile) indicates
Furthermore, the number of days that pupils actually
that 10 percent of the most instructed primary
received instruction at school may be different than
pupils went to schools that were open for more than
the number of official school days. As mentioned
242 days. The lines at the bottom and top of the
earlier, schools may lose instructional days for a
coloured box represent the 25th and 75th percentiles
variety of reasons. In Figure 3.12 the distribution
respectively; thus, the middle 50 percent of pupils went
of these lost days has been displayed as a share
to schools with between 210 and 235 days. Similarly,
of the total number of official school days. loss of
the range of official school days between the 10th and
instructional time due to school closure was relatively
90th percentiles of pupils was from 160 days to 187
modest for the majority of pupils in some WEI-SPS
days in Argentina, from 180 days to 200 days in Chile,
countries. In Argentina, Peru and the Philippines,
and 172 days to 190 days in Paraguay.
school closure accounted for 4 percent to 6 percent
FIgUrE 3.11
number of days school was officially open, by distribution of primary pupils
260
Percentile:
90th
240
75th
evious year
Median
220
25th
10th
200
180
160
a
y
s that the school was open in the pr
D 140
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Philippines
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A3.12.
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
67
CHAPTEr 3: CHArACTErISTICS OF PUPIlS IN SCHOOlS
FIgUrE 3.12
lost school days as a percentage of total number of official school days,
by distribution of primary pupils
%
20
Percentile:
tion 18
90th
16
75th
y
s of instruc 14
Median
12
25th
10
10th
centage of da
8
6
y
s as a per
4
2
Lost school da
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Peru
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Philippines
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A3.13.
of official schools days for three-quarters of their
differences were quite modest. For example, in Peru,
pupils, as indicated by the upper edge of the box. In
pupils attending public schools lost, on average, close to
Brazil, Malaysia and Uruguay, schools serving three-
5 percent of official school days compared to 3 percent
quarters of primary pupils were reported to have lost
for pupils in private schools – a gap of almost two
approximately 3 percent or less of official school days.
percentage points. The difference was three percentage
In other words, for the vast majority of pupils in most
points in Paraguay and almost five percentage points
of these countries, the loss of school days was limited.
in Argentina. In Brazil, pupils in public schools also lost
more official school days than their counterparts in
loss of school days was more serious, however, in
private schools, but the gap was statistically not different
some WEI-SPS countries. In Paraguay and Tunisia,
from zero. In Uruguay, there was no public/private
schools serving one-quarter of primary pupils were
difference in school days lost. In the Philippines, pupils
reported to have lost approximately 8 percent or more
attending private schools lost more official school days
of official school days. The same was true for up to
than their counterparts in private schools, and this
10 percent of pupils in Brazil. In Argentina, Paraguay,
difference was one percentage point.
Peru and Tunisia, schools were closed for at least one
The issue of school or instructional time often emerges
out of every ten official school calendar days for up to
in discussions about available policy tools to improve
10 percent of the pupils.
school quality. due to the cost implications of changing
In Figure 3.13, a comparison has been presented of the
the length of the school year (UIS/OECd, 2001), it
share of lost school days between public and private
is worthwhile for educational authorities in WEI-SPS
schools. In most WEI-SPS countries, lost school days
countries to check and address compliance to official
were greater in public than in private schools, but these
school days.
68
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
A VIEW INSIdE PrIMAry SCHOOlS
FIgUrE 3.13
lost school days as a percentage of total number of official school days, by school type
All schools
Public schools
Private schools
%
10
tion
8
y
s of instruc
6
centage of da
4
y
s as a per
2
Lost school da
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Peru
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Philippines
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A3.14.
Conclusion
The differences were quite large in most of these
School policies and processes are usually affected
countries, particularly in Brazil, Peru, the Philippines and
by the characteristics of pupils. The composition of
Uruguay. At the aggregate level, schools located in cities/
pupil intake, first and foremost, depends on how
towns served more advantaged pupil populations than
pupils are admitted. In WEI-SPS countries, primary
those in villages. Academically selective schools also
schools predominantly enrolled pupils on the basis
enrolled pupils from more advantaged backgrounds.
of catchment area. At the same time, a variety of
Schools heads in all 11 WEI-SPS countries gave very
other criteria were used to select pupils. For example,
positive evaluations when asked about their pupils’
in every WEI-SPS country, except Argentina, there
attitudes and behaviour towards learning and teachers.
were primary schools that used entry exams for
At the same time, principals serving the vast majority
pupil admission, and such schools served more than
of primary pupil populations in most of the WEI-SPS
10 percent of the primary school population in Chile,
countries reported that problems, such as late arrival,
India, the Philippines and Sri lanka.
classroom disturbances and vandalism, were rare. This
School systems in WEI-SPS countries served pupils
is encouraging given that the perceptions of school
with diverse learning needs and very different family
heads also shape their interactions with pupils. On the
backgrounds, which should be taken into account
other hand, heads of private schools reported somewhat
when designing policies and programmes. Judging from
higher levels of pupil school engagement and positive
the index of Social advantage of the composition of
behaviour than their counterparts in public schools,
school populations, it seemed that on average private
as did principals of schools that used entrance test
schools, where they existed, enrolled pupils from more
results as an admission criterion compared with their
advantaged backgrounds than did public schools.
counterparts in academically non-selective schools.
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
69
CHAPTEr 3: CHArACTErISTICS OF PUPIlS IN SCHOOlS
However, the link in some WEI-SPS countries between
Brazil: Admission of pupils on the basis of entrance
perceived levels of school engagement by pupils and
test scores was quite limited in Brazil. Private schools
their socio-economic backgrounds is troubling.
served pupils from predominantly more advantaged
backgrounds than did public schools, and that gap was
There are two main implications of the findings
the largest of all WEI-SPS countries. levels of school
on the amounts of instructional time and school
engagement and positive behaviour were somewhat
days. First, the wide variation in the amount of
higher in private schools and schools serving pupils
instruction time across WEI-SPS countries is partly
from more advantaged backgrounds – but also in
the result of different standards set out in national
village schools and smaller schools – though differences
curricular requirements.2 As a result, governments
were relatively small. A typical primary school in Brazil
may need to re-evaluate the amounts of school
had about 870 hours of instruction a year, which was
days and instructional time to ensure that curricular
high compared to the other latin American countries
requirements can be met.
in the study but lower than the Asian countries. loss
The second point to consider is that individual schools
of school days due to school closure was as much as
do not appear to be applying national or regional
8 percent or more in some schools.
standards concerning school and instructional time.
Chile: For every ten Chilean primary school pupils,
This is clearly proven by the substantial variation
at least one attended a school where the principal,
in data within countries. In addition, some WEI-SPS
especially of a private school, reported that
countries were also faced with a serious problem
performance on entry tests was used as an admission
concerning school closure. Therefore, educational
criterion. Given the close link between the family
authorities may choose to investigate the reasons
background of pupils and their test scores, this may
behind this variation to ensure that all pupils receive
explain why private schools had pupils from more
the stipulated amount of time in the classroom.
advantaged backgrounds than did public schools.
Schools in cities/towns also had pupils from more
Country profiles
advantaged backgrounds than those in village areas.
Argentina: The most common criterion used for
Principals of private schools reported higher levels
admitting primary school pupils was permanent
of pupil school engagement and positive behaviour
residency in the catchment area. There was, however,
than their counterparts in public schools, as did
a large gap in the average levels of social advantage
schools serving pupils from predominantly more
of pupil intake between public and private schools.
advantaged backgrounds compared to those serving
At the same time, pupils attending private schools
less advantaged populations. Otherwise, there were no
had somewhat higher levels of school engagement
differences in school engagement or positive behaviour
and positive behaviour than their public school
between smaller and bigger schools. With 7 percent
counterparts. Pupils from more advantaged family
of primary pupils in boys-only and girls-only schools,
backgrounds also had higher levels of school
Chile had the highest rate of gender-based separate
engagement and positive behaviour, neither of which
schooling, along with Sri lanka, among WEI-SPS
seemed to be related to school size. The annual
countries. Primary schools serving the vast majority
number of instructional hours in Argentina was similar
of pupils in Chile had between 920 to 1,520 hours
to that in Paraguay, but less than in the other latin
of instructional time a year, higher than other latin
American countries in the study. Pupils in private
American countries in the study and one of the highest
schools were reported to have somewhat more
among all WEI-SPS countries.
instructional time than their counterparts in public
schools though the difference was small. The number
of official school days in Argentina were reported to
be lower than in most of the other countries in the
2. The statutory instructional time for 10-year-old pupils
were reported to vary from 729 to 1,240 hours a year
study. The loss of official school time was higher in
for 15 WEI countries in 2003/04, with a difference
public schools than in private schools.
of 53 percent (UNESCO-UIS, 2006).
70
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
A VIEW INSIdE PrIMAry SCHOOlS
India: In the four Indian states participating in the
large, as was the gap between academically selective
study, almost one out of every three primary school
and non-selective schools. The level of positive pupil
pupils attended schools that reported using entrance
behaviour was also reported to be higher in private
test scores as an important criterion in enrolment,
schools and academically selective schools, though
more than any other country in the WEI-SPS study. The
there was no noticeable relationship between either
criterion of pupils’ residence was also quite common.
positive behaviour or school engagement with social
The gaps in the national scale of social advantage of
advantage. Instructional time for Grade 4 pupils in
school intake between private and public schools were
Paraguay was reported to range from 700 to 780 hours
quite large. Pupils attending private schools, schools
a year for the vast majority of pupils, meaning the
in cities/towns and schools serving more advantaged
difference between the relatively less instructed and
backgrounds were reported to have somewhat higher
more instructed pupils was not as great as in some
levels of school engagement and positive behaviour.
other countries in the study. Grade 4 pupils in Paraguay
There were single-sex schools in India, which enrolled
also had relatively less instruction time than their
less than 4 percent of the primary population in the
counterparts in most other WEI-SPS countries. On the
four states. A typical primary school was reported to
other hand, loss of school time due to school closure is
have 1,030 hours of instruction each year, one of the
as high as 10 percent in some schools and was more
highest among WEI-SPS countries; although for four
prevalent in public schools.
out of every five pupils, the annual instructional hours
Peru: Peruvian primary schools made very limited
ranged from about 800 to almost 1,300.
use of entry tests, but those that did had pupils from
Malaysia: More than any other country in the WEI-SPS
relatively more advantaged backgrounds. There were
study, residence in the school’s catchment area was the
large disparities between village and city/town schools
most commonly used criterion for enrolling primary
regarding the background of pupils. Private schools
pupils in Malaysia, applying to more than 70 percent
and academically selective schools had pupils from
of pupils in the country. One out of every ten pupils
predominantly more advantaged social backgrounds.
in Malaysia were in schools where most or all of the
Principals of smaller schools reported somewhat higher
pupils had parents with less than primary education.
levels of positive behaviour by pupils. Almost 4 percent
Four out of ten pupils attended schools where most or
of primary school pupils attended single-sex schools.
all of the pupils received support for school attendance.
The vast majority of pupils were reported to receive
Principals of academically selective schools and
from 800 to 1,080 hours of instruction per year,
smaller schools reported higher levels of positive pupil
higher than in most latin American countries in the
behaviour than did their counterparts in non-selective
study. Private schools overall had more instructional
and larger schools. In Malaysia, only 2 percent of
time than public schools. loss of school time due to
primary pupils attended boys-only or girls-only schools.
school closure was more than 10 percent in some
Pupils receive about 1,000 hours of instruction per
schools, and the problem was somewhat more serious
year. loss of school time due to school closure was as
in public rather than in private schools.
high as 13 days a year for some schools or 7 percent of
Philippines: About one in five primary pupils in the
official school days. The overall rate of lost school days
Philippines attended schools that used entry tests
was less than 3 percent, which is lower than for most
for admission, second only to India among WEI-SPS
WEI-SPS countries.
countries. Ability-based selection was more than three
Paraguay: In Paraguay, the use of ability-based pupil
times as likely to occur in private schools than in public
selection was quite limited, but schools that used this
schools. Principals of various types of schools – private or
as an admission criterion had pupils from far more
public, academically selectively or non-selective, smaller
advantaged backgrounds than those that did not.
or bigger, and those serving pupils from predominantly
Private schools, on the whole, also had pupils from
more or less advantaged backgrounds – reported
more advantaged family backgrounds than public
similar levels of school engagement and positive
schools, and the gap between private and public
behaviour by pupils. The Philippines offered pupils
schools on the index of Social advantage was quite
the most instructional time among WEI-SPS countries,
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
71
CHAPTEr 3: CHArACTErISTICS OF PUPIlS IN SCHOOlS
between 1,080 and 1,640 hours a year for the vast
advantaged backgrounds. Pupils from these types of
majority of pupils. Pupils at the higher end of the range
schools were also perceived to have somewhat higher
received more than twice as much instructional time
levels of positive behaviour. One-half of primary pupils
as their counterparts in other countries. The number of
in Uruguay attended schools that have 720 hours of
official school days was about 200 days a year for the
instruction per year, which was low among WEI-SPS
vast majority of pupils, also relatively high among WEI-
countries but similar to the levels in Argentina and
SPS countries. loss of school days due to school closure
Paraguay. On the other hand, up to 10 percent of
was a concern, with 7 percent and more of official
pupils went to schools that had 1,000 or more hours of
school days lost for some pupils.
instruction a year. Private schools had 100 hours more
instructional time than public schools. lost school time
Sri Lanka: More than one-half of primary pupils in
due to school closure was quite limited in Uruguayan
Sri lanka went to schools where residence in the school
primary schools.
catchment area was a high priority or prerequisite
for admission. Almost one out of five pupils attended
schools that used entry tests, most in city/town
communities. As a whole, schools in cities/towns had
pupils from relatively more advantaged backgrounds
than those in village schools. About 7 percent of
primary pupils attended single-sex schools in Sri lanka.
Tunisia: residence in the school catchment area was
said to be the most common criterion for school
admission, covering more than 40 percent of pupils.
More than one-third of pupils went to schools where
most or all of the pupils had parents with less than
primary education and received support for school
attendance. There was a large gap in the social
background of pupils between schools located in village
communities and those in cities/towns. Principals
reported similar levels of school engagement and
positive behaviour by pupils regardless of school
location, school size, academic selectivity or social
background of the pupil population. Educational
authorities must be concerned that primary schools
serving one-half of pupils lose 10 or more days a
year to school closure, and primary schools serving
10 percent of pupils lost as much as 14 percent of the
official school days in a year.
Uruguay: More than any other latin American
country in the WEI-SPS study, residence in Uruguay
was reported to be a high priority or prerequisite
admission criterion for schools serving almost one-half
of the country’s pupils. Schools that used academic
ability as the basis for selecting pupils involved a
very small share of pupils, but they were from far
more advantaged backgrounds. The level of school
engagement was higher in schools that were private,
used academic entry tests or had pupils from more
72
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
4 School heads and teaching staff
T. Neville Postlethwaite (University of Hamburg)
The school head and teaching staff are instrumental
that, on average, heads would be about 45 to 50
in determining how well the students learn, how they
years of age. If gender equity is an important issue
behave, the attitudes they have and the general aura
in the country, it could also be expected that about
of the school, often called ‘school ethos’. It is often
one-half of school heads would be female. According
said that, when a school gets a good school head,
to research in many countries (see Elley, 1993), it is
within four years of the arrival the school will improve.
female teachers who obtain better results in reading
Similarly, if a poor new head arrives, within four years
and mathematics than male teachers at the primary
the school will have deteriorated.
school level. In this sense, one might expect more
In this chapter, basic information has been presented
female teachers. But, in countries where, for one
about the general characteristics of school heads and
reason or another, there are many single mothers, the
the staff, including age, sex, education, pre- and in-
government often sets a target of having, for example,
service training, and the stability of staff. Furthermore,
20 percent male teachers in order to have some male
information has been provided about teacher morale
role models for children.
and the school heads’ perceptions of student and
The average age of school heads and the percentage of
teacher behaviour. Not only does this allow a partial
females among them have been presented in Figures 4.1
description of the situation in schools in 2005/2006,
and 4.2. From Figure 4.1, it can be seen that, in the
but it also forms baseline information against which
WEI-SPS median country, a child in primary school had
future data can be compared.
a school head with an average age of 49 years. Primary
Age and gender of school heads
pupils in Chile had the oldest school heads (average of
54 years), and those in Paraguay, the youngest (40 years).
In general, school heads are selected from the teaching
force. It can be expected that heads have substantial
Approximately 50 percent of primary school children
teaching experience and have been selected due to
in the WEI countries had a female school head, as
good teaching records. Thus, it could be expected
indicated in Figure 4.2. There were large differences
FigUre 4.1
Mean age of school heads
60
50
40
30
e
an age (in years) 20
M
10
0
a
y
a
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
ank
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
S median
Philippines
WEI-SP
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A4.1.
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
73
ChAPTEr 4: SChOOl hEAdS ANd TEAChINg STAFF
FigUre 4.2
Female school heads and female teachers
Percentage of primary pupils with female school heads and female teachers
School heads
Teachers
%
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
S median
Philippines
WEI-SP
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A4.1 and A4.2.
among countries. In Tunisia, only 2.5 percent of
It is possible to examine further the stock of school
primary pupils had school heads who were female,
heads in villages and cities/towns (see Figure 4.3).
whereas in Argentina, Uruguay, and Brazil, 91 percent,
With the exceptions of Tunisia and Uruguay, there
88 percent and 84 percent respectively of primary
were more female school heads in cities/towns than in
children had female school heads. In general, about
village schools. In Tunisia, there were very few female
14 percent more pupils in villages than in towns/cities
school heads in cities/towns and virtually none in
had female principals.
village schools.
The percentage of grade 4 female teachers have also
been presented in Figure 4.2. School heads are typically
Highest levels of education of school
drawn from the existing teacher pool, and therefore,
heads
it might be expected that the gender balance among
school heads would be the same as the balance among
It might be expected that school heads have been
teachers. From experience, however, it is often the
drawn from among the better teachers, but are
case that the education authorities prefer to have male
they among the better educated? This question
heads in remote rural areas.
arises because the level of education qualification
In Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay, the
requirements for teachers has changed over time
percentage of female heads was roughly proportional
and school heads are usually recruited from amongst
to the percentage of female teachers in the primary
older teachers. What then was the situation in the
schools. however, there were large imbalances in
WEI-SPS countries? The percentage of school heads
Tunisia and Sri lanka, and modest imbalances in Chile,
having acquired different levels of education have been
Malaysia and Peru.
presented in Figure 4.4.
74
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
A VIEW INSIdE PrIMAry SChOOlS
FigUre 4.3
Female school heads by school location
Percentage of primary pupils with female school heads
Village schools
City/town schools
%
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
S median
Philippines
WEI-SP
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A4.2.
FigUre 4.4
Level of education attained by school heads
Percentage of primary pupils whose school heads had the following levels of education
Less than upper secondary education
Upper secondary education
Post-secondary non-tertiary education
Tertiary education
%
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
Philippines
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A4.3.
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
75
ChAPTEr 4: SChOOl hEAdS ANd TEAChINg STAFF
It is interesting to note that almost all school heads in
tertiary education than in village schools. In Tunisia,
a majority of countries had some tertiary education,
the opposite was the case, as previously explained.
while in other countries – particularly India, Tunisia
and Sri lanka – a significant number of them had
Levels of pre-service teacher training and
only a secondary diploma or less. The changes in
management training
teacher education are different in each country. For
Over time, the number of years of training required to
example, in 1992 higher institutes of teacher training
become a certified teacher has changed in the WEI-SPS
(Instituts Supérieurs pour la Formation des Maîtres) were
countries. generally speaking, the younger the teaching
created in Tunisia to replace the old ‘écoles normales’.
force, the more years of training they should have
These institutes train teachers and recruit them from
received – unless there was a sudden influx of teachers to
graduates of upper secondary schools. Therefore,
cope with the Education for All (EFA) movement, in which
younger school heads tend to have more education
case some short training courses may have been given.
than older ones. Furthermore, younger school heads
In WEI-SPS, school heads were asked about the number
were allocated to village schools, while those older
of years of formal pre-service training that they had
were based in cities/towns.
received prior to starting their service. The response
It is of interest to compare the allocation of school
categories and values used for data analysis were:
heads with tertiary education. As presented in
no pre-service training (0); less than one year (0.5);
Figure 4.5, there was not much difference in the
one year in total (1); two years in total (2); three
placement of these school heads between village and
years in total (3); and more than three years (4). The
city/town schools, although in India and Sri lanka there
average number of years was based on this coding, the
were more pupils in city/town schools with heads with
results of which have been presented in Figure 4.6.
FigUre 4.5
School heads with tertiary education, by school location
Percentage of primary pupils whose school heads had tertiary education
Village schools
City/town schools
%
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
S median
Philippines
WEI-SP
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A4.3.
76
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
A VIEW INSIdE PrIMAry SChOOlS
FigUre 4.6
Average number of years of pre-service teacher training
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
aining (in years)
2.0
vice tr
1.5
1.0
P
r
e-ser
0.5
0
a
y
a
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
ank
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
S median
Philippines
WEI-SP
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table 4.1.
FigUre 4.7
Average number of days of management training of school heads
350
300
y
s
)
250
200
aining (in da
150
100
anagement tr
M
50
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
S median
Philippines
WEI-SP
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table 4.1.
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
77
ChAPTEr 4: SChOOl hEAdS ANd TEAChINg STAFF
TABlE 4.1 PArticiPAtion oF ScHooL HeAdS in Pre-Service teAcHer trAining And MAnAgeMent
courSeS
Management courses
Have received training in management
Average number of years
if yes, number
of pre-service training
Not aware
No
Yes
of days of training
Mean
Se
%
Se
%
Se
%
Se
Mean
Se
Argentina
3.2
0.03
3.1
0.71
10.6
1.12
86.3
1.26
134.8
13.42
Brazil
3.4
0.05
4.0
0.94
26.8
2.39
69.2
2.44
28.6
2.78
Chile
3.6
0.04
0.6
0.29
9.6
1.45
89.8
1.47
320.1
23.69
India
1.2
0.05
22.0
2.57
42.1
3.08
35.8
2.74
40.5
9.34
Malaysia
2.4
0.03
1.4
0.64
11.2
1.70
87.4
1.79
50.3
4.38
Paraguay
2.6
0.03
2.1
0.43
38.5
1.66
59.4
1.64
115.9
5.10
Peru
3.7
0.04
1.5
0.54
15.1
1.49
83.4
1.52
75.1
8.08
Philippines
4.0
0.01
1.7
0.46
11.1
1.57
87.1
1.60
28.0
3.24
Sri lanka
1.6
0.08
2.8
0.95
5.7
1.01
91.5
1.38
67.9
9.34
Tunisia
0.9
0.04
3.1
0.82
2.8
0.83
94.2
1.13
32.9
5.67
Uruguay
3.8
0.02
3.8
0.80
14.4
1.46
81.7
1.59
91.8
6.38
Wei-SPS median
3.2
67.9
Source: WEI-SPS database.
The average number of years of pre-service teacher
costs would be lower. The average pupil-teacher ratios
training received by WEI-SPS school heads varied from
have been presented in Figure 4.8. If the number of
just less than a year in Tunisia to 3.8 years in Uruguay
teachers per school (primary grades) are divided into
and 4.0 years in the Philippines..
the number of pupils in the primary grades, this yields
what is known as the pupil-teacher ratio.
School heads were also asked if they had received any
special training in school management. The response
Most WEI-SPS countries had pupil-teacher ratios in the
categories were: no knowledge about such courses;
order of 20 to 30 pupils per teacher. India had the
have attended a course, and if so, how many days. The
highest number, especially in villages (59). Malaysia had
results are summarized in Figure 4.7 and Table 4.1. In
the lowest number, with an overall average of 18 pupils
most WEI-SPS countries, the average for management
per teacher but 15 pupils per teacher in village schools.
training was typically less than 100 days, ranging
With the exceptions of Peru and Tunisia where the ratios
from 28 days in the Philippines to 320 days in Chile,
were the same in villages and cities/towns, all WEI-SPS
followed by Argentina (135) and Paraguay (116).
countries – except India – reported lower pupil-teacher
ratios in village schools than in city/town schools.
As indicated in Table 4.1, 22 percent of primary school
children in India had school heads who had never
In Figure 4.9, the average number of teachers per
heard of such management courses. This is certainly
school has been presented. In village schools, there
more than by chance and this must be worrying for the
were on average between 6 and 12 teachers per
Indian authorities. In addition, a troubling percentage
school, whereas in city/town schools it was between
of school heads had never been to management
9 and 24 – except in Malaysia and the Philippines
courses in Brazil, India and Paraguay.
where there were about 50 teachers per school. The
median number of teachers per school in villages was
Pupil-teacher ratios, average number of
9 and in city/town schools, it was 19, reflecting higher
teachers per school, levels of education of
enrolment in the latter schools.
staff and years of pre-service training
given that there was large variation in the pupil-
The average number of teachers per school depends
teacher ratios, the percentage of pupils in classes were
on the pedagogical philosophy related to school size.
examined. These percentages in classes with 40 or
Some argue that all primary schools should be small so
more and also 50 or more pupils per teacher have
that the children do not feel lost and receive the level
been given in Figure 4.10. Chile, India and especially
of attention they need. Others argue that larger schools
the Philippines had substantial percentages of pupils in
can provide more facilities and resources because unit
classes of more than 40.
78
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A VIEW INSIdE PrIMAry SChOOlS
FigUre 4.8
Average pupil-teacher ratio, by school location
Village schools
City/town schools
60
55
50
45
40
atio
35
30
25
20
P
upil-teacher r
15
10
5
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
S median
Philippines
WEI-SP
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A4.4.
FigUre 4.9
Average number of teachers per school, by school location
Village schools
City/town schools
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
Number of teachers per school
10
5
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
S median
Philippines
WEI-SP
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A4.4.
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
79
ChAPTEr 4: SChOOl hEAdS ANd TEAChINg STAFF
FigUre 4.10
Large class sizes in primary schools
Percentage of pupils in classes with more than 40 and 50 pupils
Pupils in classes with more than 40 pupils
Pupils in classes with more than 50 pupils
%
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
Philippines
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A4.5.
Staff levels of education
the school for five years or more. It was, therefore,
School heads furnished information on the level
possible to calculate an index of Staff stability (the
of education of each staff member. It is often the
percentage of teachers who had been at the school for
overall educational level of the staff, rather than of an
five or more years). There is always some instability
individual teacher, that is an important predictor of
because there are schools where teachers retire and
pupil achievement in various subject areas. In order
have to be replaced. In countries where teachers are
to transform the information furnished by school
assigned to schools, there is usually a points system
heads into years of education, each country provided
for teachers to ‘earn’ the choice to teach where they
the average number of years of the length of primary
prefer and leave the present school. If 18 out of 20
schooling, lower secondary, etc. (see Appendix B).
teachers have been in the school for the last five
years, then this is a stability of 90 percent; if it is 16
As presented in Figure 4.11, there was little difference
out of 20, then this represents 80 percent. These are
between primary school teachers in villages and in
accepted as reasonable indicators of school stability.
cities/towns in relation to the average number of years
of education1. A typical WEI-SPS pupil was in a school
In Figure 4.12, the percentage of pupils in schools
with staff with a median of 16 years of education.
with different percentages of staff stability has been
presented.
Stability of school staff
Staff continuity in schools is important for the good
of the children and the community. School heads
1. The number of years of pre-service teacher training have not
were asked how many current teachers had been at
been presented due to missing data.
80
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A VIEW INSIdE PrIMAry SChOOlS
FigUre 4.11
Average number of years of staff education, by school location
Village schools
City/town schools
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
e
an years of education
6
M
4
2
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
nisia
T
u
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
S median
Philippines
WEI-SP
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A4.6.
FigUre 4.12
Staff stability in primary schools
Percentage of pupils in schools where different proportions of teachers had worked
at the school for five or more years
Less than 70% stability
90%-99% stability
70%-79% stability
100% stability
80%-89% stability
%
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
Philippines
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A4.7.
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
81
ChAPTEr 4: SChOOl hEAdS ANd TEAChINg STAFF
TABlE 4.2 PercentAge oF PuPiLS in ScHooLS WitH LeSS tHAn 70% oF StAFF StAbiLity,
by ScHooL LocAtion
All schools
Village schools
City/town schools
%
Se
%
Se
%
Se
Argentina
60.8
1.88
56.6
4.58
61.3
2.07
Brazil
67.4
2.50
62.4
5.45
68.0
2.69
Chile
42.0
2.30
37.5
6.97
42.5
2.50
India
48.8
2.86
43.0
3.65
56.1
4.01
Malaysia
75.8
2.39
81.5
3.45
72.5
3.11
Paraguay
47.0
1.79
52.2
2.55
43.2
2.53
Peru
49.1
2.15
63.1
3.63
40.2
2.75
Philippines
37.5
2.62
44.3
3.52
28.8
3.61
Sri lanka
57.7
3.26
58.2
3.89
56.9
5.51
Tunisia
63.9
2.33
81.1
2.72
54.0
3.44
Uruguay
84.7
1.44
85.6
3.53
84.5
1.57
Wei-SPS median
62.8
58.2
56.1
Source: WEI-SPS database.
For Argentina, as an example, the top part of the bar
Chile, Sri lanka and Uruguay, where the standard errors
ranges from 38 percent to 100 percent, meaning that
of sampling were large.
62 percent of pupils were in schools with less than
70 percent stability of staff. Just over 10 percent were
Filling staff vacancies
in schools with 70 percent to 79 percent stability of
WEI-SPS countries reported data on the number of
staff. About 13 percent (12 percent to 25 percent on
permanent teaching posts that had to be filled at the
scale) were in schools with 80 percent to 89 percent
beginning of the school year, in addition to the number
staff stability. About 4 percent were in schools with
of temporary teaching vacancies (because of sick leave,
90 percent to 99 percent stability and about 8 percent
maternity leave, etc.) that had to be filled in the two
in schools with 100 percent stability (the lowest part
months before the survey. Both of these indicators also
of the bar). Overall, about two-thirds of pupils were in
provide a measure of teacher stability.
schools that had less than 70 percent stability of staff.
Approximately 35 percent of pupils in the WEI-SPS
Chile, Paraguay, Peru and the Philippines had higher
countries were in 27 percent of schools with vacant
staff stability. however, there was a sufficiently high
permanent positions at the beginning of the school
percentage of pupils in schools with a high turnover of
year (see Figure 4.13 and Table A4.8). The figures
staff to suggest a problem. There is no information in
were particularly high in Argentina, Brazil, Sri lanka
this study as to why teacher turnover was so high. But,
and Uruguay, and very low in Paraguay. In Argentina,
this is clearly a subject for future research.
40 percent of schools (serving 48 percent of all
It should be noted that the data presented in
pupils) had vacancies for permanent teaching posts. In
Figure 4.12 refer to all primary school teachers, as
Uruguay, on the other hand, 64 percent of schools had
reported by school heads. In Chapter 7, similar data
vacancies and these schools accounted for more than
have been presented but for grade 4 teachers only.
70 percent of pupils. Sri lanka and Uruguay faced the
greatest challenge to fill vacant posts.
One question that springs to mind immediately is
if there were differences between village and city/
The situation was even more severe for temporary
town schools. In several WEI-SPS countries, a higher
teachers. Again in Argentina, 26 percent of schools (with
percentage of pupils in village schools experienced
79 percent of pupils) had vacancies in the two months
higher staff turnover than in city/town schools (see
before the data were collected. To varying degrees, this
Table 4.2). But, the opposite was true in India. There
problem existed in all of the WEI-SPS countries, posing a
were no significant differences in Argentina, Brazil,
major concern for their education ministries.
82
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
A VIEW INSIdE PrIMAry SChOOlS
FigUre 4.13
Percentage of pupils in schools with permanent and temporary vacancies
Temporary vacancies
%
Permanent vacancies
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
S median
Philippines
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A4.8.
WEI-SP
FigUre 4.14
School heads’ perceptions of teacher shortages
Percentage of pupils in schools facing problems with teacher shortage, as reported by school heads
Support staff
Replacement teachers
%
Qualified teachers
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
a
y
a
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
ank
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
S median
Philippines
WEI-SP
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A4.9.
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
83
ChAPTEr 4: SChOOl hEAdS ANd TEAChINg STAFF
These data can be checked against questions
in-service teacher training
concerning shortages of qualified teachers, replacement
Not only do teachers have to be educated and taught
teachers and support staff. School heads in India,
how to teach (pre-service teacher training), but they also
Malaysia, Peru, the Philippines and Sri lanka felt that
have to be kept up to date in content and techniques
there was a problem with the shortage of qualified
(in-service teacher training). Primary school heads were
teachers (see Figure 4.14). In Brazil, India, Paraguay,
asked about the extent to which their classroom teachers
Peru, the Philippines, Sri lanka and Uruguay, there
had participated in the following professional activities:
was a shortage of replacement teachers, and in all
• Courses/workshops (e.g. on subject matter or
countries, except for Chile, there was a shortage of
methods and/or other education-related topics except
support staff.
Information and Communication Technology – ICT);
The results about staff stability and shortages add
• Course/workshops on ICT;
up to a dismal picture. If children are to learn, they
• Conferences (where teachers and/or researchers present
must be in schools with adequate and stable staff.
their research results and discuss educational issues);
Several research studies have shown that it is the
staff as a whole that is important rather than one
• Qualification programmes (e.g. Bachelor of
individual teacher. It is important that each ministry’s
Education, Master of Arts, Master of Education,
Educational Management Information System (EMIS)
Education doctorate, Philosophy doctorate);
collects detailed information about the existing
• Observation visits to other schools; or
teachers, as well as vacancies, in each school so that
• Participation in a network of teachers (e.g. one
the authorities can take remedial action to correct
organized by an outside agency or over the Internet
shortfalls.
but excluding participation in a teacher union).
FigUre 4.15
teachers with in-service training
Percentage of pupils in schools where teachers had in-service training in the past 12 months
Village schools
City/town schools
%
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
S median
Philippines
WEI-SP
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A4.10.
84
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A VIEW INSIdE PrIMAry SChOOlS
The percentage of pupils in schools where school heads
Some notable results include:
reported that staff members had undergone some
• Brazil had a relatively high percentage of pupils
programme of professional development are presented
whose teachers attended conferences emphasizing
in Figure 4.15. In general, pupils were in schools where
between 60 percent and 70 percent of staff members
research results;
had gone to some kind of in-service training course in
• Chile emphasized ICT courses;
the last 12 months – a significant achievement. rates
• Malaysia had relatively few pupils whose teachers
were particularly high in Paraguay, the Philippines and
Sri lanka, but low in Uruguay at 40 percent. Some
had attended research-oriented conferences, courses
caution is required when examining the figures for pre-
for qualifications and teacher networking;
service training, since there were many missing data for
• Peru had relatively high participation in ICT,
this variable.
observing other teachers and participating in teacher
In Figure 4.16, more detailed information is presented
networks;
on the kinds of in-service courses. Overall, almost
• The Philippines had high participation in courses
one-half of the pupils were in schools where staff had
leading to qualifications; and
reportedly had in-service training in the subject matter
they taught. however, relatively few pupils were in
• Tunisia was relatively low on teacher participation
schools where staff members were reported as having
in research-oriented conferences and teacher
attended other types of content training.
networks.
FigUre 4.16
types of in-service training courses completed by teachers
Percentage of pupils with teachers having different types of in-service training
Courses on subject matter or methods
Qualification programme
Courses on ICT
Observation visits to other schools
Conferences
Participation in a network of teachers
%
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
S median
Philippines
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A4.11.
WEI-SP
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
85
ChAPTEr 4: SChOOl hEAdS ANd TEAChINg STAFF
The organization of in-service teacher training courses
and ‘a lot’ have been combined and reported as a single
is never an easy matter. It involves decisions on what
category in Figure 4.17. (Similar questions were asked
is important to be taught in such courses, identifying
about pupils and these have been reported in Chapter 3.)
the best people to teach and ensuring that the relevant
There were virtually no differences between schools
people attend. Perhaps the results listed above will help
in villages and those in cities/towns, and therefore,
structure future course content.
these data were not included in the figure. In a good
Perceived behavioural problems among
school, there should be no (or miniscule numbers of)
teachers
teachers arriving late, being absent or skipping classes.
Absenteeism was perceived to be a big problem in
School heads were asked about the extent to which
Tunisia and, to a lesser extent, in Argentina, Chile,
they had to deal with the following behavioural
Paraguay, the Philippines and Sri lanka. late arrival
problems of teachers in their schools:
was a problem in Paraguay, the Philippines and Tunisia.
• Teachers arriving late;
Skipping classes appeared to be a problem in Argentina,
• Teacher absenteeism; or
Paraguay and the Philippines. It was possible to derive a
combined index from these criteria: the index of Teacher
• Teachers skipping classes.
behavioural problems is presented in Figures 4.18 and
The response categories were: ‘not at all’, ‘very little’, ‘to
4.19. A high score on the index indicates problem
some extent’ and ‘a lot’. The categories ‘to some extent’
areas, and a low score, fewer problems.
FigUre 4.17
School heads’ perception of teacher behavioural problems
Percentage of pupils in schools where principals reported having to deal with the following problems
‘to some extent’ and ‘a lot’
Class skipping
Absenteeism
%
Late arrival
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
S median
Philippines
WEI-SP
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table 4.3.
86
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
A VIEW INSIdE PrIMAry SChOOlS
FigUre 4.18
Mean values of the index of Staff behavioural problems, by school location
Village schools
City/town schools
0.2
0.1
0
-0.1
Index
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
a
y
a
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
ank
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
Philippines
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A4.13.
FigUre 4.19
Mean values of the index of Staff behavioural problems, by school type
Public schools
Private schools
0.2
0.1
0
-0.1
Index
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
a
y
a
y
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
rgentina
Urugu
A
Paragu
Philippines
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A4.13.
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
87
ChAPTEr 4: SChOOl hEAdS ANd TEAChINg STAFF
As seen in Table 4.3, Paraguay, the Philippines and
between the school social advantage and the level of
Tunisia faced problems with late arrival by teachers,
teacher behavioural problems was not different from zero.
absenteeism and skipping class, whereas India and
It should be added that even when the correlation
Malaysia had the fewest problems. In all WEI-SPS
coefficients between school social advantage and levels
countries, school heads of city/town schools reported
of teacher behavioural problems were negative, the size
more teacher behavioural problems than those in
villages, but these differences were only significant in
of the correlations were quite modest. Only in Argentina,
Peru and Uruguay.
Brazil, Malaysia, Peru, Sri lanka and Uruguay were the
coefficients larger than 0.10. In these countries, the
Earlier in this report, reference was made to an index
higher the social intake of pupils, the fewer teacher
of Social advantage of school intake (see Chapter 3).
behavioural problems were reported. The coefficients
The correlations between that index and the index of
were less than -0.10 in the remaining countries.
Teacher behavioural problems in each country have been
presented in Table 4.4. The correlation coefficients for
This means that the link was not very strong, despite the
all countries were negative, implying that schools serving
existence of a general correlation between the socio-
pupils of more advantaged backgrounds tended to have
economic background of pupil intake and the reported
lower levels of reported teacher behavioural problems.
teacher behavioural problems in most countries. One
The only exception was the Philippines, where the
explanation was that the school heads’ perceptions of
correlation coefficient was positive. however, in this case,
teacher behavioural problems were only weakly related
the standard errors were so large that the correlation
to their perceptions of the socio-economic backgrounds
TABlE 4.3 PercentAge oF PuPiLS WitH teAcHerS WitH beHAviourAL ProbLeMS
results based on ‘to some extent’ or ‘a lot’ responses only
Late arrival
Absenteeism
Class skipping
%
Se
%
Se
%
Se
Argentina
6.8
1.02
29.8
1.75
23.8
1.62
Brazil
11.1
1.55
17.0
1.84
7.9
1.43
Chile
17.4
1.88
23.1
2.01
14.2
1.67
India
5.4
0.92
5.5
1.06
5.0
1.20
Malaysia
0.6
0.39
1.8
0.73
0.2
0.22
Paraguay
37.3
1.82
31.2
1.64
31.3
1.65
Peru
13.4
1.95
3.4
0.84
4.8
0.91
Philippines
32.1
2.50
35.1
2.48
23.2
2.30
Sri lanka
12.5
1.81
20.4
2.15
3.6
1.07
Tunisia
26.8
2.08
64.4
2.20
7.0
1.23
Uruguay
4.9
0.81
16.5
1.44
0.7
0.29
Wei-SPS median
12.5
20.4
7.0
Source: WEI-SPS database.
TABlE 4.4 correLAtion betWeen tHe index oF teacher behavioural problemS And index oF Social
advantage of School intake
Correlation
Se
Argentina
-0.13
0.036
Brazil
-0.21
0.045
Chile
-0.08
0.039
India
-0.01
0.048
Malaysia
-0.12
0.054
Paraguay
-0.04
0.037
Peru
-0.15
0.046
Philippines
0.02
0.044
Sri lanka
-0.12
0.049
Tunisia
-0.04
0.049
Uruguay
-0.13
0.034
Note: Correlations that are significant at P <0.5 appear in bold characters.
Source: WEI-SPS database.
88
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
A VIEW INSIdE PrIMAry SChOOlS
of the pupils that their schools served. Another
courses ranged in duration from one week to almost
possibility was that the indices of the socio-economic
one year. little is known about the relative effect of
background of pupil intake and teacher behavioural
the length of management training on school head
problems were constructed on the perceptions of schools
performance – a topic which merits further research
heads and were more prone to inaccuracies than if they
in the WEI-SPS countries.
had been based on more direct measures of the two
Overall, in most WEI-SPS countries, school heads and
constructs. As a result, the correlation coefficients may
their staff had completed some tertiary education
not fully capture the actual relationship between the
courses. But, of course, much depends on the quality
social advantage of pupil intake and staff behavioural
of the courses that they attended. All teachers had
problems.
received pre-service training before starting to teach.
despite the weaknesses of the measures, the fact that
The pupil-teacher ratio is an index of the average
sizeable proportions of primary school pupils attended
number of pupils per staff member, which is not the
schools where school heads reported the existence of
same as class size. All countries had an average of 18
such problems among staff should be a concern for
to 38 pupils per teacher, except for India where it was
school administrators and educational authorities.
51. The average was 20 pupils per class, but in some
The results also suggest a link between the socio-
countries, pupils were in schools with an average class
economic background of pupil composition and teacher
size of over 50 (18% in India and the Philippines).
commitment in a school. This is clearly an issue of high
Chile had 23 percent of pupils in schools with average
policy relevance for most WEI-SPS countries.
class sizes of over 40 pupils. In India, this was 33
percent, and in the Philippines, 53 percent.
conclusion
The stability of school staff and the shortage of
The characteristics of school heads and their teaching
teachers and support staff were both identified as
staff were described in the WEI-SPS study through a
important factors for learning. In the WEI-SPS study,
number of indicators. In general, the average ages of
stability of staff was measured by computing the
principals and staff were between 40 and 54 years.
percentage of teachers who had been at the school
The average age of 54 years is a little high given that
for five or more years. 58 percent of pupils were in
the school head stock has to be renewed. But, in
schools where less than 70 percent of the teachers
general, school heads were of an expected age in all
had been in the school for five years. The median
countries. In WEI-SPS countries, 50 percent of pupils
values for schools that had vacancy positions at
had school heads who were female. There is some
the beginning of the school year was 27 percent
research evidence that shows that female heads (and
for permanent staff and 18 percent for temporary
teachers) obtain better achievement results with their
teaching posts. This information was supplemented
primary school pupils, so it was interesting to find so
by the perceptions of school heads in regard to the
many male heads and teachers in schools. This was
shortage of these teaching staff. The median values
particularly true for India, Malaysia, Peru, Sri lanka
of perceived shortages were 18 percent for qualified
and Tunisia. The percentage of female teachers was
staff, 22 percent for replacement teachers and
higher than the percentage of female school heads
46 percent for support staff. There would appear to be
in these countries, implying that the authorities were
a problematic staffing situation in nearly all countries.
under-utilizing the stock of female teachers for the
Another important indicator of the quality of teaching
purposes of selecting school heads.
staff is how well they are kept up to date with subject
Since the late 1980s, training school heads in
matter and teaching methods. Many teachers in the
management, either before they become heads or
WEI-SPS countries had attended courses on the subject
after, has become a significant trend. In general,
matter(s) they taught. In Chile, Malaysia and Peru,
nearly all pupils were in schools that had school
there were some teachers who attended ICT. courses,
heads who had had training, though some heads said
and in Brazil, it was research-based conferences that
that they did not know about such courses. Training
were of interest.
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
89
ChAPTEr 4: SChOOl hEAdS ANd TEAChINg STAFF
Finally, the school heads were asked about problems
pupil-teacher ratio. There was a shortage of qualified
concerning teacher absenteeism, lateness in arriving at
teachers in some areas, and less than 50 percent of
school and skipping classes. In Paraguay, the Philippines
teachers had attended an in-service course in the last
and Tunisia, there were more pupils in schools with
12 months. There were very few behavioural problems
perceived problems in teacher behaviour, whereas in
with teachers, as reported by school heads.
India, Malaysia, Peru and Uruguay, there were the fewest
Paraguay: in many ways represented the average for the
pupils in schools with such problems. In schools where
countries in the study. Only 38 percent of school heads
the social intake of pupils was higher, there tended to be
had been to management courses. Paraguay provided
fewer perceived teacher behavioural problems.
a lot of in-service training to its teachers, especially
Country profiles
in subject matter training. The school heads reported
problems with teachers arriving late and being absent.
Argentina: had the highest percentage of pupils in
schools with female school heads. The heads were
Peru: like Paraguay was average for nearly all aspects of
offered a six-month management course and a large
education examined in this chapter. The only difference
percentage had attended them. There were many
was that school heads perceived there to be a shortage
temporary teaching posts that needed to be filled.
of support staff. There were relatively few teacher
60 percent of teachers were said to have attended in-
behavioural problems.
service teacher training courses in the last year, but the
Philippines: again, was average for school heads and
heads reported that there was a problem with teacher
staff characteristics examined in this chapter. Pre-
absenteeism.
service training was somewhat shorter than in other
Brazil: invested more time than other countries in
countries, but the stability of staff was strong. relatively
pre-service training for its teachers. There were some
more pupils were in schools where heads reported
problems with the quality staffing of schools, especially
teacher behavioural problems.
in remote areas. In general, the stability of staff and the
Sri Lanka: shared certain similarities with India. Only
number of vacant permanent positions were concerns.
28 percent of school heads were female, despite
Chile: tended to have school heads who were slightly
female teachers accounting for 80 percent of the
older than in other countries, of which 50 percent were
primary school teaching force. Only 50 percent of
male. 90 percent of heads said that they had attended
teachers had tertiary education, although this was
a management course, which had a duration of one
slightly more in cities/towns. Teachers had pre-service
year. On average, pre-service training lasted 3.7 years.
training that lasted only 1.7 years on average. There
Teaching staff were relatively stable, although there was
were quite a few permanent teaching positions that
a slight problem in some city/town schools.
were vacant.
India: seemed to have more problems than the other
Tunisia: had only 2.5 percent of heads who were
countries in the study. Only 45 percent of teaching staff
female, though 60 percent of the primary school
were female. Only 60 percent of school heads had had
teaching force was female. relatively few had a tertiary
tertiary education, and in general, school heads had
education. Pre-service training of heads and teachers
only 1.2 years of pre-service training. Only 36 percent
was low in comparison with other countries in the
of pupils were in schools where the head reported
study. Teacher absenteeism was perceived to be a
to have had a management course, and 22 percent
severe problem by the school heads.
of heads said that they did not even know that these
Uruguay: had an adequate supply of qualified staff and
courses were available. The pupil-teacher ratio was over
replacements, even though the stability of staff was not
50:1 in villages. The staff did not tend to have very
high. School heads reported only 40 percent of their
high levels of education, and there were shortages of
teachers as having attended an in-service course in the
qualified teachers and replacements.
last 12 months, and again, this was low compared with
Malaysia: a relatively affluent country, had well-
other countries in the study. heads reported very few
qualified heads and staff, good staff stability and a low
teacher behavioural problems.
90
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
5 School management, inspection
and parental involvement in school
Yanhong Zhang (UNESCO Institute for Statistics)
School heads typically have the major responsibility
that promotes individual contributions to the
of ensuring the smooth operation of schools. They are
organization's work. Their success in carrying out these
often promoted from among the ranks of experienced
responsibilities is related to the demands of their daily
teachers and, thus, are expected to be familiar with
activities.
how instruction is delivered. As instructional leaders,
One such task is teaching. WEI-SPS countries had
school heads are also expected to lead decisions on
different teaching requirements of school heads. In
various aspects of school operations.
Malaysia, for example, heads were required to teach
In this chapter, results have been presented from the
a minimum of five lesson periods per week. In some
WEI-SPS study related to school heads and instructional
other countries, such as Chile, government policies
leadership; school governance and autonomy;
focused on increasing the professionalization of
monitoring and evaluation; and parental involvement.
school principals, which meant devoting more time to
More specifically, the following questions have been
administrative, managerial and leadership duties.
addressed: In what types of activities were primary
The WEI-SPS questionnaire asked school heads about
school heads in WEI-SPS countries involved on a
their weekly teaching obligations. The responses have
frequent basis? To what extent did primary schools
been presented in Figure 5.1 and Table A5.1. In each
have power over issues about staffing, budgeting
of the 11 countries, at least some school heads were
and instruction? Educational authorities often use
required to teach every week – from as little as one
inspection as a way to manage school systems and to
hour to more than eight hours. The share of primary
improve schools. How frequently were primary schools
school pupils with principals who had teaching
in WEI-SPS countries visited by external inspectors
obligations varied widely among countries. In most of
and for what purposes? Finally, parental involvement
the Latin American countries, principals of primary
in schools is often regarded as a tool both to ensure
schools serving relatively limited proportions of pupils
community support for schools and to hold schools
had teaching obligations. In Brazil and Chile, about
accountable. To what extent were parents involved in
30 percent of pupils attended schools where the
the operation of primary schools in WEI-SPS countries?
principals had some teaching obligations, including
The results are based on responses provided by school
10 percent of pupils who went to schools where heads
heads and, unless otherwise noted, have been reported
taught four to eight hours and more every week. In
in terms of the number of primary school pupils within
Paraguay, Peru and Uruguay, at least one out of every
each country.
five primary school pupils had a school head who
School heads and instructional leadership
taught more than eight hours each week.
In the school context, decisions affecting student
In India, principals of primary schools serving one-
learning are made at different levels, ranging from
half of the pupils reported to teach more than eight
classroom teachers, school heads and their assistants,
hours each week. In Tunisia, this was true for two out
to education authorities. Central to this decision-
of five primary school pupils. On the other hand, all
making is the instructional leadership role played
primary school heads in Malaysia reported having
by school heads who generally carry out a wide
teaching obligations, although the heads of primary
range of tasks, including shaping school culture by
schools serving more than 70 percent of pupils said
developing and articulating a vision, winning support
that they taught between one and four hours a week.
for it and inspiring others to attain it. An important
The share of pupils with principals who had this level
part of a school head’s responsibility is to develop
of teaching obligation varied from 10 percent or less in
and implement sound policies, procedures and
Paraguay, Peru and Tunisia to roughly 20 percent and
practices. In addition, as instructional leaders, school
more in Argentina, Brazil, the Philippines, Sri Lanka and
heads are also expected to provide an environment
Uruguay.
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
91
CHAPTEr 5: SCHOOL MANAgEMENT, INSPECTION ANd PArENTAL INvOLvEMENT IN SCHOOL
FIgUrE 5.1
Teaching obligations of school heads
Percentage of primary pupils whose school heads reported having various levels of teaching obligations
More than 8 hours per week
1-4 hours per week
4-8 hours per week
No teaching at all
%
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
S median
Philippines
WEI-SP
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A5.1.
Aside from mandatory teaching, the primary
• coordinating special measures for students with
responsibility of school heads is the operation of the
learning problems;
school. In the WEI-SPS, school heads answered two
• keeping student progress records;
sets of questions about their involvement in various
administrative tasks. The first set of questions asked
• dealing with disciplinary problems; and
how frequently (‘never or a few times a year’, ‘about
• organizing extra-curricular activities for students.
once a month’, ‘about once a week’ or ‘daily’) they did
the following:
detailed results were analyzed and summarized in
Table A5.2. In Table 5.1, the percentage of pupils
• public relations with the local community;
attending schools where principals carried out the
• managing school facilities and resources;
selected activities 'once a week' or 'daily' have been
• keeping school accounts and budgeting;
presented. Across WEI-SPS countries, school heads
were more often dealing with disciplinary problems,
• taking care of administrative and clerical duties;
managing school facilities and resources, and taking
• coordinating lesson programmes of various classes
care of administrative and clerical duties; and
and grades;
were relatively less often engaged in coordinating
special measures for pupils with learning problems,
• discussing student performance with classroom
coordinating lesson programmes, keeping school
teachers;
accounts and budgeting, and organizing extra-curricular
• monitoring the progress of instructional innovations;
activities.
92
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
A vIEW INSIdE PrIMAry SCHOOLS
AdminiSTrATive AcTiviTieS of School heAdS
Percentage of pupils attending schools where school heads carried out the following activities
TABLE 5.1 once a week or daily
e
ative
e
e
ess
elations
es
ogr
or
dinat
ammes
ess
dinat
ds
a-curricular
anage school
c
ounts
asur
or
dministr
ogr
onit
ogr
tivities
P
ublic r
M
facilities
Keep school
ac
A
Coor
the lesson
pr
Discuss student
performanc
M
pr
Coor
special
me
Keep pr
r
ec
Discipline
Organize
extr
ac
Other
Argentina
60
72
49
80
31
32
36
57
42
90
22
30
Brazil
54
82
62
86
32
50
49
38
40
88
34
50
Chile
51
74
53
89
36
45
33
34
39
83
37
50
India
41
59
37
70
66
51
57
59
38
77
68
14
Malaysia
47
64
33
74
23
26
32
26
10
61
50
43
Paraguay
52
53
28
93
38
44
43
46
43
90
16
34
Peru
44
69
36
85
34
23
27
27
42
90
26
21
Philippines
49
83
35
86
62
39
56
51
55
66
26
32
Sri Lanka
38
81
57
92
44
35
32
47
29
87
43
24
Tunisia
73
83
81
83
18
39
39
41
58
24
23
17
Uruguay
67
90
87
86
25
33
28
57
27
91
24
28
Wei-SPS median
51
74
49
86
34
39
36
46
40
87
26
30
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A5.2.
There was, however, enormous variation among
• supporting classroom teachers in lesson preparation
countries. For example, more than one-half of primary
and execution of school tasks;
pupils in the Philippines and Tunisia had school heads
• discussing the use of textbooks with classroom
who reported working on student progress reports
teachers;
about once a week or daily – compared to only about
10 percent of pupils in Malaysia. One explanation for
• attending lessons given by classroom teachers;
the low level reported in Malaysia may be that the
• discussing impressions of classroom visits with
vast majority of principals delegated such tasks to
classroom teachers;
senior assistants.
• evaluating classroom teachers’ records on student
Similarly, principals of schools enrolling around
progress;
90 percent of primary pupils in the Latin American
countries participating in the study reported that
• discussing new teaching methods with classroom
they dealt with disciplinary problems on a weekly or
teachers;
daily basis. In Tunisia, the comparable figure was only
• providing suggestions and recommendations to
approximately 24 percent. In India, about two-thirds
classroom teachers on how to improve student
of pupils had principals who reported to frequently
organize extra-curricular activities, compared to about
performance; and
one-third or less of pupils in the Latin American
• stimulating classroom teachers to initiate
countries and in the Philippines and Tunisia.
instructional innovations.
The second set of questions asked school heads how
often (‘never or a few times a year’, ‘about once a
detailed analyses of the responses have been
month’, ‘about once a week’ or ‘daily’) they engaged
summarized and presented in Table A5.3. In Table 5.2,
in the following activities related to the provision of
the percentage of pupils attending schools where
instructional support and leadership:
principals carried out each of these activities 'once
a week' or 'daily' has been shown. Across WEI-SPS
• observing teachers’ teaching and advising them on
countries, school heads were more likely to be
their teaching;
observing and advising teachers, supporting teachers
• organizing activities aimed at the professional
in lesson preparation and school tasks, and providing
development of teachers;
advice on how to improve pupil performance.
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
93
CHAPTEr 5: SCHOOL MANAgEMENT, INSPECTION ANd PArENTAL INvOLvEMENT IN SCHOOL
inTrucTionAl SuPPorT AcTiviTieS of School heAdS
Percentage of pupils attending schools where school heads carried out the following activities
TABLE 5.2 once a week or daily
s
e
e
ve
ds
ort
oom
ook
oom visits
ess
oom
end lessons
gestions
tt
ogr
Obser
t
e
aching
P
r
ofessional
development
Supp
classr
t
e
achers
Discuss use of
t
extb
A
Discuss
classr
E
valuat
students
pr
Discuss new
t
e
aching
metho
P
r
ovide
sug
Stimulat
classr
t
e
achers
Argentina
75
26
59
19
44
39
25
21
62
35
Brazil
63
39
39
28
19
24
26
36
60
62
Chile
60
51
42
25
27
35
33
43
53
58
India
75
27
77
69
69
61
32
45
53
50
Malaysia
49
17
50
15
31
23
25
18
23
31
Paraguay
72
18
64
39
47
37
33
32
55
44
Peru
65
15
46
28
38
30
23
18
41
27
Philippines
76
28
81
33
59
54
36
29
59
53
Sri Lanka
81
32
74
35
55
46
28
32
40
45
Tunisia
65
15
37
20
58
50
32
18
57
58
Uruguay
72
29
55
18
38
34
16
16
53
53
Wei-SPS median
72
27
55
28
44
37
28
29
53
50
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A5.3.
There was great variation among countries. For
might be more likely than small schools to have
example, about two-thirds or more of pupils in India,
dedicated administrative staff, permitting principals to
the Philippines and Sri Lanka had school heads who
focus on instructional leadership and support. On the
helped teachers in lesson preparation and execution
other hand, larger schools may have more complex and
of school tasks – compared to one-half or less of
a higher volume of administrative work. This implies
pupils in Brazil, Chile, Malaysia, Peru and Tunisia.
that principals of larger schools may be required to
Similarly, school heads in Brazil (62%), Chile (58%) and
devote more time and energy to administrative issues
Tunisia (58%) were involved much more frequently in
than their counterparts in small schools.
prompting new teaching approaches in the classroom
To what extent did either of these scenarios fit the
than their counterparts in Argentina (35%), Malaysia
reality in WEI-SPS countries? did the school heads’
(31%) and Peru (27%). Again, in Malaysia, subject
emphasis on administrative duties versus instructional
panels were usually delegated to deal with curricular
leadership and support also vary by their educational
and instructional matters, while principals acted more
backgrounds? did the day-to-day work of school heads
as teacher administrators or generalists.
reflect different priorities between public and private
Across WEI-SPS countries, school heads were less
schools, or schools located in village communities
frequently involved in organizing professional
and in city/town communities? To explore this, two
development activities for teachers and evaluating
composite indices were created, each by averaging
teacher records on the progress of pupils. Again,
the values of the responses to the two sets of survey
there was great variation among countries. In India,
questions outlined in this section. Thus, the first index
69 percent of pupils had school heads who discussed
relates to school heads’ emphasis on administrative
the use of textbooks with teachers on a weekly or daily
duties and the second index relates to their time
basis – compared to only about 20 percent or less in
commitment to instructional leadership and support.
Argentina, Malaysia, Tunisia and Uruguay.
A greater value implies that school heads devoted more
time to that type of activity.
It was interesting to note whether or how the
engagement of school heads in administrative duties
Table 5.3 is a summary of the results of a correlation
and instructional leadership varied across schools
analysis between the work emphasis of school heads
within WEI-SPS countries. For example, large schools
and their school’s size and their own education level.
94
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
A vIEW INSIdE PrIMAry SCHOOLS
TABLE 5.3 emPhASiS of School heAd’S Work, by School Size And School heAd'S level of educATion
Coefficients of correlation between indices of emphasis on daily work
Emphasis on administrative support
Emphasis on instructional leadership
School size
Education of school head
School size
Education of school head
Correlation
SE
Correlation
SE
Correlation
SE
Correlation
SE
Argentina
-0.049
0.036
-0.020
0.049
-0.009
0.035
-0.019
0.050
Brazil
0.113
0.053
0.158
0.051
-0.142
0.051
-0.030
0.062
Chile
-0.137
0.041
-0.038
0.031
-0.056
0.044
-0.040
0.021
India
0.029
0.043
0.046
0.039
0.020
0.051
-0.048
0.043
Malaysia
0.026
0.036
-0.087
0.078
0.004
0.045
-0.063
0.062
Paraguay
0.187
0.035
0.049
0.037
0.078
0.039
0.011
0.038
Peru
-0.060
0.044
-0.041
0.019
-0.067
0.047
-0.072
0.017
Philippines
0.011
0.096
0.047
0.037
0.059
0.047
0.043
0.034
Sri Lanka
0.036
0.069
-0.002
0.059
-0.027
0.050
-0.045
0.056
Tunisia
0.046
0.046
0.085
0.046
-0.015
0.050
0.097
0.050
Uruguay
0.016
0.043
m
0.033
0.045
m
Note: Correlation that are significant at P <0.5 appear in bold characters.
Source: WEI-SPS database.
The correlation coefficients between administrative
in Argentina, the Philippines and Uruguay. On the other
support and school size were positive in 8 out of
hand, in Paraguay and Peru, heads of private schools
11 countries, suggesting that the principals of larger
reported more emphasis on administrative duties in
schools tended to demonstrate greater engagement
their daily work than their public school counterparts.
in these duties in their daily work. The correlation
However, these differences were so small that they
between instructional support and school size were
were negligible. In Brazil, heads of public and private
positive in five countries, but negative in the other six.
schools reported virtually the same levels of emphasis
Therefore, it is difficult to say that there was necessarily
on administrative work in their daily tasks.
a pattern across the WEI-SPS countries. The school
heads’ level of educational qualifications correlated
There was no clear pattern across WEI-SPS countries
negatively with their emphasis on administrative
for differences between public and private schools. In
duties in one-half of the ten countries with available
Brazil, India and Paraguay, the mean values of the index
data and correlated negatively with their emphasis
scores were higher for private schools than private
on instructional support in seven of the ten countries.
schools, but the gaps were not statistically significant.
However, the correlation coefficients were statistically
In the Philippines, on the other hand, public school
not different from zero in most cases and quite small.
heads reported putting more emphasis on instructional
In other words, there is no strong evidence to make
issues than their counterparts in private schools.
general claims about the relationship among each
This was also true in Argentina and Uruguay, but the
of the four pairs of indicators across the WEI-SPS
differences were small.
countries.
The design of the WEI-SPS did not allow an evaluation
In Figure 5.2, public and private schools were
of which leadership style is more effective in various
compared in terms of the effect sizes of the differences
circumstances. Sometimes, school heads are expected
in the mean values of the two indices (see Box 3.1).
to play the role of an effective administrator. At other
As shown in the first panel, the bars are to the left
times, they are required to provide instructional
of the axis corresponding to zero in five out of eight
leadership, which may mean searching for and
countries for which there was a distinction between
implementing solutions to everyday problems in order
public and private schools. This implies that, in the
for the school to operate smoothly. Or, it may mean
majority of the countries, heads of public schools
motivating teachers to go beyond and achieve more in
reported higher levels of emphasis on administrative
order for schools to improve. Effective leaders choose
duties in their daily work than their counterparts in
the style that best fits the goals that they aim to
private schools. The differences were most pronounced
achieve and the circumstances that they face.
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
95
CHAPTEr 5: SCHOOL MANAgEMENT, INSPECTION ANd PArENTAL INvOLvEMENT IN SCHOOL
FIgUrE 5.2
comparing the emphasis of school heads’ work across schools
Differences in the index of Emphasis of school heads’ work, expressed as effect sizes
Heads of public
Heads of private
Heads of public
Heads of private
schools on average
schools on average
schools on average
schools on average
put more emphasis
put more emphasis
put more emphasis
put more emphasis
on administrative
on administrative
on instructional
on instructional
support
support
leadership
leadership
Argentina
Argentina
Brazil
Brazil
Chile
Chile
India
India
Paraguay
Paraguay
Peru
Peru
Philippines
Philippines
Uruguay
Uruguay
-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6
-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6
Note: A bar in dark shade means the difference is statistically different from zero.
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A5.4.
School governance and school autonomy
and Paraguay (56%). It was less common for pupils to
There has been a movement in favour of
have school boards in Malaysia (29%), Argentina (26%)
decentralization as a way to achieve various goals,
and Uruguay (8%).
such as improving quality and efficiency, sharing the
Across WEI-SPS countries, there was no clear pattern
financial burden of schools, boosting democratic
as to whether public or private schools were more
participation and strengthening accountability (Mcginn
likely to have a school board. In Argentina, private
and Welsh, 1999). A mechanism commonly used in
schools were much more likely to have a governing
decentralization to strengthen the involvement of
board than public schools. The same was true to some
stakeholders is to establish governing boards which
extent in Chile, though the difference was relatively
typically oversee schools and represent community
small. In Uruguay, all the schools that reported having
participation in deciding the overall direction. They
a governing board were private. On the contrary,
also provide a structure for public accountability and a
public schools in Brazil and Peru were more likely to
way for parents and the community to influence school
have a governing board than private schools. In India
policies (Cummings and riddell, 1994; davies, 1990;
and Paraguay, there was virtually no difference in this
Fiske, 1996; Mcginn and Welsh, 1999).
area.
In the WEI-SPS, school heads were asked whether
If a school had a governing board, the heads were
their school had a governing board. As shown in Table
asked whether this included representatives from
A5.5 and Figure 5.3, boards were relatively prevalent
the following groups: teaching staff; school heads or
in most of the countries but there was a wide range
deputy heads; parents; the education authority; local
overall. The majority of pupils attended schools that
government; the business sector; or religious groups.
had a governing board in Chile (93%), Tunisia (89%),
The responses have been summarized and presented in
Peru (85%), India (79%), Brazil (78%), Sri Lanka (70%)
Table A5.6 and Figure 5.4.
96
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A vIEW INSIdE PrIMAry SCHOOLS
FIgUrE 5.3
Presence of governing boards across schools
Percentage of primary pupils in schools that have governing boards, by school type
All schools
Public schools
%
Private schools
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A5.5.
FIgUrE 5.4
composition of school governing boards
Percentage of primary pupils in schools where the governing board, where it existed,
had representatives from the following groups
Teaching staff
School head or deputy school head
Parents
Education authority
Local government
Business sector
Religious groups
%
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
a
y
a
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
ank
T
unisia
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
Urugu
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A5.6.
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CHAPTEr 5: SCHOOL MANAgEMENT, INSPECTION ANd PArENTAL INvOLvEMENT IN SCHOOL
WEI-SPS countries varied in terms of school board
• establishing pupil assessment policies;
representation. For example, representation by
• approving admittance to the school;
teaching staff was common in most of the countries,
except in Uruguay (26%) and Malaysia (24%) –
• choosing which textbooks are used;
where most schools did not have governing boards.
• determining course content; and
representation by school heads or deputy heads
was relatively common throughout. In Tunisia and
• deciding which courses are offered.
Uruguay, only a minority of governing boards included
The results are presented in Table A5.7 and Figure 5.5.
parents. More than one-half of the boards did not
Overall, schools seemed less likely to have power over
have representatives from the education authority in
issues related to teacher hiring and compensation.
WEI-SPS countries, except in Paraguay (60%) and India
They were somewhat more likely to be autonomous on
(55%). The representation of local government was also
issues related to the school budget and course offerings.
relatively rare, with the exception of India (64%). In
Schools were relatively more likely to have significant
Malaysia, representatives from the business community
responsibilities for establishing school policies about
were included in the majority of governing boards
pupil management issues, such as admissions,
(65%). In India, this group represented approximately
assessments and disciplinary policies.
34 percent. Except in these two countries, the
business community was not commonly represented
There was, however, considerable variation among
on governing boards. The representation of religious
countries in terms of the extent of autonomy in making
groups was relatively common in Uruguay (64%) and
various decisions. For example, the share of pupils
Sri Lanka (49%).
attending schools with significant responsibility over
the hiring of teachers was relatively small in Tunisia
It is difficult to describe a general pattern in the
(0.3%), Malaysia (3%) and Sri Lanka (9%). In contrast,
representation of various groups on school governing
the share was more than one-half of pupils in Chile
boards among different countries. Nevertheless, where
(53%), the Philippines (63%) and Peru (70%). The
these boards did exist, representation of teaching
area of student disciplinary policies provides another
staff, school management and parents was relatively
example – virtually all primary schools in Peru, the
high. In countries where boards were less common,
Philippines and Sri Lanka had significant responsibility
representation of teaching staff, parents, the education
in this regard. In contrast, primary schools responsible
authority and local government was less likely and
for this issue covered only about 60 percent of pupils in
representation from business and religious groups more
Tunisia and 80 percent in Malaysia.
likely. Since no data were collected on the operations of
the governing boards, it was not possible to investigate
In order to facilitate comparisons, four indices were
what role they actually played in WEI-SPS countries or
constructed to represent the four types of areas in
whether this affected its composition.
which schools had significant autonomy: i) teacher
hiring/firing and salaries; ii) school budget; iii)
Furthermore, the study collected data on whether
admission, assessment and disciplining of pupils;
schools had 'significant responsibility' for the following
and iv) instructional content and course offerings.
issues:
The indices were created in such a way that a greater
• selecting teachers for hire;
value means that the school had more autonomy. The
• firing teachers;
indices were standardized to have a mean of zero and a
standard deviation of 1.0 across all WEI-SPS countries.
• establishing teachers’ starting salaries;
Thus, the indices allow for comparisons both between
• determining teachers’ salary increases;
and within countries. A value greater than 1.0 simply
• formulating the school budget;
means that a school had a higher level of control than
a typical school on the issue in question. Similarly, a
• deciding on budget allocations within the school;
negative value means that the school was reported to
• establishing pupil disciplinary policies;
have a lower level of control.
98
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A vIEW INSIdE PrIMAry SCHOOLS
FIgUrE 5.5
School autonomy on decision-making
Percentage of primary pupils in schools where the school’s governing board,
school head or classroom teachers had significant responsibility over the following decisions
WEI-SPS median
%
100
Sri Lanka
90
Sri Lanka
80
Tunisia
Brazil
70
Paraguay
Paraguay
Peru
Malaysia
India
Philippines
Peru
Philippines
India
Peru
60
Philippines
Uruguay
Brazil
Malaysia
Uruguay
Chile
50
Chile
Chile
Chile
Paraguay
Sri Lanka
40
India
India
Tunisia
India
Peru
India
30
Argentina
Argentina
Philippines
Chile
Chile
Argentina
Argentina
20
Brazil
Brazil
Paraguay
Peru
Philippines
Paraguay
Peru
Uruguay
Uruguay
Philippines
Uruguay
10
Uruguay
Paraguay
Sri Lanka
Brazil
Sri Lanka
Argentina
Tunisia
Malaysia
Tunisia
Brazil
Malaysia
Malaysia
Tunisia
Argentina
Sri Lanka
0
Tunisia
Malaysia
Selecting
Firing
Establishing
Determining
Formulating
Deciding
teachers
teachers
teachers’
teachers’ salary
the school
on school
for hire
starting salaries
increases
budget
budget
allocations
%
Sri Lanka
Philippines
100
Peru
Chile
Brazil
Philippines
Philippines
Argentina
Paraguay
Brazil
Chile
Peru
Chile
India
Peru
India
90 Uruguay
Brazil
Argentina
Chile
Paraguay
Argentina
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka
Brazil
Chile
Uruguay
India
Argentina
80
Chile
Malaysia
Uruguay
Paraguay
Argentina
Tunisia
Malaysia
Peru
Peru
Brazil
70
Paraguay
Sri Lanka
Tunisia
Peru
60
Tunisia
Argentina
Uruguay
Philippines
Uruguay
50
India
Paraguay
India
India
Philippines
Sri Lanka
Brazil
40
Sri Lanka
Paraguay
Uruguay
Philippines
30
Malaysia
Malaysia
Tunisia
Tunisia
Tunisia
20
Malaysia
Malaysia
10
0
Establishing
Establishing
Approving
Choosing
Determining
Deciding
student
student
students for
which textbooks
course content
which courses
disciplinary
assessment
admittance
are used
are offered
policies
policies
to school
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A5.7.
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
99
CHAPTEr 5: SCHOOL MANAgEMENT, INSPECTION ANd PArENTAL INvOLvEMENT IN SCHOOL
The mean values of the four indices were calculated
Brazil and Chile were more likely to have significant
and have been presented in Table A5.8 and Figure 5.6.
responsibility for instructional content. Schools in Peru,
These results confirm that there was great variation
the Philippines and Uruguay were more likely to have
across and within WEI-SPS countries over school
significant responsibilities over decisions about pupils.
autonomy. Compared to other WEI-SPS countries,
Within countries, school heads in Latin America had
schools in Malaysia, Tunisia and Uruguay had lower
the most control over instructional content but were
levels of autonomy, on average, in all or most of the
quite limited in their decision-making power on hiring
four types of decisions. On the other hand, schools in
and firing teachers and school budget. For example,
Paraguay, Peru and Sri Lanka tended to have higher
Argentina had relatively high levels of autonomy
levels of autonomy on the four types of decisions.
related to curricular content, but quite low levels of
Schools in Argentina and Chile had relatively lower
responsibility for budgeting. This pattern was similar
levels of autonomy on issues related to school
in Chile. In Brazil, primary schools had the most say
budgeting, with the opposite situation being true in
on curricular issues but limited power over the hiring
Malaysia and Tunisia.
and firing of teachers. In Paraguay and Peru, school
Schools in India, the Philippines and Sri Lanka, and
heads reported similarly high levels of autonomy on
especially Malaysia and Tunisia, were less likely to
all four issues.
have significant responsibility for decisions about
On the other hand, school heads in the Asian countries
instructional content and course offerings than on
in the study had higher levels of latitude on hiring and
other matters. On the other hand, primary schools in
firing teachers and school budget but relatively less
Malaysia and Tunisia had relatively more autonomy on
latitude on instructional contents. Schools in India had
issues about school budget, as did schools in Paraguay
the most latitude about the hiring and firing of teachers
and Sri Lanka. In contrast, schools in Argentina,
but limited responsibility over curricular content.
FIgUrE 5.6
The extent of autonomy of primary schools
Mean values of the international scales of indices of school autonomy on various decisions
Teachers
Pupils
Budget
Instructional content and course offerings
0.4
0.3
y
0.2
0.1
0
-0.1
School autonom
-0.2
Index of -0.3
-0.4
-0.5
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
Philippines
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A5.8.
100
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A vIEW INSIdE PrIMAry SCHOOLS
In Malaysia, schools had more input on budgeting
did private schools have more autonomy on school
than on any other issue but were most limited in the
management and operations than public schools? To
admission, assessment and disciplining of pupils and
address this question, the mean values of the four indices
on curricular content. This pattern was almost a mirror
were calculated separately for public and private schools
image of what was reported in Tunisia. In both the
for the eight countries with available data. The results
Philippines and Malaysia, schools had relatively low
have been presented in Table A5.9 and Figure 5.7.
levels of control over instructional content, but school
heads in the Philippines had the most control over
As can be seen in the first panel of Figure 5.7, the
admission, assessment and disciplining of pupils, which
symbols representing private schools are above those
was the opposite in Malaysia.
for public schools in most cases for the four indices.
FIgUrE 5.7
differences in decision-making autonomy between public and private schools, by issue
Public schools
Private schools
a. Index of School autonomy on teacher hiring
b. Index of School autonomy on school budget
and compensation
0.65
0.65
0.50
0.50
y
y
0.35
0.35
0.20
0.20
0.05
0.05
School autonom -0.10
School autonom -0.10
-0.25
-0.25
Index of
Index of
-0.40
-0.40
-0.55
-0.55
a
y
a
y
a
y
a
y
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
rgentina
Urugu
rgentina
Urugu
A
Paragu
Paragu
Philippines
A
Philippines
c. Index of School autonomy on pupil management
d. Index of School autonomy on instructional content
and course offerings
0.65
0.65
0.50
0.50
y
y
0.35
0.35
0.20
0.20
0.05
0.05
School autonom -0.10
School autonom -0.10
-0.25
-0.25
Index of
Index of
-0.40
-0.40
-0.55
-0.55
a
y
a
y
a
y
a
y
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
rgentina
Urugu
rgentina
Urugu
A
Paragu
Paragu
Philippines
A
Philippines
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A5.9.
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101
CHAPTEr 5: SCHOOL MANAgEMENT, INSPECTION ANd PArENTAL INvOLvEMENT IN SCHOOL
The size of the differences between public and private
levels of autonomy on instructional content than did
schools, however, varied both among countries as
their public school counterparts.
well as across indices. The differences seemed most
pronounced on the issues of teacher hiring and
monitoring and evaluation
compensation.
Monitoring and evaluation are essential for school
The difference between public and private schools
management, classroom teachers and pupils in order
in the index of Autonomy on teacher hiring and
to consolidate achievements and identify areas of
compensation was relatively small in Peru and the
weakness. Such monitoring can be conducted by
Philippines, although it was still more than one-quarter
central administration or at the school level (Edmonds,
of a standard deviation on the international scale. The
1979; Levine and Lezotte, 1990; Mortimore et al.,
difference grew to one-half of a standard deviation
1988; reynolds, 1992; rutter et al., 1979).
in Paraguay and two-thirds of a standard deviation or
In the WEI-SPS study, data on the number of monitoring
more in India (0.66), Brazil (0.74), Argentina (0.77)
mechanisms were collected from both teachers and
and Chile (0.78). The difference was most striking
school heads. Teachers responded to questions about
in Uruguay, where the mean values of the index for
monitoring at the classroom level and the results have
private schools were almost one standard deviation
been presented in Chapter 7. In this section, responses
higher than that for public schools.
provided by principals for the school level have been
Private schools were also reported to have more
presented. The school heads were asked whether, in
autonomy than public schools in formulating budgets
the previous five years, the school had issued a self-
and deciding on budget allocations within schools. The
evaluation report and whether all grade 4 teachers
only exception was Brazil, where there was virtually no
had been formally appraised by the school head or an
difference in the mean values of the index of Autonomy
external organization in the previous five years. They
on school budget. For the rest of the countries, the mean
were also asked whether an external inspector, school
values of the index for private schools ranged from
advisor or review panel had visited the school in the
around one-fifth of a standard deviation in Peru (0.17)
past two years and, if so, for what purposes. Lastly,
to around one-third in the Philippines (0.30) and
school heads answered questions about the purpose for
Uruguay (0.34), and even greater in India (0.44),
which pupil assessments were used.
Chile (0.48) and Argentina (0.55).
data on the first type of monitoring activity have
As for decision-making on the admission, assessment
been summarized and presented in Table A5.10 and
and disciplining of pupils, principals of private schools
Figure 5.8. Schools serving as many as 30 percent
in Argentina, India and Uruguay reported somewhat
of the primary pupil population in India, Sri Lanka
higher levels of autonomy than their counterparts
and Tunisia had not issued a self-evaluation report
in public schools. However, the differences were so
in five years. On the other hand, in Malaysia schools
small that they were negligible. Overall, private and
covering nearly all primary pupils had issued such
public schools seemed to have rather similar levels of
reports in that time period, and schools serving almost
autonomy on pupil affairs across WEI-SPS countries.
80 percent of primary pupils had done so twice or
even more. Other countries where schools serving
Countries also differed in terms of how public and
the vast majority of primary pupils had issued two or
private schools compared on average levels of autonomy
more self-evaluation reports over the previous five
in selecting textbooks and determining course content
years included the Philippines (73%), Argentina (74%)
and course offerings. In Argentina, Brazil and Chile, there
and Uruguay (83%).
was virtually no difference between public and private
schools on the average levels of responsibility for these
In terms of appraising grade 4 teachers, in Uruguay
areas. In Paraguay and Peru, private schools overall
all schools had done so at least once in the previous
seemed to have more input in these areas than public
five years. The same was true for schools serving
schools, though the differences were small. In India and
around 70 percent or more of pupils in Argentina,
the Philippines, private schools had noticeably higher
Malaysia, Paraguay, the Philippines and Sri Lanka.
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A vIEW INSIdE PrIMAry SCHOOLS
FIgUrE 5.8
School self-evaluations and teacher appraisals
Never
Twice
Once
More than 3 times
a. Percentage of pupils in schools which had issued a self-evaluation report at least once
%
in the previous five years
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
Philippines
b. Percentage of pupils in schools where all Grade 4 teachers had been formally appraised
%
by the school head or an external organization at least once in the previous five years
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
Philippines
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A5.10.
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103
CHAPTEr 5: SCHOOL MANAgEMENT, INSPECTION ANd PArENTAL INvOLvEMENT IN SCHOOL
Schools serving substantial proportions of pupil
Tunisia all had large proportions of primary pupils
populations had not had their grade 4 teachers
attending schools that had not issued a self-evaluation
appraised by the school head or an external
report over the five-year period and were among the
organization in Brazil (40%), Chile (40%), Peru (37%)
least likely to have appraised their grade 4 teachers.
and India (35%). The extreme was Tunisia, where
data on the second type of monitoring – inspection
the majority of pupils (85%) went to schools where
by external inspector, school advisor or review panel –
grade 4 teachers had never been appraised by the
have been summarized and presented in Table A5.11
school head or an external organization.
and Figure 5.9. Across WEI-SPS countries, the vast
Where schools were more likely to have issued a self-
majority of pupils were in primary schools that had
evaluation report, it was also more likely that their
gone through such an inspection in the two years
grade 4 teachers had been appraised. For example,
prior to the time that the study was undertaken. Such
Malaysia, the Philippines and Uruguay were the three
schools covered around 90 percent or more of pupils
countries where schools were most likely to have issued
in Malaysia (89%), the Philippines (94%), Argentina
at least one self-evaluation report in the previous
(95%), Tunisia (96%), Sri Lanka (99%) and Uruguay
five years. They were also the top three countries in
(99%). On the other hand, primary schools serving
terms of the share of grade 4 teachers who had been
about 20 percent or more of the pupils in Chile and
appraised. In contrast, Brazil, Chile, India, Peru and
Peru had not received such visits.
FIgUrE 5.9
external inspections of schools
Percentage of primary pupils in schools that had been visited by an external inspector, school advisor
or review panel in the previous two years
%
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
S median
Philippines
WEI-SP
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A5.11.
104
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
A vIEW INSIdE PrIMAry SCHOOLS
For those schools that had an external inspection in
Table A5.12 and Figure 5.10. Across WEI-SPS countries,
the past two years, school heads were asked further
external inspections seemed to be mostly about
questions about the purpose of the visit:
reviewing the performance of the whole school. This
was the case in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, India, Paraguay
• reviewing the performance of the whole school;
and Uruguay. Such visits were also reported to be for the
• conducting an evaluation of teaching in a particular
purpose of providing assistance to teachers in Malaysia,
subject matter;
the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Tunisia and Uruguay. The
• appraising individual classroom teacher(s);
assistance seemed to target teachers overall rather than
individual teachers, since 'appraising individual classroom
• assisting classroom teachers to improve their
teachers' was less likely to be the main purpose of such
teaching skills;
visits in most countries. The exception was Uruguay,
• advising the school head and/or other key staff on
where appraising individual teachers was reported to be
management and administration; or
the most common purpose of the external visits.
• addressing a crisis or problem in the school.
One of the most common tools for monitoring the
performance and progress of pupil learning is through
The percentage of pupils attending schools that were
classroom assessment, public examinations, national
reported to have received external inspections for these
assessment and international assessments (Kellaghan
purposes were calculated and have been presented in
and greaney, 2001).
FIgUrE 5.10
Purpose of external inspections
Percentage of pupils in schools where an external inspection was performed for the following purposes
Review performance of whole school
Evaluate teaching in a particular subject matter
Appraise individual classroom teacher
Assist teachers to improve teaching skills
Advise school head on management
Address a crisis or problem in the school
%
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
Philippines
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A5.12.
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CHAPTEr 5: SCHOOL MANAgEMENT, INSPECTION ANd PArENTAL INvOLvEMENT IN SCHOOL
FIgUrE 5.11
Purpose of school assessments
Percentage of pupils in schools where nation-wide or school/classroom assessments
were used for the following purposes
WEI-SPS median
Malaysia Chile
%
Philippines
Peru
Philippines
100
Sri Lanka
India
Philippines
Malaysia
Paraguay
Malaysia
Uruguay
Philippines
Tunisia
Chile
Paraguay
Sri Lanka
Uruguay
Chile
Argentina
Chile
Argentina
Malaysia
Sri Lanka
Uruguay
Sri Lanka
Paraguay
95
Uruguay
Brazil
India
India
India
Peru
Argentina
Tunisia
Peru
Paraguay
Brazil
90
Peru
Brazil
Tunisia
85
Brazil
Argentina
80
Tunisia
75
Inform parents
Monitor school’s
Help teachers make
Identify poorly achieved
about their
progress from
decisions about
objectives in different
child’s progress
year to year
remedial work
subject matters
%
100
Philippines
Philippines
Philippines
India
Philippines
Tunisia
Chile
90
Peru
Chile
Sri Lanka
Peru
Paraguay
India
India
Argentina
Sri Lanka
Paraguay
Uruguay
Sri Lanka
80
Brazil
Uruguay
Chile
Sri Lanka
Brazil
70
Brazil
Peru
Paraguay
India
Argentina
Chile
Uruguay
Peru
60
Brazil
Paraguay
50
Argentina
Tunisia
Tunisia
40
Uruguay
30
Tunisia
Argentina
20
Make decisions
Group students for
Compare school to
Make judgments
about retention
instructional purposes
district or national
about teachers'
or promotion
performance
effectiveness
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A5.13.
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In WEI-SPS, school heads were asked whether a variety
school against district or national trends. In Malaysia,
of assessments (nation-wide, school or classroom level)
the Philippines and Uruguay, such schools enrolled
were used for the following purposes:
around 80 percent of the pupils.
• informing parents about their child’s progress;
According to the results, it can be concluded that there
• making decisions about retention or promotion;
is much room for improvement in terms of monitoring
and evaluation in WEI-SPS countries. It is important
• grouping students for instructional purposes;
to emphasize the appropriate use of different tools
• comparing the school to district or national
for this purpose. For instance, while there are benefits
performance;
to making monitoring central and on-going, there is
evidence that over-frequent monitoring from central
• monitoring the school’s progress from year to year;
authorities can be counter-productive (Mortimore
• making judgments about the effectiveness of
et al., 1988). Improperly designed tests or over-
classroom teachers;
frequent testing can also have negative effects on the
• helping teachers make decisions about remedial
achievement of instructional goals (Kellaghan and
work; and
greaney, 2001; Postlethwaite, 2004).
• identifying poorly achieved objectives in different
Parental involvement
subject matters.
There are multiple benefits from parents being involved
The percentage of pupils attending schools that
in their child’s education. research has shown that
were reported to use each of the assessments have
parental involvement in schooling enhances children’s
been summarized and presented in Table A5.13. In
self-esteem, improves academic achievement and
Figure 5.11, the share of pupils attending schools that
improves parent-child relationships. Parents also
used assessments for any of the purposes described
benefit in that such involvement helps them develop
have been displayed.
positive attitudes towards school and a better
Across all WEI-SPS countries, schools predominantly
understanding of the schooling process (Baker and
reported using assessments for informing parents about
Soden, 1997; Fan and Chen, 1999; Epstein et al.,
their child’s progress, helping teachers to plan for
1997; Hoover-dempsey and Sandler, 1997; Sanders
remedial work and identifying deficiencies in achieving
and Epstein, 2000).
instructional objectives. Primary schools serving
In WEI-SPS, school heads were asked about the
90 percent or more of pupils used assessments for such
approximate percentage of parents involved in the
informational and diagnostic purposes. Schools serving
following types of activities:
the vast majority of pupils in all WEI-SPS countries also
used these results for grade promotion and monitoring
• teaching/learning process, such as assisting in
progress at the school level.
classrooms with learning activities;
There was variation among WEI-SPS countries in terms
• other school and extra-curricular activities, such as
of using assessments for other purposes. For example,
field trips, school library, open days, supervision
the vast majority of pupils in India (88%), Peru (88%),
of students during sporting activities, concerts and
Sri Lanka (90%), Malaysia (95%) and the Philippines
school plays;
(98%) attended schools where assessments were
• fundraising;
used to evaluate teaching effectiveness. In Argentina
and Uruguay, they were 66 percent and 63 percent
• helping in construction and maintenance of school
respectively. In Tunisia, only about 29 percent of pupils
buildings and classrooms;
were enrolled in schools that used assessments for
• donating funds towards staff payment and other
this purpose. Similarly, schools that enrolled less than
purposes; and
one-half of the pupils in Argentina and Tunisia used
assessments for comparing the performance of the
• being on the school governing board.
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CHAPTEr 5: SCHOOL MANAgEMENT, INSPECTION ANd PArENTAL INvOLvEMENT IN SCHOOL
The first two questions were about parents directly
to participate by donating funds. In Paraguay and Peru,
participating in their child’s educational activities,
parents helped with the construction and maintenance
both inside and outside of the classroom. The next
of school buildings and classrooms. In contrast, serving
three questions were about obtaining parents’ help in
on the school governing board or participating in
improving the financial and infrastructure conditions of
teaching and learning were less common.
the school. The last question was about involving parents
at a broader level. The responses were calculated in
From these results, it is difficult to decipher whether
terms of the estimated percentage of parents involved
parents of ‘most or all’ pupils were involved or just
in each type of activity at some time during the school
parents of a small share of pupils. regardless, the fact
year. The results have been summarized and presented
that across WEI-SPS countries less than one-half of
in Table A5.14 and Figure 5.12.
parents, on average, participated in any type of activity
implies that more could be done to tap this potential
Across WEI-SPS countries, parental involvement seemed
to construct a supportive environment for pupils to
to centre around generating resources and providing
succeed in schools.
help with school-related activities. This was particularly
the case in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Malaysia, Paraguay,
School heads also provided information on whether
Peru, the Philippines, Tunisia and Uruguay, where
parents were required to pay for textbooks, school
parents were heavily involved in fundraising and various
supplies (e.g. exercise books, pens, rulers) and uniforms
school and extra-curricular activities. In quite a number
as part of their child’s attendance at school. The results
of countries, it was also relatively common for parents
have been presented in Table A5.15 and Figure 5.13.
FIgUrE 5.12
Parental involvement in various school activities
Percentage of parents involved in the following activities at some time during the school year,
as reported by school heads
Teaching/learning process
Helping in construction and maintenance
Other extra-curricular activities
Being on the school governing board
Fundraising
Donating funds
%
50
40
30
20
10
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
S median
Philippines
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A5.14.
WEI-SP
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A vIEW INSIdE PrIMAry SCHOOLS
FIgUrE 5.13
Parents’ financial involvement in procuring school supplies
Percentage of pupils in schools where school heads reported that parents were required
to pay for various school items
Textbooks
Uniforms
Other school supplies
%
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
Philippines
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A5.15.
One or more out of four primary pupils in Argentina
group provided items needed at school, and if so,
(24%) and Tunisia (33%) attended schools that
what share of pupils actually received items from such
required parents to pay for their child’s textbooks.
sources. These responses have been summarized and
Similar ratios for parents paying for other school
presented in Table A5.16 and Figure 5.14.
supplies were found in more countries, including
Out of all the schools that needed various items, those
Argentina, Chile, India, Malaysia, Paraguay, the
Philippines and Tunisia. This was particularly
that received assistance from parental groups covered
pronounced in Malaysia and Tunisia at more than
more than one-half of the primary school population
40 percent. requiring parents to pay for school
in all WEI-SPS countries. Such assistance was more
uniforms was also relatively common in Argentina
common in India, the Philippines and Tunisia than in
(30%), Tunisia (30%) and Malaysia (40%). Therefore,
Brazil, Chile and Malaysia.
it was quite common for parents in Argentina and
In some countries, schools that received these
Tunisia to pay for all three types of school items.
contributions distributed the items more widely. For
While asking for parents to pay directly for the items
example, on average about one-half or more of the
needed by their children, schools might arrange to
pupils in such schools in Chile, Paraguay and Peru
seek assistance from other sources to help out pupils in
received items provided by parental groups. In contrast,
need. In the WEI-SPS, school heads were asked whether
these items went to a relatively small proportion of
a parent-teacher association (PTA) or other parental
pupils in Tunisia (11%) and Malaysia (15%).
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CHAPTEr 5: SCHOOL MANAgEMENT, INSPECTION ANd PArENTAL INvOLvEMENT IN SCHOOL
FIgUrE 5.14
involvement of parental organizations in procuring school supplies
Percentage of pupils who received school items from parent-teacher associations or other parental groups
Items provided by parental group
% of pupils that actually received such help
%
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
S median
Philippines
WEI-SP
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A5.16.
conclusion
high level of professionalization of principals in those
In this chapter, responses provided by school heads
countries. On the other hand, principals serving most
or all pupils in India and Malaysia reported having
have been analyzed to provide a picture of: how school
weekly teaching obligations.
heads fulfilled their administrative duties and provided
instructional leadership and support; the level of
The high level of professionalization of school principals
autonomy schools had in decision-making related to
in WEI-SPS countries is also reflected in the substantial
staffing, budgets and instructional contents; the use of
portions of their time devoted to administrative issues,
inspections and assessments; and parental involvement.
such as dealing with disciplinary problems, managing
WEI-SPS countries varied greatly in terms of how much
school facilities and resources, and taking care of
school heads emphasized administrative duties in
administrative and clerical duties. On the other hand,
contrast to instructional leadership and support.
they were less frequently engaged in tasks such as
coordinating special measures for pupils with learning
WEI-SPS countries seemed to have very different
problems, coordinating lesson programmes for various
practices regarding the roles and specific tasks of school
classes and grades, keeping school accounts and
heads. Principals of primary schools serving one-half
budgeting, and organizing extra-curricular activities
or more of primary pupils did not have any teaching
for students. As instructional leaders, school heads in
obligations on a weekly basis in 7 of the 11 countries
most of the countries reported spending more time on
in the study, mostly in Latin America but including
observing and advising teachers’ teaching, supporting
the Philippines and Tunisia as well. This may reflect a
teachers in lesson preparation and execution of school
110
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A vIEW INSIdE PrIMAry SCHOOLS
tasks, and providing suggestions on how to improve
generating resources for the school and participating
pupil performance. They spent relatively less time
in in-class or extra-curricular activities. It was relatively
on organizing professional development activities for
less common for parents to be members of the school
teachers and discussing new teaching methods with
governing board. Overall, schools in WEI-SPS countries
them.
seemed to have a long way to go in terms of involving
School governing boards were common for primary
parents in the schooling of their children. It should
schools serving a vast majority of pupils in most WEI-
be emphasized that, despite its importance, parental
SPS countries. There was no clear pattern as to whether
involvement should entail much more than resource
school boards were more prevalent in the public or
mobilization. The ultimate goal of involving parents is
private sector. Where boards did exist, representation
to improve the instruction and learning at the school.
of teaching staff, school management and parents was
This could include, for instance, receiving timely and
relatively high. In countries where school governing
appropriate feedback from teachers about their child's
boards were less common, the representation was more
learning. Parental involvement in their child’s schooling
likely to include the business sector and religious groups.
could also occur at home with parents and teachers
coordinating support in order to provide a home
There was enormous variation both among and
environment conducive to pupil learning.
within WEI-SPS countries in the level of autonomy
that schools had on decision-making. Primary schools
Country profiles
in most of the Latin American countries seemed
Argentina: School principals serving most pupils
to have more input on course content and course
did not have any teaching obligations. Principals of
offerings but less on school budget. The opposite was
public schools were reported to spend more time on
reported in Asian countries and Tunisia. Public schools
administrative duties than their counterparts at private
seemed to have less autonomy on teacher hiring and
schools, although there was no difference between the
compensation than private schools. To some extent,
two in the emphasis placed on providing instructional
this was also true regarding the school budget and
leadership. It was not common for primary schools
course content and offerings.
to have a governing board, but if they did, they were
Frequent evaluation and constructive feedback are
usually private schools. Membership of school boards
essential to the improvement of the work of school
mostly included school heads, teachers, parents and
administrators and teachers. WEI-SPS countries had
representatives from religious groups and education
mechanisms for schools to conduct self-evaluations
authorities. Primary schools in Argentina had high
and teacher appraisals, but the extent to which these
levels of autonomy on issues such as pupil affairs and
were used varied. Overall, self-evaluation of schools
school instruction but less on issues like teacher hiring
was somewhat more common than the appraisal of
and compensation and school budgeting. Compared
grade 4 teachers. On the other hand, schools serving
with other Latin American countries in the study, it was
most pupils in WEI-SPS countries also reported visits by
relatively common for primary schools in Argentina to
external inspectors. The purpose of such inspections
require parents to pay for textbooks, school supplies
was mostly about school performance and providing
and uniforms.
general assistance and support to teachers. Primary
Brazil: Overall, school heads had very limited teaching
schools in WEI-SPS countries used pupil assessments
obligations. Principals of public and private schools
for informing parents about the progress of pupils,
reported similar levels of emphasis in their daily
targeting weaknesses in learning in order to devise
tasks between performing administrative duties and
remedial strategies, and identifying deficiencies
providing instructional leadership. Primary schools
in instruction. In general, there seemed room for
usually had a governing board, with public schools
improvement in the use of monitoring and evaluation
more likely to do so than private ones. The boards
tools to strengthen school and instructional work.
predominantly consisted of school heads, teachers
According to reports by school heads, parental
and parents. Schools had high levels of autonomy
involvement – when it occurred – tended to focus on
on instruction, pupil affairs and school budget
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CHAPTEr 5: SCHOOL MANAgEMENT, INSPECTION ANd PArENTAL INvOLvEMENT IN SCHOOL
but low levels of control over teacher hiring and
uncommon for primary schools. Of those that did exist,
compensation, particularly in public schools. While it
they consisted mostly of parents, school heads and
was relatively common that primary schools conducted
representatives from the business community. Primary
self-evaluations, a large share of teachers had not
schools had somewhat more autonomy on the school
been appraised in the previous five years. Less than
budget but less on issues related to teachers, pupil
20 percent of pupils attended schools that required
affairs and, especially, instructional content. Schools
parents to pay for textbooks, school supplies and
conducted self-evaluations relatively frequently, as
uniforms. On the other hand, schools serving about
well as appraisals of most grade 4 teachers. Much
one-half of pupils arranged to provide assistance for
more than in the other countries in the study, it was
school items through parent-teacher associations.
relatively common practice for Malaysian schools to
require parents to pay for school supplies and uniforms,
Chile: Principals had very limited teaching obligations.
though they were rarely asked to pay for textbooks.
While heads of public and private schools placed
Many primary schools arranged assistance from parent-
similar emphasis on providing instructional support,
teacher groups for pupils in need, but coverage was
performing administrative duties was more of a daily
relatively low.
work priority among public school principals. Almost
all primary schools had a governing board, which
Paraguay: Principals had very limited teaching
typically consisted of school heads, teachers, parents
obligations. different from most WEI-SPS countries,
and representatives of the education authority. Except
principals of private schools spent more time
for the school budget, primary schools overall had high
performing administrative duties than their public
levels of autonomy in deciding how schools were run.
school counterparts. Slightly more than one-half of
However, public schools had lower levels of autonomy
pupils attended schools with a governing board, which
than private ones in regard to teacher hiring and
was typically comprised of school heads, teachers,
compensation and school budgeting. Frequent self-
parents and representatives from the local educational
evaluations were conducted by most primary schools,
authority. Overall, schools had high levels of autonomy,
but many teachers did not receive regular appraisals.
particularly private schools. They also had relatively
frequent evaluations of both schools and teachers.
India: The vast majority of pupils went to schools
Schools serving about one out of five pupils asked
where the principal taught for a number of hours
parents to pay for their child’s school supplies, but
per week. There was very little difference between
asking parents to pay for textbooks and school uniforms
public and private schools in terms of how principals
was quite limited. It was relatively common for schools
emphasized performing administrative duties in
to arrange assistance for pupils in need, the coverage of
contrast to providing instructional support in their daily
which was relatively high.
activities. It was quite common for primary schools to
have a governing board and the membership of these
Peru: One-half of pupils were at schools where
principals had teaching obligations. Principals of public
boards was relatively diverse. Private schools in India
and private schools reported virtually similar levels
seemed to have more autonomy than their public
of emphasis on performing administrative duties
counterparts in making decisions about teacher hiring
and providing instructional leadership in their daily
and compensation, the school budget and instructional
activities. Most primary schools had a governing board,
content. Primary schools and teachers in India would
although this was more common in public than private
benefit from regular evaluations and appraisals. Just
schools. These boards mostly consisted of school
10 percent of pupils attended schools that required
heads and teachers. Primary schools, especially private
parents to pay for textbooks or uniforms, although
schools, had high levels of autonomy. Although self-
schools serving one out of every four pupils, on
evaluation of schools was relatively frequent, a large
average, arranged assistance to needy pupils.
section of the teaching force had not received regular
Malaysia: Notably among WEI-SPS countries, all
appraisals. requiring parents to pay for textbooks,
primary school heads in Malaysia were required to
school supplies and uniforms was limited to schools
teach weekly. School governing boards were relatively
serving 10 percent or less of the pupil population.
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At the same time, it was quite common for schools
administrative duties and, to some extent, providing
to arrange financial assistance for needy pupils, the
instructional support as well, than their counterparts in
coverage of which was relatively high.
private schools. It was relatively rare for primary schools
to have a governing board, and most of those that did,
Philippines: School heads in the Philippines were
were private schools. As a result, the board members
more likely to teach than their counterparts in other
were generally school administrators and representatives
Asian countries in the study. Principals of public
of religious groups, with minimal representation of
schools put much more emphasis on both performing
education authorities. Primary schools, particularly
administrative duties and providing instructional
public schools, had less autonomy relative to other Latin
support than their counterparts in private schools.
American countries in the study. Schools conducted
Public schools had high levels of autonomy on most
frequent appraisals of schools and teachers. Parents
issues except instructional content. Primary schools
were somewhat more likely to be required to pay for
conducted frequent self-evaluations and appraised
school uniforms than for textbooks and school supplies,
their teachers. Schools serving less than one out of five
but this kind of direct contribution was limited to schools
pupils required parents to pay for textbooks, school
serving one in five pupils. Many schools had some form
supplies and school uniforms. At the same time, it was
of assistance for pupils in need but the assistance was
fairly common for schools to arrange assistance to
limited to less than one-half of pupils.
needy pupils, the coverage of which was fairly high.
Sri Lanka: Principals of schools serving the majority of
pupils had weekly teaching obligations. Most pupils
went to schools that had a governing board, which
was typically comprised of school heads, teachers
and parents. Primary schools had high levels of
autonomy on all issues. Evaluation of primary schools
and teachers could be further strengthened. direct
contributions by parents to schools, in the form of
fees for textbooks, school supplies and uniforms, were
either non-existent or quite limited. At the same time,
schools serving a majority of pupils had some form of
assistance, but their coverage was relatively limited.
Tunisia: It was relatively common for primary school
principals not to teach. Many primary schools had a
governing board, which was typically comprised of
school heads, teachers and parents. Primary schools
were reported to have considerable autonomy on the
school budget but less on other issues, particularly
instructional content. Schools serving almost one-
third of pupils had rarely conducted self-evaluations
and grade 4 teachers were rarely formally appraised,
which could certainly be strengthened. Schools serving
close to one-third of pupils required parents to pay for
textbooks, school supplies and uniforms. Even though
many schools had some form of assistance to pupils in
need, the overall coverage was quite limited.
Uruguay: It was relatively common for principals
of primary schools to teach classes. Principals of
public schools placed more emphasis on performing
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
113
6 Grade 4 pupils and their classrooms
T. Neville Postlethwaite (University of Hamburg) and Yanhong Zhang (UNESCO Institute for Statistics)
In this chapter, data have been presented on Grade 4
Three of these questions had also been asked of
pupils and their classrooms in WEI countries. First,
school heads (see Chapter 3) about all children in
an analysis has been presented of the extent to
primary school. The replies by Grade 4 teachers
which pupils in schools were socially advantaged or
about pupils ‘having learning problems’ and ‘receiving
disadvantaged and how this may have influenced them
support for school attendance’ were equivalent to
and their teachers. This is followed by information
those provided by school heads for all primary pupils.
on classrooms, such as the extent of grade repetition,
These results have been presented in Figure 6.1 and
incidence of single or multi-grade classrooms, subject
Table A6.1. The graphical results are for ‘most’ or ‘all’
matter versus general class teachers, the amount
pupils.
of teaching time, and sufficiency and availability of
textbooks and other classroom resources.
It should be noted that the scales for the two graphs
(Figure 6.1) are different. In the first graph, the
It is worthwhile to remind the reader that nearly all of
percentage of pupils in schools where teachers said
the results in this report have been presented in terms
that ‘most or all’ of the pupils had this background
of pupils.
characteristic ranges from 0 percent to 20 percent,
whereas in the second graph, the scale ranges from
Socio-economic advantage/disadvantage
0 percent to 70 percent.
of Grade 4 pupils, as perceived by their
teachers
The percentage of pupils in schools where teachers
perceived ‘most’ or ‘all’ pupils to be from single-parent
To examine the socio-economic background of pupils,
families were quite high in Brazil, Chile, Paraguay and
Grade 4 teachers were asked whether they had ‘no
Peru, whereas they were extremely low in Malaysia,
pupils’, ’some pupils’ or ‘most or all pupils’ with the
the Philippines and Sri Lanka. In no country was there
following characteristics:
a perception of a high percentage of pupils having
• came from single-parent families;
health problems. Only in the Philippines was there
a relatively high percentage of pupils with special
• had health problems that inhibit learning (impaired
learning problems. Also in the Philippines, Sri Lanka
vision or audition, chronic disease, etc.);
and Tunisia, approximately 15 percent of pupils had to
• had learning problems that need special attention
walk more than 5 km to attend school. There was quite
(slow learners, dyslexia, etc.);
a high percentage of pupils in schools in all countries
where teachers perceived most of them to be receiving
• had to walk more than 5 km or travel for over 1 hour
support for attendance (such as textbooks, meals, etc.),
(by bike, bus, etc.) to come to school;
especially in Brazil, India and Peru.
• received support for school attendance (e.g. uniform,
In many countries, some 12 to 18 percent of pupils
textbooks, meals, financial support, etc.);
were in schools where most had not eaten before going
• had not eaten (breakfast, lunch) before coming to
to class. A decade and a half ago, Pollitt (1990) showed
school;
that poor nutrition results in a lack of concentration and
reduced perseverance at school. It was also particularly
• were likely to have fewer than 25 books at home;
disturbing to note the percentage of pupils from homes
• had to work long hours to support the family income;
where there were fewer than 25 books. Given the ample
evidence that indicates that access to books is a main
• had heavy housework duties at home; or
contributor to learning to read, educational authorities
• had serious problems in the home or neighbourhood
may need to provide solutions (such as mobile libraries
(e.g. unemployment, alcoholism, drug abuse,
visiting schools and village communities). In most
violence, etc.).
countries, relatively few pupils had to spend long
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
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ChAPTEr 6: GrAdE 4 PUPILS ANd ThEIr CLASSrOOMS
FiGUre 6.1
Background characteristics of pupils as perceived by teachers
Percentage of Grade 4 pupils whose teachers reported that ‘most’ or ‘all’ pupils in their classrooms
had the following characteristics
Are likely to have health problems
Have to walk more than 5 kilometres
Have learning problems
Have to work long hours
%
Have not eaten (breakfast, lunch)
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
Philippines
Are likely to have fewer than 25 books at home
Receive support for school attendance
Come from single-parent families
Serious problems in home or neighbourhood
Have heavy housework duties at home
%
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
Philippines
Note: The other response categories were ‘no pupils’ and ‘some pupils’.
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A6.1.
116
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A VIEW INSIdE PrIMAry SChOOLS
FiGUre 6.2
Mean scores of the index of Social advantage of classroom intake, by school location
Village schools
City/town schools
0.4
Above national average
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-0.1
e of the index -0.2
-0.3
e
an scor -0.4
M -0.5
-0.6
Below national average
-0.7
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
Philippines
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A6.2.
hours to support the family or doing heavy household
and the index was standardized to have a mean of zero
duties. In the majority of countries, there was a
and a standard deviation of 1.0. Thus, the index does
worryingly high percentage of pupils from disadvantaged
not allow comparison of the absolute levels of the index
neighbourhoods, except in Malaysia and India. Again,
across countries, though it could be used to compare
this points to the need for inter-ministerial planning
the distribution of its values by different groups. It was
to ensure that all pupils in a society have reasonable
created in such a way that, the greater the values, the
conditions in which to learn – both in and out of school.
more advantaged the socio-economic background of a
class, and the lower the values, the less advantaged the
It was possible to construct an index of Relative social
socio-economic background.
disadvantage/advantage using the responses provided
by the teachers. After careful analysis, responses to
The index was used to examine if teachers’ perceptions
the following six questions were used to construct
about pupil backgrounds differed for schools in villages
the index: 1) received support for school attendance;
and cities/towns. These results have been presented in
2) had not eaten breakfast or lunch before coming to
Figure 6.2.
school; 3) Were likely to have fewer than 25 books
It can be seen that in all countries the city/town areas
at home; 4) had to work long hours to support the
had a value exceeding that of villages, indicating that
family income; 5) had heavy housework duties at
teachers in village schools perceived their pupils to be
home; and 6) had serious problems in the home or
more disadvantaged than teachers in city/town schools.
neighbourhood.
The index was created by factor analysis using these six
1. These six variables were also used to construct an index of
variables.1 The analysis was conducted for each country,
Social advantage of pupil intake. See Chapter 3.
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
117
ChAPTEr 6: GrAdE 4 PUPILS ANd ThEIr CLASSrOOMS
It is to be noted that in some countries (Paraguay and
In Argentina, a relatively high percentage of pupils was
Uruguay) the differences were very small.
seen as respectful and having a ‘sense of belonging to
the class’, but lower percentages of pupils were seen
Pupil attitudes towards school
‘to do their best to learn’, ‘work enthusiastically’, ‘enjoy
In order to collect information on teachers’ perceptions
school’ or ‘value academic achievement’. The picture was
of the attitudes of Grade 4 pupils towards school, they
somewhat similar in Brazil, Tunisia and Uruguay. In Chile,
were asked about the extent to which their pupils had
virtually all pupils were perceived as showing a ‘sense
the following attitudes:
of belonging to the class’, ‘were respectful’, ‘enjoyed
• enjoy being at school;
school’ and took ‘pride in the school’; lower percentages
• work with enthusiasm;
were perceived to be doing their best to ‘learn or work
• take pride in this school;
enthusiastically’. In India, a very high percentage of pupils
were perceived to be doing everything, especially doing
• value academic achievement;
their ‘best to learn’ and ‘valuing academic achievement’.
• are cooperative;
Sri Lanka was similar to India. In Malaysia, despite a
• value the education they can receive in this school;
well-resourced school system, the responses were not as
• do their best to learn as much as possible;
positive, especially about ‘working enthusiastically’ and
• show a sense of belonging to the class; and
‘doing their best to learn’.
• are respectful.
An index of Perceived pupil motivation was created
The results are shown in Figure 6.3. Only the results
on the basis of these nine items. The index was
for ‘most’ or ’all’ pupils have been reported since
standardized to have a mean of zero and standard
teachers' perceptions in general were highly favourable.
deviation of 1.0 for each country. Positive values
differences among countries can be seen – for example,
mean that Grade 4 pupils were perceived by their
teachers in Argentina rated their pupils consistently
teachers to be highly motivated, and negative values
lower on all nine variables than teachers in India and Sri
indicate that pupils were perceived to be poorly
Lanka. In general, across all countries, the lower ratings
motivated. In Table 6.1, the correlation coefficients of
were for ‘working enthusiastically’, ‘valuing academic
this index and a number of classroom variables have
achievement’ and ‘doing their best to learn’.
been presented.
TABLE 6.1 Correlation Between perceived pupil motivation and SeleCted variaBleS
of the ClaSSrooM environMent
Social advantage of classroom intake
Number of classroom resources
Percentage having repeated a grade
Correlation
Se
Correlation
Se
Correlation
Se
Argentina
0.30
0.029
0.12
0.028
-0.23
0.037
Brazil
0.28
0.039
0.16
0.034
-0.25
0.049
Chile
0.16
0.038
0.14
0.036
-0.12
0.041
India
0.27
0.038
0.03
0.044
0.00
0.044
Malaysia
0.19
0.040
0.05
0.035
m
Paraguay
0.13
0.034
0.04
0.035
-0.06
0.035
Peru
0.12
0.036
0.07
0.036
-0.05
0.043
Philippines
0.26
0.042
0.07
0.042
-0.06
0.036
Sri Lanka
0.22
0.066
0.06
0.054
-0.08
0.056
Tunisia
0.22
0.038
0.17
0.037
-0.07
0.043
Uruguay
0.45
0.035
0.19
0.034
-0.39
0.025
Note: Correlations that are significant at P <0.5 appear in bold characters.
Source: WEI-SPS database.
118
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A VIEW INSIdE PrIMAry SChOOLS
FiGUre 6.3
Grade 4 teachers’ perceptions of pupil attitudes
Percentage of pupils whose teachers reported ‘most’ or ‘all’ pupils had the following attitudes
WEI-SPS median
%
Chile
100
Paraguay
India
Paraguay
Paraguay
Malaysia
Peru
Chile
Paraguay
India
Malaysia
Paraguay
Sri Lanka
Chile
Peru
India
Malaysia
India
95
Philippines
Peru
Sri Lanka
Brazil
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka
Chile
Chile
Uruguay
India
Philippines
Malaysia
Malaysia
Brazil
90
Argentina
Uruguay
Peru
Brazil
Philippines
Peru
Tunisia
Brazil
Philippines
Sri Lanka
Tunisia
Argentina
Brazil
Uruguay
85
Uruguay
Argentina
Philippines
Argentina
Uruguay
80
Argentina
Tunisia
Tunisia
75
Tunisia
70
65
Absenteeism
Work
Take pride
Value academic
Cooperate
enthusiastically
in school
achievement
%
100
Chile
Paraguay
Sri Lanka
Peru
India
Sri Lanka
Paraguay
India
Malaysia
Chile
Brazil
India
Paraguay
Sri Lanka
Paraguay
95
Chile
Uruguay
Malaysia
Sri Lanka
Philippines
Peru
India
Philippines
Malaysia
Argentina
Philippines
90
Peru
Peru
Chile
Argentina
Malaysia
Tunisia
Brazil
Brazil
Philippines
Uruguay
85
Tunisia
Uruguay
80
Brazil
Tunisia
Argentina
Uruguay
75
Tunisia
Argentina
70
65
Value education
Do their best
Show sense
Respectful
at this school
to learn
of belonging
to class
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A6.3.
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119
ChAPTEr 6: GrAdE 4 PUPILS ANd ThEIr CLASSrOOMS
In the first column of the table, the coefficients between
and city/town schools, as well as between public
the index of Social advantage of classroom intake and the
and private schools, have been presented. As can be
index of Pupil motivation were positive for all countries
seen, Grade 4 pupils in village schools in Argentina,
and were statistically significant. This means that higher
Brazil, Chile, Malaysia, Paraguay and Uruguay were
levels of perceived pupil motivation were associated
perceived to have higher levels of motivation than
with more advantaged socio-economic backgrounds. The
their counterparts in city/town schools. however,
link between these two variables was particularly strong
the standard errors of the gaps (differences) in all of
in Uruguay. According to the second column, Grade 4
these countries, except Argentina and Paraguay, were
pupils attending classes with more teaching resources
so large that they were not statistically significant.
were also perceived to have higher levels of motivation
On the other hand, Grade 4 pupils attending city/town
in all WEI-SPS countries, though the relationship was
schools in India, Peru and the Philippines were
not as strong as between social advantage and pupil
reported to have higher levels of motivation than their
motivation. As can be seen in the last column of the
counterparts in village schools.
table, a higher incidence of grade repetition was also
On the other hand, pupils attending private schools
associated with lower levels of motivation, except in
were uniformly perceived to have higher levels of
India where no correlation was found.
motivation in all WEI-SPS countries with available data.
In Figure 6.4, the differences in the value of the
Only in Paraguay was the gap not statistically different
index of Perceived pupil motivation between village
from zero. The difference was about one-half of a
FiGUre 6.4
Comparing teacher-perceived pupil motivation across schools
Differences in the mean values of the index of Teacher-perceived pupil motivation,
by school type and location, expressed as effect sizes
Pupils in village
Pupils in
Pupils in public
Pupils in private
schools more
citiy/town schools
schools more
schools more
motivated
more motivated
motivated
motivated
Argentina
Argentina
Brazil
Brazil
Chile
Chile
India
India
Malaysia
Malaysia
Paraguay
Paraguay
Peru
Peru
Philippines
Philippines
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka
Tunisia
Tunisia
Uruguay
Uruguay
-1.0 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 -1.0 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Note: A bar in dark shade means the difference is statistically different from zero.
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A6.4.
120
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
A VIEW INSIdE PrIMAry SChOOLS
standard deviation or more on the national scale of the
current grade instead of moving on to the next one.
index in Brazil, the Philippines and Uruguay.
This policy is motivated by the belief that an extra year
Since the measure of Grade 4 pupil motivation was
in the grade will give struggling pupils an opportunity
constructed on the basis of teachers’ perceptions, it is
to master content and be better prepared to succeed
challenging to determine whether these perceptions
in higher grades in the future. Those who favour
actually reflected the reality or were biased. Either case
grade repetition policies also tend to believe that it is
is troubling. Bias may be linked to the Pygmalion effect
important for schools to maintain high standards.
or teacher expectancy effect. The poor resources of
In contrast, other school systems apply a social
schools or students’ families can lead teachers to lower
promotion policy of moving pupils to the next grade
their expectations of their pupils. The children often
level despite poor achievement at their current grade. It
internalize and act out these negative impressions in the
is motivated by the belief that promotion maintains the
form of low motivation to learn or misbehaviour in the
motivation of pupils and that such pupils will get more
classroom. The fact that pupils attending private schools
from exposure to new content than they would from
were perceived to have higher levels of motivation than
repeating their current grade.
their public school counterparts is troubling. From a
policy perspective, it is essential to create a nurturing
Grade 4 teachers were asked about the percentage
and supportive school environment so that all pupils
of pupils who had already repeated a grade before
are confident that they have equal chances to fulfil their
Grade 4, the percentage they expected to be promoted
dreams for the future through hard work.
to Grade 5 and the percentage they expected to
transfer to lower secondary school. The results have
levels of grade repetition in schools
been presented in Table A6.5 and Figures 6.5 (expected
Many education systems apply a policy that requires
to be promoted to Grade 5) and 6.6 (expected to be
pupils who have failed to satisfactorily repeat their
promoted to lower secondary school).
FiGUre 6.5
Percentage of Grade 4 pupils expected to be promoted to Grade 5
Boys
%
Girls
100
90
t
e
d
80
ade 5
70
60
50
40
omoted to Gr
30
centage of pupils expec
20
to be pr
Per
10
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
nisia
T
u
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
Philippines
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A6.5.
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
121
ChAPTEr 6: GrAdE 4 PUPILS ANd ThEIr CLASSrOOMS
FiGUre 6.6
Percentage of pupils expected to be promoted to lower secondary school
Boys
%
Girls
100
90
t
e
d y school
80
70
60
wer secondar
50
40
30
centage of pupils expec omotedto lo 20
Per
10
to be pr
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
nisia
T
u
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
Philippines
Note: For Argentina, more than 20 percent of the sampled teachers did not respond to the question about boys, which is
below the minimum technical standards. As a result, the estimates for boys for Argentina are not reported.
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A6.5.
In Argentina and Brazil, the percentages of repeaters
both for the grade repeaters and for the school system
were high. In Malaysia, there was virtually no grade
as a whole. Theoretical arguments can be made for
repetition, and therefore, officials chose not to include
grouping either by age or by achievement level as the
this question. For the median of all WEI-SPS countries,
way to create relatively homogeneous classes of pupils.
about 84 percent of pupils were expected to be
However, empirical data clearly favour grouping by
promoted to Grade 5. About 80 percent of pupils were
age. It is time to close the books on grade retention as
perceived by teachers as being likely to be promoted
a response to low achievement, and formulate policies
to lower secondary school. Again, the percentage was
that combine automatic promotion with interventions
particularly low for Tunisia (approximately 50%), as
to improve the progress of pupils at risk for school
well as India (about 70%).
failure.
An extensive review of research on grade repetition
provides valuable insight to this discussion. As stated by
Grade 4 class organization, teacher time
Brophy (2006):
and textbook supply
The repeated resurgence of calls for school-imposed
Some schools have single-grade organization, while
grade retention underscores the need to educate
others have grades mixed together (multi-grade
the public in some developed countries about the
classes). Some have large classes and others tend
consistently negative findings. This should be done
to have small classes. Some have teachers teaching
with sensitivity (acknowledging that the rationales
all subjects and other systems have them teaching
seem compelling and that claims of research support
specialized subjects. Some have sufficient textbooks for
create confusion), but also with assertive insistence
pupils, while there is a shortage in others. What was
that school-imposed grade retention repeatedly has
the situation in the WEI-SPS countries? The results have
been shown to be counterproductive in the long run,
been presented in Figure 6.7.
122
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
A View inside PrimAry schools
Figure 6.7
Percentage of pupils in single-grade or multi-grade classes, by school location
Single-class village schools
Multi-grade class village schools
Single-class city/town schools
Multi-grade class city/town schools
%
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
Philippines
Sources: wei-sPs database; Table A6.6.
Single-grade versus multi-grade schools
a school could have six classes with 30 pupils per class,
but it may have seven teachers instructing on different
in small schools, there are often insufficient pupils to
subjects. in this case, the class size would be 30, but
have single-grade classrooms. For a few classes, the school
the pupil-teacher ratio would be 25.7 (180 pupils (the
head may have mixed grades so that pupils from the
higher grade can help teach pupils from the lower grade.
total enrolment of the school) divided by 7).
This is often the case in schools located in villages. in
Grade 4 teachers were requested to report the number
Figure 6.7, it can be seen that about two-thirds or more
of pupils in their classes, and these results have been
of the pupils were in single-grade schools. in city/town
given in Figure 6.8 for both village and city/town
schools, nearly all pupils were in single-grade classes, but
schools. in the Philippines, the average class size was
teachers in Argentina, Brazil and chile reported that only
43 pupils but with larger classes in cities rather than
between 60 and 70 percent of pupils were in such classes
village schools. Argentina, Paraguay and Peru reported
in village schools. in Peru, more than 50 percent of pupils
the smallest class sizes, with an average of 26 pupils. in
in village schools were in multi-grade classes.
Tunisia, the figure was in the middle 20s, and the other
countries were in the high 20s to mid-30s.
Class size
class size and pupil-teacher ratio are similar indicators
Subject matter versus general class teachers
but not exactly the same. class size is the actual
Grade 4 teachers were asked whether they taught
number of pupils in a class, whereas the pupil-teacher
reading and mathematics or only one of the subjects.
ratio represents the number of pupils in a school
Therefore, it was possible to calculate the percentage of
divided by the number of teachers (see Chapter 4). in
pupils whose teachers taught only one subject (subject
a way, it is the ‘teacher wealth’ of a school. For example,
matter teacher) or both subjects (general class teacher).
© Unesco-Uis 2008
123
ChAPTEr 6: GrAdE 4 PUPILS ANd ThEIr CLASSrOOMS
FiGUre 6.8
average class size by school location
Village schools
City/town schools
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
Number of students per class
10
5
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
nisia
T
u
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
Philippines
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A6.7.
It was assumed that, if they taught both, they were
Teaching time
class teachers, and if they only taught one, they were
Figure 6.10 contains the results of a question in the
subject matter teachers. This was true in most cases,
school questionnaire about the number of weeks the
but occasionally single-subject teachers may not be
school operated during the previous year.
specialists and reflect staff organization instead.
It must be emphasized that the data are based on
The percentage of pupils with subject matter and
reports by the school head and not necessarily on the
general class teachers have been presented in
official number of weeks set by the authorities. Typically,
Figure 6.9. There were large differences among
schools were open for instruction for fewer days than
countries. In Malaysia, nearly all pupils had teachers
officially prescribed. This may be due to closures for
who were specialized. This was the case for 25 to
special visitors, local events or inclement weather. There
40 percent of pupils in Argentina, the Philippines and
was some noteworthy variation among countries. For
Tunisia. Nearly all pupils in Paraguay, Sri Lanka and
example, in Malaysia schools were open for five weeks
Uruguay had general class teachers.
more per year than in India. If counting only five school
It should be noted that the percentage of general class
days per week, this is a difference of 25 days of learning
teachers differs slightly from similar data presented in
opportunity.
Chapter 9. This is because the values reported in this
data on school operating time were also used to further
chapter are from a database that includes teachers
examine an item addressed in the questionnaire which
who did not answer the Opportunity to Learn (OTL)
asked teachers how many minutes they taught reading
questionnaire, which was the basis of the results
or mathematics in a typical school week. The combined
presented in Chapter 9.
results have been presented in Figure 6.11.
124
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
A VIEW INSIdE PrIMAry SChOOLS
FiGUre 6.9
Percentage of pupils by subject matter or general class teachers
Subject matter teachers
General class teachers
Argentina
Brazil
Chile
India
Malaysia
Paraguay
Peru
Philippines
Sri Lanka
Tunisia
Uruguay
0
20
40
60
80
100 %
Percentage of pupils
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A6.8.
FiGUre 6.10
number of weeks the school operated during the previous year
Village schools
City/town schools
50
45
40
35
s
30
25
20
Number of week
15
10
5
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
S median
Philippines
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A6.9.
WEI-SP
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
125
ChAPTEr 6: GrAdE 4 PUPILS ANd ThEIr CLASSrOOMS
FiGUre 6.11
annual number of hours for reading and mathematics instruction
Mathematics instruction
Reading instruction
320
280
240
200
160
120
80
e
an number of hours per year
M
40
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
Philippines
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A6.10.
FiGUre 6.12
number of hours of teaching time, by school location and subject
Mathematics in village schools
Reading in village schools
Mathematics in city/town schools
Reading in city/town schools
400
360
320
280
240
200
160
120
e
an number of hours per year
M
80
40
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
Philippines
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A6.11.
126
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
A VIEW INSIdE PrIMAry SChOOLS
It can be seen that teachers in the Philippines taught
related to subject matter and only a little difference
more in a week than teachers in any other country. It
between village and town schools, except in Malaysia,
must be remembered that the school education system
Paraguay and the Philippines.
in the Philippines has been in place for only 10 years
and the difference in teaching time could be due to this.
Pupils having sufficient textbooks
Teachers in Paraguay and India taught the least. Malaysia
In some countries, not every pupil has a textbook for
was unusual in that the teachers taught reading for only
the subject being taught. It is difficult to teach in such
251 hours a year but taught mathematics for 196 hours
circumstances. What was the situation in the WEI-SPS
a year. In Tunisia, teachers taught mathematics less
countries?
hours than reading per year.
Teachers were queried on the extent to which their
It is not clear why there were such large differences
Grade 4 pupils had textbooks for reading/language and
in hours of instruction per year among countries.
mathematics instruction. The response categories were:
Many international studies (e.g. IEA and PISA) have
shown that instructional time is highly related to pupil
• No, I do not use textbooks;
achievement. In light of the data presented here,
• No, textbooks are not available to my class;
authorities may choose to re-evaluate the criteria used
• No, 4 or more students have to share one textbook;
to determine instructional time per week and per
subject.
• No, 3 students have to share one textbook;
• No, 2 students have to share one textbook;
The differences between village and city/town schools
for hours of teacher instruction have been presented
• yes, all or nearly all students have it; or
in Figure 6.12. It can be seen that there was variation
• I don’t know.
FiGUre 6.13
Percentage of Grade 4 pupils who shared textbooks for reading / language instruction
Do not use textbooks
Textbooks not available
4 or more pupils share a textbook
3 pupils share a textbook
2 pupils share a textbook
All or nearly all have a textbook
%
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
Philippines
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A6.12.
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
127
ChAPTEr 6: GrAdE 4 PUPILS ANd ThEIr CLASSrOOMS
FiGUre 6.14
Percentage of pupils sharing textbooks for mathematics instruction
Do not use textbooks
Textbooks not available
4 or more pupils share a textbook
3 pupils share a textbook
2 pupils share a textbook
All or nearly all have a textbook
%
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
Philippines
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A6.13.
The results have been presented in Figures 6.13 and 6.14
Basic classroom resources
for reading and mathematics instruction respectively.
In primary school, a very important aid for children
Approximately 85 percent of all pupils were in schools
learning to read with comprehension is access to
where teachers said that all or nearly all pupils had their
many books. It is usually better if these are in a
own textbooks. It was encouraging to note that in India,
classroom library (Elley, 1992 and 1993), or at least
Malaysia, Sri Lanka and Tunisia nearly all pupils had their
available in a school library where pupils can take the
own textbook. Some issues were notable in Argentina,
books home to read.
Paraguay and the Philippines. Two to three pupils had
Grade 4 teachers were asked whether pupils had access
to share a textbook in the Philippines, where there
either in their classrooms or in their schools to each of
were reported delays in textbook procurement because
the following resources:
of budgetary constraints and distribution problems.
In Argentina and Paraguay, either the textbooks were
• dictionary for reading/language instruction;
not available or the teachers said that they did not use
• teacher guide for reading/language instruction;
textbooks. It is common in some countries for teachers
to prepare their own material, either by photocopying
• teacher guide for mathematics/arithmetic instruction;
documents or by writing their own text.
• classroom reading corner with books; and
It is perhaps worth mentioning that, at one time,
• school library.
there was a movement in some European countries for
teachers to produce their own curricular and learning
It is important to point out that data was not gathered
materials. But this movement waned, simply because
on the quality of the resources. Libraries, for example,
it was too much for teachers to produce all of these
might have contained very few books or many in very
materials themselves. Thus, it is important that pupils
bad condition. The results on basic classroom resources
have good textbooks.
have been presented in Figure 6.15.
128
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
A VIEW INSIdE PrIMAry SChOOLS
FiGUre 6.15
access to basic classroom resources
Percentage of pupils with access to the following classroom resources
Dictionary
School library
Teacher guide for reading/language
Book corner in classroom
Teacher guide for mathematics
%
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
S median
Philippines
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A6.14.
WEI-SP
From Figure 6.15, it can be seen that in most WEI-
with all five items will have a score of 5, and another
SPS countries close to 90 percent of pupils were in
classroom with none of these items will have a score
schools where they had access to language teacher
of zero. The results have been given in Figure 6.16
guides, mathematics teacher guides and dictionaries, as
for village and city/town schools. It can be seen that
reported by their teachers. Sri Lanka scored a little low
city/town schools tended to be better resourced than
on access to dictionaries. Access to reading books was
schools in villages, but the differences were small in
relatively low in many WEI-SPS countries – especially
Chile, India, Malaysia, Peru and Tunisia. In other words,
Argentina, Brazil, Chile and Tunisia – in terms of book
these kinds of resources had been allocated relatively
corners in the classroom; and in Brazil, Paraguay, the
equitably between these two school locations.
Philippines and Tunisia in terms of school libraries.
In all countries – except Paraguay, Peru and the
There remains the question as to what extent pupils
Philippines – there were more school libraries than
were allowed to take books home to read. These results
classroom corners. This was surprising given that
have been presented in Figure 6.17.
several research studies (Elley, 1992, 1993) have
It can be seen that in most countries over 80 percent of
shown that, in primary schools, classroom corners
pupils could take books home. however, in Paraguay,
are usually better for children learning to read for
Peru and Tunisia, the percentage of pupils allowed
comprehension than school libraries.
to do so was lower. There were also countries where
It was possible to compute an index of Classroom
pupils were in schools without classroom or school
resources by adding the five items. Thus, a classroom
libraries. Such pupils are clearly at a disadvantage.
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
129
ChAPTEr 6: GrAdE 4 PUPILS ANd ThEIr CLASSrOOMS
FiGUre 6.16
number of classroom resource items, by school location
Village schools
City/town schools
%
5.0
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
S median
Philippines
WEI-SP
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A6.15.
FiGUre 6.17
Percentage of pupils who were able to borrow and take books home
%
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
S median
Philippines
WEI-SP
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A6.14.
130
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
A VIEW INSIdE PrIMAry SChOOLS
Conclusion
in small classes, and in other schools, it is the slower
Several measures of socio-economic disadvantage
children who are placed in smaller classes. In the WEI-
were examined. On average, 15 percent of Grade 4
SPS study, the average class size was 31. The range was
pupils were from single-parent families, but the
23 to 43 pupils per class.
percentage was particularly high in Brazil, Chile and
Subject matter and general class teachers: School
Peru. A substantial percentage of pupils came from
systems often introduce subject matter specialists in
homes or neighbourhoods where there were social
Grade 4, especially for mathematics instruction. In this
problems. In some countries, notably Argentina and
study it was assumed that, when teachers reported
Peru, approximately 18 percent of pupils were going
teaching only one subject, they were specialist
to school without having had a meal. This will affect
teachers. Although this is generally true, there are
their powers of concentration, raising the question
cases where this does not apply. despite possible
whether the state should provide school meals.
exceptions, 21 percent of pupils were in classes
Finally, 50 percent of pupils were from homes with
with specialist subject matter teachers. In Malaysia,
fewer than 25 books, according to their teachers; this
nearly all pupils (93%) had subject matter teachers,
is a high percentage when books are an important
compared to nearly 40 percent in Argentina and the
determinant of reading comprehension. In nearly
Philippines. It will be of interest to see if specialization
all countries, authorities should determine what
has any effect on what the teachers offer their pupils
measures might be taken to allow children to have
to learn (see Chapter 9).
more books to read. This might be done through a
mobile library system, through schools encouraging
instructional time: Schools were open for instruction
pupils to take books home to read, or through other
between 32 and 40 weeks per year. Assuming a five-
innovative measures.
day week, then some countries had up to 40 more
Grade repetition: Much of the research on grade
days of instruction per year. The average amount
repetition shows that it does not help pupil
of time per week that pupils received teaching
achievement and can create social division. Teachers
was 5 hours and 36 minutes in mathematics and
were asked several questions concerning grade
5 hours and 48 minutes in reading. If these hours are
repetition. Malaysia had no grade repetition because
multiplied by the number of weeks the schools were
of its automatic promotion policy. however, Brazil,
open, an average for mathematics was 199 hours
Peru, Tunisia and Uruguay had reason to question the
per year and for reading it was 222 hours per year.
amount of repetition or the expectation of promotion
The WEI-SPS study did not collect information on why
they were practising.
these differences exist. For reading instruction, the
hours of instruction per year ranged from 171 hours
Class organization: About 90 percent of pupils were
in Paraguay to 290 hours in the Philippines. In
in single-grade classrooms, while the remainder were
in multi-grade classes. Multi-grade classes tended to
mathematics, they ranged from 167 hours per year in
be much more prevalent in villages than in city/town
India to 317 hours in the Philippines. Those countries
schools. This was presumably because the relatively
with relatively few hours of exposure to learning might
low number of pupils going to village schools could
wish to reconsider their position.
not justify single-grade classes. In Peru, 50 percent of
Provision of textbooks: About 80 percent of pupils
children in village schools were in multi-grade classes.
had their own textbooks. The remainder had to share
In Argentina, Brazil and Chile, the figure was around
or had no textbook. On average, about 13 percent
30 percent.
of Grade 4 pupils did not have textbooks (either the
Class size: Class size is an issue that is often debated.
teachers did not have them or had decided not to use
research results have been somewhat inconclusive. In
them). In Argentina and Paraguay, approximately 40 to
some countries, large classes perform better than small
50 percent of pupils had no textbook – a finding so
ones, while in other countries, the reverse is true. In
different from other countries that it bears examination
some schools, school heads place more talented pupils
by their authorities.
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
131
ChAPTEr 6: GrAdE 4 PUPILS ANd ThEIr CLASSrOOMS
Selected resources in the classroom and school: About
pupils from single-parent families and a low level of
90 percent of pupils were in schools where Grade 4
pupils from disadvantaged neighbourhoods.
teachers reported that they had access to dictionaries
Paraguay: was reported to have many single-parent
and subject matter guides. however, 46 to 86 percent
families compared with other countries, and often the
of pupils were in classrooms with a classroom book
children had not eaten before going to school. The
corner from which they could borrow books. Studies
teaching load was low in hours per year and there were
have shown that in primary school a book corner is
children without mathematics textbooks.
more useful than a school library (see Elley, 1992), and
therefore, it can be concluded that over 30 percent of
Peru: was said to have many pupils from single-parent
pupils in some countries did not have access to books.
families, few books at home and children receiving
In Malaysia, 96 percent of pupils had access to all
support to go to school.
of the resources and were able to take books home.
Philippines: was reported to have more pupils perceived
On average, 83 percent of pupils could take books
to have learning problems, larger average class
home, but in Paraguay, the Philippines and Tunisia,
sizes and up to 50 percent of pupils having to share
approximately 30 to 40 percent could not. In such cases,
textbooks.
it is important that education authorities find a way to
make books more readily available, either through book
Sri Lanka: was probably the most average country in
flood programmes, mobile libraries or other means.
this study, but pupils lacked good access to dictionaries
and the teaching load per year was relatively low.
Country profiles
Tunisia: was reported to have many pupils repeating
Argentina: was reported to have somewhat more
grades and relatively few pupils in schools with book
children from homes and neighbourhoods with
corners and school libraries.
problems, with fewer books at home and pupils
Uruguay: was reported to have a high percentage of
who had not eaten before going to school. About
pupils from single-parent families, few books in the
50 percent of pupils were reported to be in schools
home and pupils from neighbourhoods with problems.
where the teachers did not have or did not use a
There was high grade repetition.
mathematics textbook. There were many schools
without classroom book corners for the pupils to take
In general, many of the South American countries
books home to read.
appeared to have schools with children from poor,
single-parent families with little support for learning
Brazil: was reported to have many Grade 4 pupils from
at home. This is a special problem that needs extra
single-parent families, low availability of books at home
support in schools, e.g. more support staff and extra
and children receiving support to go to school. There
teaching. Some countries had problems of access
was also more grade repetition in Brazil for primary
to textbooks, while others had high rates of grade
school pupils.
repetition. The teaching loads were also quite different
Chile: the only feature that stood out was the large
and should be examined further.
number of pupils reported to come from single-parent
families.
India: was reported to have a high percentage of pupils
receiving some kind of support to go to school, and
teachers taught fewer hours per year.
Malaysia: was characterized by having a high proportion
of subject matter teachers at the Grade 4 level, whereas
most other countries tended to have predominantly
general class teachers. The reading teachers taught about
50 hours per year more than the mathematics teachers.
This reflects the curriculum emphasis. There were fewer
132
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
7 General characteristics
of Grade 4 teachers and their teaching
Patrick Griffin (University of Melbourne) and T. Neville Postlethwaite (University of Hamburg)
In Chapter 6, Grade 4 teachers’ perceptions of their
A word of warning is appropriate at this juncture.
pupils were reported. In this chapter, information
In this chapter there are several data that could be
has been provided on the characteristics of the
regarded as sensitive (workloads and teaching styles
Grade 4 teachers: their workloads, in-service training,
of teachers) and in some cases the teacher data
structures of their lessons and various teaching/
might be coloured by a social desirability effect,
learning activities and strategies that they employed.
i.e. respondents reported what they thought the
Finally, the way in which they said they assessed their
authorities might want to hear rather than what they
pupils’ learning has been examined.
actually did.
Teachers are a key part of the educational process.
Background characteristics of Grade 4
They also represent a major expenditure for education
teachers
budgets. In Figure 7.1, it can be seen that teacher
salaries as a percentage of educational budgets ranged
The first teacher background data to be examined
from 67 percent in Uruguay to 94 percent in the
relate to age and sex, which have been presented in
Philippines. Typically, salaries as a percentage of the
Figures 7.2 and 7.3 respectively. As can be seen from
educational budget was around 82 percent, leaving
Figure 7.2, the typical WEI-SPS pupil had a teacher
just 18 percent for other things such as textbooks,
who was about 40 years old. The teachers in Chile
and other teaching-learning aids paid out of current
were, on average, older than those in Malaysia and
expenditure.
Paraguay.
FiGUre 7.1
Teacher compensation as a percentage of current total primary school expenditure
%
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
rgentina
Urugu
S mean
A
Mala
Philippines
WEI-SP
Sources: UIS database, 2006; Table A7.1.
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
133
ChAPTEr 7: GENErAl ChArACTErISTICS OF GrAdE 4 TEAChErS ANd ThEIr TEAChING
FiGUrE 7.2
Mean age of teachers
50
45
40
35
30
g
e 25
A
20
15
10
5
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
S median
Philippines
WEI-SP
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A7.2.
FiGUrE 7.3
Percentage of Grade 4 pupils with female teachers
%
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
S median
Philippines
WEI-SP
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A7.2.
134
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
A VIEW INSIdE PrIMAry SChOOlS
FiGUrE 7.4
Percentage of Grade 4 pupils with male teachers, by school location
Village schools
%
City/town schools
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
Philippines
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A7.3.
Typically 84 percent of pupils had female teachers
The average level of teaching experience also varied in
(see Table A7.2 in the Appendix). In most developed
the WEI-SPS countries. Overall, countries with an older
countries, the overwhelming majority of teachers in
teaching force had teachers with more experience. As
primary school are female (UNESCO-UIS, 2006). This
can be seen from Figure 7.5, typically teachers had
was certainly the case in Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay,
an average of 14 years of experience, of which almost
where more than 90 percent of primary teachers
four years had been spent teaching Grade 4. however,
were female. Female teachers were relatively fewer in
Grade 4 pupils in the four states in India were taught
by teachers with an average of 10 years of experience,
Malaysia, Peru and Tunisia. In India, they accounted for
with one-half of that time teaching Grade 4. In
less than 50 percent of the total number of teachers
contrast, in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Tunisia and
in the country. The factors that influence female
Uruguay, Grade 4 pupils were taught by teachers with
participation in primary education are complex and
an average of almost 15 or more years of teaching
may involve socio-cultural, economic, religious and
experience, including between four and seven years
legal factors.1 In some studies, female teachers were
at Grade 4 level. A typical Grade 4 pupil in Chile
found to be associated with higher pupil performance
had a teacher with almost 20 years of experience,
levels (Elley, 1993; Makuwa, 2005).
with almost six years of that time teaching Grade 4.
Finally, as can be seen in Figure 7.4, there were
generally more Grade 4 pupils with male teachers
in village schools than in city/town schools. The
1. In 2004, 84 percent of primary teachers in North America
and Western Europe were women, compared with 45 percent
differences were particularly important in India,
of teachers in sub-Saharan Africa and 44 percent in South
Malaysia, Paraguay, Peru and Tunisia.
and West Asia (UNESCO-UIS, 2006).
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
135
ChAPTEr 7: GENErAl ChArACTErISTICS OF GrAdE 4 TEAChErS ANd ThEIr TEAChING
FiGUrE 7.5
Mean years of employment as a teacher, teaching Grade 4 and teaching in the current school
Years as teacher
Years teaching Grade 4
Years in the current school
20
18
16
14
12
10
Y
e
ars
8
6
4
2
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
S median
Philippines
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A7.2.
WEI-SP
Given the high overall level of years of teaching
too high. Take Argentina as an example. Primary and
experience in the WEI-SPS countries, it can be inferred
secondary education together last 12 years. Teacher
that teachers had the appropriate experience for the
training lasts three years. But teachers reported a total
teaching skills required.
education of 17.1 years. By means of explanation, it
is possible that some teachers had repeated a grade
As shown in Table 7.1 Grade 4 teachers typically had
in school and others had changed course in tertiary
more than 16 years of education including nearly three
education thus adding to the number of years. The
spent in pre-service teacher training. In some cases,
figures in this table should be read with regard to
these reported numbers of years of education seemed
these kinds of considerations. Meanwhile, teachers in
TABlE 7.1 Years of educaTion and TraininG of Teachers
results based on reports by reading teachers, given in proportion to the number of primary pupils
Years of education
Years of pre-service training
Mean
SE
Mean
SE
Argentina
17.1
0.05
3.0
0.02
Brazil
15.8
0.16
3.3
0.03
Chile
17.6
0.08
3.7
0.03
India
15.3
0.11
1.1
0.04
Malaysia
16.7
0.03
2.5
0.03
Paraguay
17.4
0.05
2.7
0.03
Peru
16.6
0.03
3.7
0.04
Philippines
14.9
0.02
1.6
0.07
Sri lanka
12.5
0.09
2.0
0.07
Tunisia
15.6
0.08
1.1
0.03
Uruguay
16.7
0.00
3.6
0.02
Wei-sPs median
16.5
2.7
Source: WEI-SPS database.
136
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
A VIEW INSIdE PrIMAry SChOOlS
India and Sri lanka had slightly less formal academic
Over 90 percent of Grade 4 pupils had teachers who
education than those from other WEI-SPS countries.
taught in only one school (see Table A7.6). As shown
Generally, teachers had between 1.1 and 3.7 years of
in Figure 7.8, Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay reported
pre-service and generally training.
the highest percentages of pupils (20% to 30%) with
teachers teaching in more than one school.
Teacher workload
A typical Grade 4 pupil had a teacher who taught for
Teachers were asked to report the number of hours
23 hours per week in one school only. however, the
they taught in the sampled schools (excluding breaks,
workload varied among countries. In Malaysia, the
preparation time, extra-curricular activities, and
average Grade 4 teacher taught just 14 hours per week
tutorial or remedial support time). They were asked
but in Chile and the Philippines the average workload
to consider all groups of pupils they taught and also
was 31 hours per week. There was also wide variation
all shifts that they taught. Teachers were also asked
in time spent by teachers on preparing lessons and
to indicate whether they taught at more than one
marking homework. In Paraguay and Sri lanka teachers
school and, finally, their total hours of teaching in all
worked six hours per week on these tasks compared
schools. The results on workload have been presented
with 13 hours reported per week in Uruguay and
in Figure 7.6 for teachers teaching in one school only
16 hours per week in Tunisia. Typically teachers reported
and in Figure 7.7 for those instructing in more than
spending only 3.5 hours a week tutoring pupils. The
one school.
total teacher workload (teaching, preparing lessons,
FiGUrE 7.6
Workload of teachers working at one school only
Teaching
Preparing lessons and marking homework
Tutoring
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
Hours per week
15
10
5
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
S median
Philippines
WEI-SP
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A7.4.
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
137
ChAPTEr 7: GENErAl ChArACTErISTICS OF GrAdE 4 TEAChErS ANd ThEIr TEAChING
FiGUrE 7.7
Workload of teachers working at more than one school
Teaching
Preparing lessons and marking homework
Tutoring
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
Hours per week
15
10
5
0
a
y
a
y
Brazil
Peru
rgentina
Urugu
A
Paragu
S median
Philippines
WEI-SP
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A7.5.
FiGUrE 7.8
Percentage of Grade 4 pupils with teachers working at more than one school
%
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
Philippines
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A7.6.
138
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
A VIEW INSIdE PrIMAry SChOOlS
marking homework and tutoring combined) was
in-service training for teachers (inseT)
typically 33 hours per week in the WEI-SPS countries.
Teachers were asked what kinds of in-service teacher
In Chile and the Philippines, the total teacher weekly
training programmes they had attended in the previous
workload was 41 hours.
12 months – and for how many days. The courses listed
Grade 4 pupils taught by teachers teaching in more
were:
than one school ranged from one percent in Malaysia
• Courses/workshops (e.g. on subject matter or
to 29 percent in Brazil. These teachers reported
methods and/or other education-related topics, except
spending 38 hours teaching in a typical week – which
Information and Communication Technology – ICT);
was about 15 hours more than teachers teaching in
• Course/workshops on Information and Communication
one school only. The median total load across WEI-SPS
Technology – ICT;
countries was 48 hours per week. however, in Peru
• Conferences (where teachers and/or researchers present
teachers on average had a workload of over 59 hours
their research results and discuss educational issues);
per week. In some countries those teaching in more
• Qualification programme (e.g. Bachelor's of Education,
than one school spent less time on preparing lessons
Master's of Arts, Master's of Education, Education
and marking home work than those teaching in one
Doctorate, Philosophy Doctorate);
school only. This would seem to be inevitable given
• Observation visits to other schools; and
the greater teaching load and also the amount of
time needed for travelling. On the other hand, given
• Participation in a network of teachers (e.g. one
that homework is a major predictor of achievement
organized by an outside agency or over the Internet but
it would seem that this is an issue worthy of further
excluding participation in a teacher union).
consideration (Walberg, 1994).
The results have been presented in Figure 7.9.
FiGUrE 7.9
Percentage of pupils with teachers who participated in different types
of in-service training activities
Courses on subject matter or methods
Qualification programme
Courses on ICT
Observation visits to other schools
%
Conferences
Participation in a network of teachers
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
S median
Philippines
WEI-SP
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A7.31.
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
139
ChAPTEr 7: GENErAl ChArACTErISTICS OF GrAdE 4 TEAChErS ANd ThEIr TEAChING
The reported involvement of Grade 4 teachers engaged
• Working with groups of pupils;
in in-service training for teachers (INSET) ranged from
• Giving homework; and
4 to 12 days per year in WEI-SPS countries. Most in-
• having pupils do class work.
service programmes that teachers took focused on
subject matter content, with high participation in
The results have been presented in Figure 7.10.
these types of training in Chile and Paraguay, while
The most time-consuming lesson activity was
India and Tunisia had the lowest participation. There
demonstration and explanation and the least time-
was not high participation in courses focussing on ICT.
consuming was settling pupils down and giving
however, more than one-third of pupils in Chile,
homework. Interestingly, Sri lanka and Tunisia
Malaysia and Peru were said to have teachers who
allocated relatively less time to demonstrating and
had had ICT training. In Brazil and the Philippines,
explaining topics and more to working with pupils
there were many pupils whose teachers had
individually or in groups and having pupils do class
work. In general, across the WEI-SPS countries, there
participated in research-based conferences. In India
appeared to be a good balance among these classroom
and the Philippines, a high percentage of pupils had
activities.
teachers who had participated in courses leading
to a qualification. In Tunisia, there were relatively
Teaching styles
more pupils with teachers who had participated
in observational visits to other schools. Finally,
To describe and measure teaching styles, teachers were
participation in teacher networks was highest in Peru
asked how often they performed each of the following
and India. It should be pointed out that no data were
17 activities in their lessons – ‘never or almost never’,
available on the quality of such programmes.
‘in some lessons’ or ‘in most lessons’.
• At the beginning of the lesson I present a short summary
A typical teacher in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, India,
of the previous lesson.
Malaysia, Paraguay and Peru had about 10 days or
more of different types of in-service training courses. In
• I explain the aims of a lesson at the beginning of the lesson.
particular, a typical teacher in Chile, Paraguay and Peru
• I only start with a new topic after all previous steps have
had 12 days or more of training, which was three times
been understood by all pupils.
more than in Tunisia, where the number of days for
• I use examples to clarify the subject matter of the lesson.
attending such courses was four days on average. With
• I offer the pupils opportunities to search for solutions
an average of about five days, the amount of time that
themselves.
Grade 4 teachers in Sri lanka and Uruguay spent on
• I check regularly, by asking questions, whether or not the
in-service courses also seemed relatively limited. In the
subject matter has been understood.
Philippines, Grade 4 teachers on average spent seven
days on such courses (see Table A7.31).
• I ask pupils to summarize out loud what I have explained.
• When I have finished teaching a topic I give a summary
Lesson structure
of the contents taught.
The teachers were asked to indicate the structure of a
• I provide pupils with ample opportunity to practise
typical lesson, specifically the percentage of time they
newly taught subject matter.
spent on each of the following activities during a typical
• When working with the pupils when they are doing
lesson:
assignments, I ask them first how they think dealing with
• Settling the pupils down at the beginning of the
the assignment.
lesson and dealing with disruption;
• I offer pupils the opportunity to compare different
• reviewing pupils’ homework;
strategies to solve problems.
• demonstrating and explaining topics to the whole class;
• I ask pupils to cooperate in small groups in doing
• Managing question and answer sessions;
assignments.
• listening to recitations;
• I ask pupils to provide one another with explanations,
• Working with individual pupils;
ask each other questions and to correct each others work.
140
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
A VIEW INSIdE PrIMAry SChOOlS
FiGUrE 7.10
structure of Grade 4 lessons
Percentage of time spent on the following activities during a typical lesson
Reviewing homework
Working with groups
%
Listening to recitations
Having students do class work
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
Philippines
Settling students down
Working with individual students
Demonstrating and explaining topics
Giving homework
%
Managing question and answer sessions
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
Philippines
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A7.7.
• When discussing assignments, after they have been
From an analysis conducted to see how the questions
carried out, I ask first about the way the pupil has
clustered together, it was possible to identify three
tackled the assignment before providing feedback.
clusters. These three clusters were named: teacher-
• I see to it that assignments can be carried out correctly
centred teaching practice; strongly-structured teaching
practice; and pupil-centred teaching practice.
by almost all pupils.
• When pupils are working on assignments individually I
The activities in each cluster were as follows:
walk around and check their work.
Teacher-centred teaching practices
• When pupils are working individually I provide extra
• I only start with a new topic after all previous steps have
explanations to the pupils who need it.
been understood by all pupils.
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
141
ChAPTEr 7: GENErAl ChArACTErISTICS OF GrAdE 4 TEAChErS ANd ThEIr TEAChING
• I check regularly, by asking questions, whether or not the
only undertook a practice in some lessons but not in
subject matter has been understood.
all. For example, in Malaysia as many as 40 percent
• When pupils are working on assignments individually I
of pupils had teachers who ‘started a new topic after
walk around and check their work.
all previous steps had been understood’ only in some
lessons or no lessons. Presumably, there must have
• I use examples to clarify the subject matter of the lesson.
been many topics in the curriculum that did not need
• I see to it that assignments can be carried out correctly
previous knowledge. It is instructive for countries to
by almost all pupils.
examine these results because it is surprising to observe
• When pupils are working individually I provide extra
the number of pupils whose teachers undertook these
explanations to the pupils who need it.
activities only in some lessons.
In Figure 7.11 the percentage of pupils whose teachers
These were named teacher-centred because the
said they undertook the teacher-centred activities/
activities depended on the teacher taking initiative.
practices in ‘most lessons’ (the first cluster of variables)
Strongly-structured teaching practice
can be seen.
• At the beginning of the lesson I present a short summary
Most teachers carried out the various practices most of
of the previous lesson.
the time. In Malaysia and Sri lanka, the percentages
• I explain the aims of a lesson at the beginning of the
of pupils who had teachers ‘starting a new step after
lesson.
previous steps had been understood’ were relatively low.
In Tunisia relatively low percentage of pupils had teachers
• I provide pupils with ample opportunity to practise
‘seeing that assignments could be carried out correctly’.
newly taught subject matter.
The second cluster of variables concerned teaching
• When I have finished teaching a topic I give a summary
practices that were ‘strongly structured’. The details
of the contents taught.
of the results have been presented in Table A7.9.
These kinds of activities reflect a preference for a
In Figure 7.12, the percentage of pupils who had
strongly-structured teaching approach by teachers.
teachers reporting using ‘strongly-structured’ activities
in most lessons have been presented. In several
Pupil-centred teaching practice
countries it was uncommon for the teachers to ‘explain
• I ask pupils to summarize out loud what I have explained.
the aims of a lesson at the beginning of the lesson’,
particularly in Argentina, Malaysia, the Philippines,
• When working with the pupils when they are doing
Tunisia and Uruguay. Summarizing the contents of a
assignments, I ask them first how they think dealing with
lesson varied widely among countries – this was the
the assignment.
case for teachers of 87 percent of pupils in Sri lanka,
• When discussing assignments, after they have been
while relatively few teachers did so in Tunisia and
carried out, I ask first about the way the pupil has
Uruguay. Most pupils had teachers who said that they
tackled the assignment before providing feedback.
gave the pupils plenty of opportunity to practice.
• I offer pupils the opportunity to compare different
The third cluster of teaching practices concerned
strategies to solve problems.
pupil-centred activities. detailed results have been
presented in Table A7.10. In most WEI-SPS countries,
These activities are referred to as pupil-centred because
roughly half of the pupils had teachers who asked
the teacher put the onus on the pupil to do things.
them to ‘summarize out loud what the teacher had
It is obvious that the teachers in all countries have stated
just explained’. This was also true of ‘asking pupils
that they performed all of these activities to some extent
first how they thought of dealing with the assignment’
in most lessons (see Tables A7.8, A7.9 and A7.10). They
and ‘asking first about the way pupils had tackled
may well have given what is known as socially desirable
the assignment before providing feedback’. For the
answers. Nevertheless, it is of interest to note that there
variable ‘offering other pupils the opportunity to
are quite sizeable percentages of pupils whose teachers
compare different strategies to solve problems’,
142
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
A VIEW INSIdE PrIMAry SChOOlS
FiGUrE 7.11
use of teacher-centred teaching practices
Percentage of pupils whose teachers reported performing the following activities ‘in most lessons’
Start new topic after previous steps understood
See that assignments can be carried out correctly
Use examples to clarify
Walk around and check work of pupils
%
Check if the subject matter has been understood
Provide extra explanations to pupils who need it
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
S median
Philippines
Note: The other responses were ‘never or almost never’ and ‘in some lessons’.
WEI-SP
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A7.8.
FiGUrE 7.12
use of strongly-structured teaching practices
Percentage of pupils whose teachers reported performing the following activities ‘in most lessons’
Present summary of the previous lesson
Give a summary of the contents
%
Explain the aims of a lesson at the beginning
Provide pupils opportunity to practice
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
g
u
T
unisia
r
u
r
gentina
U
A
Mala
P
a
r
a
g
u
Sri L
S median
Philippines
Note: The other responses were ‘never or almost never’ and ‘in some lessons’.
WEI-SP
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A7.9.
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
143
ChAPTEr 7: GENErAl ChArACTErISTICS OF GrAdE 4 TEAChErS ANd ThEIr TEAChING
FiGUrE 7.13
use of pupil-centred teaching practices
Percentage of pupils whose teachers reported performing the following activities ‘in most lessons’
Ask pupils to summarize
Offer pupils the opportunity to compare strategies
%
Ask pupils how they deal with the assignment
Ask about the way pupils tackled the assignment
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
Philippines
Note: The other responses were ‘never or almost never’ and ‘in some lessons’.
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A7.10.
67 percent of pupils in some countries had teachers
have been presented for each cluster of practices.
who said that they followed this practice ‘in most
Since the loadings (correlations of each variable
lessons’ and 32 percent had teachers who said that
with the cluster) were slightly different from country
they did so ‘in some lessons’.
to country, comparisons can only be made within
countries. It can be seen that the teachers practised
In Figure 7.13 the percentage of pupils whose teachers
all of the activities’ indices a lot but teacher-centred
said that they undertook each pupil-centred practice
‘in most lessons’ have been presented. It can be seen
activities were slightly more common than pupil-
that ‘asking pupils how they dealt with assignments’
centred and strongly-structured activities.
was rated relatively low in Argentina, Brazil, Chile,
Correlations were computed between the index of
Paraguay, Tunisia, and Uruguay, but relatively high in
Pupil-centred teaching practices and the social advantage
Malaysia. Conversely, ‘offering pupils the opportunity
of the classroom intake, classroom resources, the
to compare strategies’ was rated high in all countries
percentage of pupils repeating a grade, as well as
except Malaysia.
years of teaching experience and teachers’ academic
For each country, an index was created of teaching
education. The correlations have been presented in
practices by taking the average across the items in
Table 7.2.
each of the above three groups2. It will be recalled
that ‘in some lessons’ was coded 2 and ‘in most
2. The loadings in each country on the factor have been
lessons’ was coded 3. In Figure 7.14 the mean values
presented in Tables A7.12, A7.13 and A7.14.
144
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
A View inside PrimAry schools
FigurE 7.14
teaching practices compared within countries
Mean scores of indices of teaching practices
Teacher-centred teaching
Strongly-structured teaching
Pupil-centred teaching
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
Philippines
Sources: wei-sPs database; Table A7.11.
TAble 7.2 Correlation between tHe inDeX oF pupil-centred teaching practices anD seleCteD
teaCHer anD Classroom variables
Percentage of pupils
Social advantage
Number of classroom
in the class who have
Number of years as
Years of teacher’s
of classroom intake
resource items
repeated a grade
a classroom teacher
education
Correlation
SE
Correlation
SE
Correlation
SE
Correlation
SE
Correlation
SE
Argentina
0.10
0.030
0.08
0.026
-0.01
0.029
0.08
0.029
-0.02
0.031
brazil
0.13
0.041
0.12
0.048
-0.14
0.064
0.12
0.035
-0.02
0.049
chile
0.03
0.036
0.10
0.040
-0.05
0.044
0.19
0.039
0.00
0.031
india
0.14
0.051
0.10
0.052
-0.01
0.038
-0.04
0.042
0.11
0.047
malaysia
0.00
0.043
0.12
0.039
a
0.09
0.036
-0.04
0.019
Paraguay
0.05
0.033
0.11
0.036
-0.02
0.046
0.06
0.028
0.03
0.051
Peru
0.11
0.034
0.04
0.038
-0.03
0.036
0.07
0.036
-0.03
0.029
Philippines
0.12
0.031
0.10
0.040
-0.05
0.044
0.05
0.043
0.00
0.029
sri lanka
0.09
0.053
0.13
0.044
0.04
0.055
-0.02
0.041
-0.04
0.040
Tunisia
0.05
0.039
0.17
0.037
-0.04
0.044
0.03
0.036
0.03
0.039
Uruguay
0.14
0.032
0.11
0.035
-0.09
0.031
0.13
0.032
a
Note: correlations that are significant at P <0.5 appear in bold characters.
Source: wei-sPs database.
in a few countries, teachers with more years of
were teacher-centred activities practised more in city/
experience were more likely to practise pupil-centred
town schools and in private schools (see Tables A7.28,
activities. in six countries, classrooms with a more
A7.29 and A7.30).
advantaged social intake had teachers who practised
more pupil-centred activities but overall there
Pupil learning approaches as perceived
was a greater correlation to classroom resources.
by teachers
differences between village and city/town schools,
Teachers were asked how often the following pupil
and between private and public schools, were also
activities occurred in their classes (‘never or almost
calculated. only in Paraguay, Peru and the Philippines
never’, ‘in some lessons’, or ‘in most lessons’):
© Unesco-Uis 2008
145
ChAPTEr 7: GENErAl ChArACTErISTICS OF GrAdE 4 TEAChErS ANd ThEIr TEAChING
FiGUrE 7.15
use of active learning approaches
Percentage of pupils whose teachers reported that the following activities occurred ‘in most lessons’
Pupils work on problems with no standard solution
Pupils involved in planning what will be done in lessons
Pupils explain how to solve a problem
Pupils explore side aspects of a topic
%
Pupils prepare projects to be shown
Pupils work on thought-provoking issues
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
S median
Philippines
Note: The other responses were ‘never or almost never’ and ‘in some lessons’.
WEI-SP
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A7.15.
• The whole class repeats sentences that I say first.
• Pupils have a lot of short drill exercises on the same topic.
• Pupils copy texts from the blackboard.
• Pupils explore interesting side-aspects of the topic they learn.
• Pupils all work on assignments.
• Pupils work on thought-provoking issues.
• Pupils work on problems for which they cannot use a
standard solution.
From statistical analysis it was found that the activities
• Pupils explain how they have gone about solving a problem.
clustered into three groups: active learning, group
work and rote repetition activities.3 detailed results on
• Pupils assess each other’s work.
active-learning have been presented in Table A7.15,
• Pupils work in groups on an assignment.
group work in Table A7.16 and rote repetition in
• Pupils work alone on an assignment.
Table A7.17. The percentage of pupils whose teachers
• Pupils prepare projects or posters to be shown to the class.
responded ‘in most lessons’ to the statements about
• Pupils do their homework assignments at school.
active learning have been presented in Figure 7.15.
• Pupils recite or chant tables, formulas, etc.
It can be seen that there was considerable variation
• Pupils use available local materials (e.g. for classroom
demonstrations).
among countries. ‘Explaining how they solve problems’
was a common approach in nearly all countries. But
• Pupils participate in question and answer sessions in
it was used for more pupils in Argentina and Chile,
mental arithmetic.
for example, than in Malaysia and the Philippines.
• Pupils solve problems on the blackboard.
• Pupils receive explanations about the errors they made.
• Pupils are involved in planning what will be done in
3. The loadings in each country have been presented in
some lessons.
Tables A7.19, A7.20 and A7.21.
146
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
A VIEW INSIdE PrIMAry SChOOlS
relatively low percentages of pupils in Argentina,
countries. Only in Brazil and Uruguay, quite a low
Malaysia and Uruguay were asked by teachers to
percentage of pupils participated in question and
prepare projects to be shown to the class. Overall,
answer sessions in mental arithmetic.
relatively few pupils were asked to work on ‘problems
Finally in Figure 7.17 data have been summarized
with no standard solution’ or were involved in
on the percentage of pupils whose teachers used
planning what will be done in the lesson. Although,
rote repetition approaches in most lessons. In India,
Brazil had teachers who reported a high percentage of
pupils working on ‘thought-provoking issues’ in most
there were relatively high percentages of pupils whose
lessons.
teachers had the whole class repeating sentences in
most lessons. There were relatively high percentages
In Figure 7.16, the data on engagement in group
(over 40%) of pupils copying texts from the blackboard
activities ‘in most lessons’ have been presented. It can
in Brazil, India, Malaysia, Paraguay, and Sri lanka in
be seen that there was considerable variation among
most lessons. Finally there were more than 50 percent
countries in the percentage of pupils engaged in group
of pupils in India and Malaysia whose teachers had
activities. ‘Working in groups on assignments’ was
them reciting or chanting tables, formulae, etc.
only undertaken by about 20-30 percent of pupils
in Argentina, Malaysia, the Philippines and Uruguay
It was possible to compare the percentage of pupils
but by about 50 percent of pupils in Brazil, Chile,
within countries on the indices of each of the clusters
India and Peru. higher percentages of pupils in Chile,
of activities. Three summary indices of pupil learning
India, and Sri lanka had teachers who said that they
approaches were created by taking the average values
‘used available local materials’ more so than in other
across the responses within each group of items.
FiGUrE 7.16
use of group work approaches
Percentage of pupils whose teachers reported that the following activities occurred ‘in most lessons’
Pupils assess each other's work
Pupils use available local materials
Pupils work in groups on an assignment
Pupils participate in question and answer sessions in mental arithmetic
%
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
S median
Philippines
Note: The other responses were ‘never or almost never’ and ‘in some lessons’.
WEI-SP
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A7.16.
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
147
ChAPTEr 7: GENErAl ChArACTErISTICS OF GrAdE 4 TEAChErS ANd ThEIr TEAChING
FiGUrE 7.17
use of rote repetition approaches
Percentage of pupils whose teachers reported that the following activities occurred ‘in most lessons’
Whole class repeats sentences
Pupils copy texts from the blackboard
%
Pupils recite or chant tables, formulae, etc.
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
a
y
a
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
ank
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
Philippines
Note: The other responses were ‘never or almost never’ and ‘in some lessons’.
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A7.17.
FiGUrE 7.18
Mean values of indices of learning approaches
Active learning
Group work
Rote repetition
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
Philippines
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A7.18.
148
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
A VIEW INSIdE PrIMAry SChOOlS
TABlE 7.3 correLaTion BeTWeen The indeX of active pupil learning and seLecTed Teacher
and cLassrooM variaBLes
Percentage of pupils
Social advantage
Number of classroom
in the class who have
Number of years as
Years of teacher’s
of classroom intake
resource items
repeated a grade
a classroom teacher
education
Correlation
SE
Correlation
SE
Correlation
SE
Correlation
SE
Correlation
SE
Argentina
0.10
0.030
0.15
0.027
-0.15
0.028
0.08
0.030
-0.05
0.029
Brazil
0.13
0.041
0.19
0.052
-0.15
0.053
0.07
0.039
0.13
0.044
Chile
0.03
0.036
0.15
0.040
-0.09
0.045
0.05
0.037
0.05
0.043
India
0.14
0.051
0.11
0.046
0.08
0.038
-0.09
0.047
0.12
0.037
Malaysia
0.00
0.043
0.08
0.035
a
0.04
0.036
-0.05
0.020
Paraguay
0.05
0.033
0.21
0.032
-0.04
0.076
0.07
0.031
0.04
0.043
Peru
0.11
0.034
0.15
0.039
-0.14
0.031
0.01
0.037
0.00
0.025
Philippines
0.12
0.031
0.08
0.047
-0.05
0.048
0.06
0.038
0.02
0.042
Sri lanka
0.09
0.053
0.09
0.051
0.01
0.045
-0.02
0.040
0.01
0.038
Tunisia
0.05
0.039
0.13
0.035
-0.14
0.037
0.05
0.040
0.02
0.043
Uruguay
0.14
0.032
0.12
0.035
-0.21
0.029
0.14
0.031
a
Note: Correlations that are significant at P <0.5 appear in bold characters.
Source: WEI-SPS database.
These have been presented in Figure 7.18. It can be
schools and in private versus public schools. In Brazil,
seen that there was a fairly even mixture of approaches
Malaysia and Peru, active learning was practised more in
and that in general, the group work approaches were
city/town than in village schools, and in Brazil, Paraguay,
most used and rote repetition approaches least used.
Peru and the Philippines more in private than in public
The interesting exceptions were India and Malaysia
schools (see Tables A7.25, A7.26 and A7.27). Group work
where rote repetition was more pronounced. It was
tended to be more common in public than in private
possible to correlate the activities’ indices with the
schools, and rote repetition was used more in village than
same variables as was done for the teaching practices
in city schools and in public rather than private schools.
earlier in this chapter. The results for the active learning
Pupil assessment
activities have been presented in Table 7.3. For the
other indices, the results have been presented in
Understanding how pupils progress towards various
Tables A7.22 and A7.23 in Appendix A.
learning goals is essential for instructional improvement.
Information on how each pupil in a class is learning is
The active learning index correlated significantly with
necessary for identifying the effects of previous teaching
classroom resources in nine out of the 11 countries and
and learning activities as well as for planning purpose.
with the social intake in six countries. As expected, it
Feedback to pupils about where they stand in terms of
correlated negatively with grade repetition in five of the
achieving learning targets is crucial to their motivation.
countries but not with teacher experience or teacher years
The percentage of pupils with teachers who reported
of academic education. Although not shown here, the
different kinds of pupil assessment activities have been
different indices were examined in city/town versus village
reported in Tables 7.4 to 7.8.
TABlE 7.4 PercenTaGe of PuPiLs assessed on Their resPonses in cLass
Never
Less than once a month
Once a month
Once a week or more
Daily
%
SE
%
SE
%
SE
%
SE
%
SE
Argentina
0.1
0.06
0.8
0.28
0.9
0.24
7.9
0.75
90.2
0.80
Brazil
0.4
0.33
0.9
0.25
2.3
0.47
19.2
1.42
77.2
1.53
Chile
0.8
0.38
2.1
0.63
2.5
0.66
12.1
1.20
82.6
1.53
India
0.2
0.10
3.2
0.86
4.5
0.91
25.2
2.13
66.9
2.14
Malaysia
0.6
0.32
2.1
0.50
5.0
0.79
32.7
1.99
59.6
2.08
Paraguay
0.1
0.05
1.5
0.39
3.3
0.62
18.6
1.26
76.5
1.39
Peru
0.1
0.11
0.5
0.22
1.2
0.37
12.9
1.23
85.4
1.30
Philippines
0.0
0.01
0.3
0.19
0.9
0.35
10.4
1.24
88.3
1.30
Sri lanka
0.1
0.09
0.3
0.16
4.8
1.08
13.5
1.51
81.4
1.82
Tunisia
0.6
0.27
2.9
0.61
3.0
0.70
14.1
1.39
79.4
1.56
Uruguay
3.2
0.58
5.2
0.77
9.1
0.96
33.5
1.51
48.9
1.65
Wei-sPs median
0.2
1.5
3.0
14.1
79.4
Source: WEI-SPS database.
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
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TABlE 7.5 PercenTaGe of PuPiLs assessed on Teacher-Made TesTs
Never
Less than once a month
Once a month
Once a week or more
Daily
%
SE
%
SE
%
SE
%
SE
%
SE
Argentina
0.1
0.05
10.9
0.97
54.5
1.48
30.2
1.40
4.3
0.53
Brazil
1.7
0.61
14.4
1.36
59.3
2.09
23.0
1.83
1.6
0.41
Chile
0.6
0.29
2.2
0.52
26.7
1.90
63.5
2.14
7.1
1.13
India
0.6
0.28
8.0
1.33
44.5
2.04
37.9
2.12
9.0
1.20
Malaysia
0.2
0.15
10.6
1.22
72.8
1.75
15.0
1.40
1.4
0.46
Paraguay
0.2
0.11
14.1
1.18
54.1
1.77
26.9
1.61
4.7
0.75
Peru
0.2
0.18
2.2
0.47
32.8
1.77
47.9
1.80
16.9
1.38
Philippines
0.1
0.09
1.1
0.37
5.9
1.03
50.7
2.21
42.1
2.15
Sri lanka
0.3
0.22
2.6
0.64
39.3
2.42
43.9
2.47
13.8
1.83
Tunisia
m
6.7
0.97
44.2
1.99
31.5
1.78
17.7
1.50
Uruguay
1.5
0.35
28.5
1.49
41.7
1.67
21.9
1.41
6.4
0.83
Wei-sPs median
0.3
8.0
44.2
31.5
7.1
Source: WEI-SPS database.
TABlE 7.6 PercenTaGe of PuPiLs assessed on Their Work in eXercise Books
Never
Less than once a month
Once a month
Once a week or more
Daily
%
SE
%
SE
%
SE
%
SE
%
SE
Argentina
30.9
1.53
4.8
0.63
5.2
0.57
28.0
1.37
31.2
1.49
Brazil
3.4
0.60
3.5
0.65
5.7
1.09
33.4
1.93
54.1
2.20
Chile
1.1
0.41
1.6
0.44
8.5
1.10
43.0
1.96
45.8
2.01
India
0.6
0.24
3.5
0.70
16.4
2.01
41.1
2.50
38.4
2.51
Malaysia
0.0
0.00
0.4
0.11
4.3
0.74
29.6
1.74
65.6
1.82
Paraguay
22.8
1.44
6.0
0.83
9.7
0.99
30.8
1.55
30.7
1.66
Peru
4.4
0.81
0.9
0.32
2.9
0.55
40.1
1.76
51.8
1.74
Philippines
0.9
0.33
1.1
0.45
1.1
0.31
28.4
2.04
68.5
2.04
Sri lanka
m
m
2.0
0.51
20.3
1.86
77.7
1.89
Tunisia
1.2
0.40
4.2
0.71
7.0
0.99
33.2
1.74
54.4
1.94
Uruguay
12.0
1.06
8.5
0.91
14.4
1.12
50.1
1.68
15.0
1.26
Wei-sPs median
2.3
3.5
5.7
33.2
51.8
Source: WEI-SPS database.
TABlE 7.7 PercenTaGe of PuPiLs assessed on hoMeWork assiGnMenTs
Never
Less than once a month
Once a month
Once a week or more
Daily
%
SE
%
SE
%
SE
%
SE
%
SE
Argentina
3.0
0.51
1.8
0.39
1.4
0.34
20.1
1.20
73.8
1.36
Brazil
1.9
0.52
1.8
0.39
2.3
0.77
27.0
1.94
67.0
1.99
Chile
5.0
0.91
4.9
0.79
4.5
0.79
39.0
1.98
46.6
2.01
India
0.1
0.06
0.5
0.23
2.9
1.06
24.3
1.85
72.2
2.08
Malaysia
0.3
0.17
0.0
0.01
0.1
0.03
28.2
1.92
71.4
1.93
Paraguay
0.3
0.16
0.5
0.25
0.7
0.29
14.6
1.24
84.0
1.30
Peru
0.7
0.26
0.6
0.27
0.5
0.21
10.0
1.05
88.1
1.16
Philippines
0.0
0.02
0.1
0.12
m
8.0
0.87
91.9
0.87
Sri lanka
m
0.2
0.16
1.8
0.70
17.3
1.66
80.7
1.78
Tunisia
3.3
0.68
4.5
0.89
2.2
0.50
44.6
2.12
45.4
1.98
Uruguay
6.1
0.84
4.9
0.66
2.8
0.64
14.8
1.06
71.5
1.44
Wei-sPs median
1.3
0.6
2.0
20.1
72.2
Source: WEI-SPS database.
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TABlE 7.8 PercenTaGe of PuPiLs assessed on eXTernaLLY-Made TesTs
Never
Less than once a month
Once a month
Once a week or more
Daily
%
SE
%
SE
%
SE
%
SE
%
SE
Argentina
84.4
1.15
11.7
1.06
2.9
0.56
0.6
0.19
0.5
0.25
Brazil
57.2
2.07
31.1
1.99
8.7
1.17
2.0
0.83
0.9
0.33
Chile
6.7
1.00
22.3
1.81
31.2
1.89
33.6
2.03
6.3
0.88
India
32.1
2.60
24.9
2.60
30.2
2.25
7.2
1.11
5.5
1.06
Malaysia
23.7
1.82
53.4
2.09
18.9
1.68
3.4
0.61
0.6
0.33
Paraguay
72.6
1.63
15.5
1.22
9.2
1.05
2.2
0.55
0.5
0.23
Peru
56.8
2.09
28.8
1.81
9.8
1.09
3.7
0.66
1.0
0.26
Philippines
a
a
a
a
a
Sri lanka
5.8
1.38
12.6
1.47
46.9
2.47
31.6
2.12
3.1
0.60
Tunisia
1.3
0.40
31.5
1.78
60.4
1.85
5.5
0.78
1.3
0.37
Uruguay
87.2
1.23
11.5
1.15
0.2
0.11
0.5
0.22
0.7
0.30
Wei-sPs median
44.4
23.6
14.3
3.6
1.0
Source: WEI-SPS database.
In every participating country, teachers used a variety
conclusion
of strategies in the continuous assessment of their
In keeping with world wide trends, the primary teachers
pupils. Overall, they commonly relied on teacher-
in the participating countries were predominantly
made tests and exercises in workbooks. homework
young (about 40 years old) and female. There was
assignments varied from relatively low in Tunisia and
a wide range of pre-service teacher training – from
Chile to relatively high in Peru and the Philippines. The
1.1 years in India and Tunisia to more than 3.7 years
use of externally-made tests appeared to be relatively
in Chile and Uruguay. Teacher placement was relatively
common in Sri lanka and Chile, but they were not used
stable as most teachers had been in their present post
extensively in any other country.
for more than eight years.
however, there was considerable variation in the
Teacher professional development also indicated
combination of assessment forms and the frequency
that there was an interesting emphasis on research,
in which they were employed. In general, teachers
courses for further qualifications, observation visits and
assessed pupils’ responses in the classroom on a daily
teaching at other schools. This was in addition to the
basis in all WEI-SPS countries. This was backed up
normal content- and method-based workshops and
by work in exercise books albeit less frequently for
courses. These results may have involved some degree
pupils in Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay. Teacher-
of social desirability bias, but the persistence across
made tests were used weekly or monthly, except in
countries provides some credence to the response
the Philippines, where 42 percent of pupils took
patterns.
such tests daily. Externally-made tests were used
once a month or less, with the exceptions of Uruguay
The reported workload per week for teachers teaching
and Argentina, where 87 percent and 85 percent
in only one school ranged from 25 hours (Malaysia)
respectively of pupils had teachers who reportedly
to 41 hours (Chile and the Philippines). It was mostly
never used these tests. Finally, nearly all pupils were
in Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay that some teachers
reported to have homework daily or more than once
had to teach in more than one school with workloads
ranging from 41 to 59 hours.
a week. Nevertheless, a small percentage of pupils
in Argentina, Chile, Tunisia and Uruguay never had
In terms of teaching approaches, just over 20 percent
homework. This is clearly an issue of concern for the
of pupils had teachers who focused on actual
authorities.
demonstration and explaining topics to the whole class.
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151
ChAPTEr 7: GENErAl ChArACTErISTICS OF GrAdE 4 TEAChErS ANd ThEIr TEAChING
Approximately 10 percent of pupils had teachers who
lessons and marking homework, was 33 hours per
engaged in the following: questions and answers, helping
week. The teachers reported that they had about 12
individuals, helping groups, reviewing homework, and
days of in-service training in the past year. According
class work. Some interesting differences were observed
to their reports about teaching activities, relatively few
among countries on the extent to which they used
‘explained lesson aims’, ‘gave a summary when finished’,
different types of activities that could be categorised as
asked pupils to cooperate in groups’, ‘asked pupils to
pupil-centred, strongly-structured, or teacher-centred.
provide explanations’, or ‘asked pupils how they did their
Most teachers used exercises in notebooks, and teacher-
assignments’. Teacher-centred approaches were more
made tests to assess their pupils.
commonly used than pupil-centred.
It was apparent that most teachers used set texts,
Brazil: A typical teacher was 39 years old and had spent
as well as demonstration and class exercises as
seven years in his or her present school. She or he had
instructional methods, without necessarily access to
16 years of formal education of which three years
teacher guides, or other classroom resources. Overall,
were pre-service teacher training. Nearly 30 percent
teachers in Argentina appeared to have the fewest
of teachers taught in more than one school and their
resources. Pupil texts were not common, nor were
total teacher load was 46 hours per week. The other
resources such as a dictionary, teacher guides, or a
70 percent of teachers had a load of 33 hours per week.
reading corner. They also tended to spend less time
The average teacher had about 10 hours of in-service
than average in reading and mathematics instruction.
training in the previous year, of which much was spent
This observation may be reflected in Chapter 9 where
on the upgrading of subject matter content and method.
Argentina appeared to have a slightly lower mean score
however, some time was invested in research-based
related to ’variety of reading materials used in Grade 4
conferences and observing in other schools. Teaching
classes’. Certainly, these indices might also be taken
activities tended to be slightly more teacher-centred
as opportunity to teach measures. The lack of access to
than the average for WEI-SPS countries. Pupil activities
resources was related to a teacher-centred approach.
tended to be less focused on rote repetition and more on
‘working on non-standard problems’.
Indices were created of activities related to teaching
styles such as teacher-centred practices, strongly-
Chile: A typical teacher was 45 years old and had been
structured practices and pupil-centred activities. The
in the present school for 11 years. he or she had 18
same was true for learning approaches such as active
years of formal education and four years of teacher
learning, group work, and rote repetition. There were
training. Only ten percent of teachers taught in more
interesting differences among countries on several
than one school. Teachers had 13 days of in-service
variables. The active learning index and the pupil-
training in the previous year. Many took courses
centred approach were usually correlated with schools
‘updating subject matter knowledge and methods’,
with a socially advantaged intake of pupils and higher
as well as ICT courses, research-based conferences,
levels of classroom resources. It was therefore not
qualification programmes and observing in other
surprising to note that private schools and urban
schools. relative to other countries, Chilean teachers
schools undertook more active learning activities and
were high on the teacher-centred activities scale and
more pupil-centred teaching approaches than public
on the strongly-structured’ scale. They also focused
schools and village schools.
more on group work and less on rote repetition. The
teachers undertook a lot of pupil assessment mostly
Country profiles
using teacher-made tests.
Argentina: A typical teacher was 40 years old and had
India: A typical teacher was about 38 years old, had
spent about 9 years in the present school. She or he had
been teaching in the present school for about eight
17 years of formal education, including three years of
years, had about 15 years of formal education, and
pre-service teacher training. Nearly one quarter of all
one year of teacher training. less than 50 percent of
teachers taught in more than one school. For the other
teachers were female. Nine percent taught in more
teachers, the weekly workload, including preparing
than one school and had a teaching load of about
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A VIEW INSIdE PrIMAry SChOOlS
30 hours per week. They tended to have had 12 days
years, and had about 13 years of formal education,
of in-service training in the previous year. The general
including four years of pre-service teacher training.
approach to teaching was traditional with little scope
Most teachers taught at only one school and had a
for enquiry and experiential learning. rote repetition
teaching load of 36 hours per week. They had 12 days
was practised a great deal and active learning was not
of in-service training in the previous school year, most
emphasized. Teachers assessed pupils continuously
of which was focussed on subject matter content and
using a variety of practices.
method, but also on ICT, research-based conferences,
observational visits to other schools, and participation
Malaysia: A typical teacher was about 35 years old,
in teacher networks. The teachers seemed to focus
had been teaching in the present school for about six
equally on teacher-centred, pupil-centred and strongly-
years, had about 17 years of formal education, and
structured teaching styles. There was a great deal
2.5 years of pre-service teacher training. Teachers
of pupil assessment using teacher-made tests and
taught at only one school and their workload was
exercises in notebooks.
25 hours per week. In the previous year, they had
11 days of in-service training, much of which was
Philippines: A typical teacher was about 40 years old,
devoted to subject matter content, method and ICT.
had been teaching in the present school for about
relative to other countries, fewer pupils had teachers
10 years, had about 11 years of formal education in
who ‘explained the aims of the lesson’, ‘moved to
addition to four years of pre-service teacher training.
a new topic only when all pupils had understood’
Almost all teachers taught only in one school and
and ‘allowed pupils to compare strategies’. More
their teaching load was reported to be 41 hours
pupils had teachers who ‘asked pupils to provide
per week. This was more than in any other WEI-SPS
explanations’, and ‘asked pupils how they had done
country, except for Chile. A typical teacher had seven
an assignment’. In general, the teachers had a ‘pupil-
days of in-service training, mostly focussed on subject
centred’ approach. On the other hand, many pupils
matter content and methods, but also on research-
had teachers who stressed rote learning by ‘repeating
based conferences. Teachers tended to describe their
sentences’, ‘copying from the blackboard’ and ‘reciting
approaches as being ‘strongly-structured and ‘pupil-
and chanting’. There were only minimal differences
centred’. But average amounts of pupil activities were
in these activities between the teachers in village and
devoted to rote repetition, active learning and group
town schools. The assessment strategies relied mostly
work. Teachers did a lot of pupil assessment mostly
on exercises in notebooks, responses in class, and
using teacher-made tests.
homework assignments.
Sri Lanka: A typical teacher was about 41 years old,
Paraguay: A typical teacher was about 40 years
had been teaching in the present school for about
old, had been teaching in the present school for
eight years, had about 13 years of formal education of
about eight years and had about 17 years of formal
which two were for pre-service teacher training. Nearly
education of which three years were for pre-service
all taught in only one school and had a workload of
teacher training. Almost all teachers taught in only
28 hours per week. Teachers had 5 days of in-service
one school and had a workload of 33 hours per
training, primarily focussed on subject matter content
week. They had 12 days of in-service training in the
and method. The teachers were high on the scales of
previous year, primarily focussed on subject matter
pupil-centred activities and strongly structured learning
content and method. The teachers tended to place the
approaches. They used a lot of group work. Pupil
same emphasis on ‘pupil centred activities’, ‘teacher-
assessment was widely practised, using mostly teacher-
centred’, and ‘strongly-structured’ teaching styles.
made tests and some developed externally.
There was some emphasis on rote repetition. Pupil
assessment was conducted mostly using exercises in
Tunisia: A typical teacher was about 38 years old, had
notebooks and teacher-made tests.
been teaching in the present school for about six years,
had about 13 years of formal education and one year
Peru: A typical teacher was about 40 years old, had
of pre-service teacher training. Almost all teachers
been teaching in the present school for about eight
taught in only one school with a teaching load of
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ChAPTEr 7: GENErAl ChArACTErISTICS OF GrAdE 4 TEAChErS ANd ThEIr TEAChING
39 hours per week. A typical teacher had four days of
in-service teacher training in the previous year, more
or less equally split among subject matter knowledge
and methods and observational visits to other schools.
relative to other countries in the study, teachers in
Tunisia said that they spent more time preparing
lessons and marking homework. They spent less time
on ‘settling the pupils down’, ‘demonstrating and
explaining topics to the whole class’, and ‘reviewing
homework’, and more time on working with pupils
individually and in groups. On classroom activities,
teachers were low on pupil- and teacher-centred
scales. About 50 percent of pupils had teachers who
used homework assignments for assessment, while
30 percent were assessed on the basis of exercises in
notebooks and teacher-made tests.
Uruguay: A typical teacher was about 40 years old, had
been teaching in the current school for about seven
years, and had about 17 years of formal education in
addition to four years of pre-service teacher training.
Twenty-five percent of teachers taught in more than
one school with a workload of 35 hours per week
compared with 49 hours for those teaching in more
than one school. A typical teacher had five days on in-
service training in the previous year. Most of this was
on subject matter content and methods, and to some
extent, on research-based conferences. relative to other
countries, the Uruguayan teachers spent less time on
setting and reviewing home work. learning activities
were more pupil-centred with a lot of active learning.
Pupil assessment was conducted using mostly exercises
in notebooks and responses of pupils in class.
154
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8 Teacher attitudes, perceptions
and satisfaction
Aletta Grisay (University of Liège)
Introduction
Teachers’ perceptions of school staff’s
In school effectiveness studies, a number of authors
expectations concerning academic
(e.g. Rutter and al., 1979; Purkey and Smith, 1983;
achievement
Levine and Lezotte, 1990; Freiberg, 1999; Ghaith, 2003)
Effective schools are typically described in the literature
reported on the important role played by what has
as institutions where the school head and teachers
been called a positive school ethos or school climate in
consider it to be extremely important that all pupils
fostering pupils’ academic achievement, self-concept
meet the academic standards that were set for them,
and school motivation. School ethos can be defined
and are convinced that their major role is to help them
as a combination of values, attitudes, expectations
to reach those standards. Conversely, in ineffective
and behaviours that are more or less shared by the
schools the staff members often express the idea that
members of a school community and are usually
the aptitudes or the motivation of some pupils are
perceived as ‘distinctive’ by pupils, teachers, as well as
insufficient to attain the instructional objectives, and
by parents or other local community actors. Generally,
that there is little that a teacher can do to improve the
in schools with a positive ethos, there is a consensus
situation.
among school staff, pupils and pupils’ families about
In order to explore the emphasis put on academic
the value of academic and educational achievement,
achievement, teachers were asked to what extent they
and some form of partnership in pursuing it.
agreed with six statements:
Aspirations to academic success are fostered in
• Our school puts great emphasis on cognitive outcomes in
all pupils, and a sense of identity and belonging
basic school subjects.
to the school community is promoted. The school
• Most of the teachers in this school do their best to help
atmosphere is usually quiet, safe and work-oriented;
students attain high achievement results.
pupil/teachers relationships are perceived as positive.
Pupils’ motivation is high, and teachers report high
• Most of the teachers in this school strive to ensure that
levels of satisfaction with their job.
all students do well.
• It is important in our school that each student reaches
The aim of this chapter is to explore the information
his/her full potential.
collected through the WEI-SPS teacher questionnaire
on a number of dimensions that can be considered
• The school head and staff have high expectations for
as particularly important components of the school
students’ achievement.
climate, in terms of teachers’ attitudes and perceptions:
• We consider as a priority in this school to help the
weakest students to attain reasonable levels of
• Teachers’ perceptions of school staff’s expectations
achievement.
concerning pupils’ achievement of academic
standards;
The rate of positive answers (‘agree’ or ‘strongly agree’)
appeared to be over 90 percent for almost all items in
• Teachers’ perceptions of the role of the school head
all participating countries (see Table A8.1), suggesting
in conveying a clear and shared vision of the school’s
that this set of items may have been less discriminating
objectives;
than expected, probably due to social compliance biases.
• Teachers’ complaints about possible problems that
In Figure 8.1, only the percentage of Grade 4 pupils in
might hinder their capacity to deliver appropriate
schools where the teacher ticked the highest answer
instruction;
category (‘strongly agree’) have been presented for
• Teachers’ professional satisfaction; and
each of the items.
• Teachers’ perceptions of the social status of teachers,
In Chile, India and the Philippines, more than 50 percent
compared to other professionals.
of the Grade 4 pupils attended classes whose teachers
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ChAPTER 8: TEAChER ATTITUdES, PERCEPTIONS ANd SATISFACTION
said that they strongly agreed with all six items used to
An overall indicator of School emphasis on academic
cover the dimension Emphasis on academic achievement.
achievement was created by averaging the available
The proportion of ‘strongly agree’ was also very high
answers to the six items, so that the scores can vary
for almost all items in all other countries (except Peru,
from 1 (strongly disagree with all items) to 4 (strongly
where a majority of teachers selected ‘agree’ rather than
agree with all items). The mean scores have been
‘strongly agree’).
presented, together with the standard error and the
Only one of the items – ‘Our school puts great emphasis
alpha reliability of the scale, in Table A8.5. Mean values
on cognitive outcomes in basic school subjects’ – drew
above 2 indicate countries where a majority of pupils
slightly less positive responses in most countries,
had teachers who tended to agree or strongly agree
probably because the expression ‘basic school subjects’
with most of the items, while values below 2 would
was considered too restrictive. It referred to the idea
indicate that a majority of pupils had teachers who
that the curriculum should be focussed on a set of basic
tended to disagree or strongly disagree. The very high
or minimal competences, which is often controversial
mean scores observed in all countries seem to point to
among educators.
possible effects of social desirability.
FiGUre 8.1
Teachers’ perception of Emphasis on academic achievement among school staff
Percentage of Grade 4 pupils whose teacher reported to ‘strongly agree’ with the following statements
Our school puts great emphasis on cognitive outcomes in basic school subjects
Most of the teachers in this school do their best to help students attain high achievement results
Most of the teachers in this school strive to ensure that all students do well
It is important in our school that each student reaches his/her full potential
The school head and staff have high expectations for students’ achievement
We consider as a priority in this school to help the weakest students to attain reasonable levels of achievement
%
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
a
y
a
y
ysia
Brazil
Chile
India
Peru
anka
T
unisia
rgentina
Urugu
A
Mala
Paragu
Sri L
Philippines
Note: Response categories were ‘strongly disagree’, ‘disagree’, ‘agree’ and ‘strongly agree’.
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A8.1.
156
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A VIEW INSIdE PRIMARy SChOOLS
TAbLE 8.1 CorrelaTIon beTween The Index of Emphasis on acadEmic achiEvEmEnt and seleCTed
CharaCTerIsTICs of PUPIls
index of Social advantage
Percentage of pupils
of classroom intake
Number of classroom resources
repeating a grade
Perceived pupil motivation
Correlation
Se
Correlation
Se
Correlation
Se
Correlation
Se
Argentina
0.11
0.031
0.07
0.034
-0.12
0.027
0.27
0.027
brazil
0.15
0.045
0.15
0.040
-0.22
0.041
0.30
0.032
Chile
0.07
0.034
0.21
0.056
-0.14
0.055
0.26
0.033
India
0.18
0.037
0.09
0.049
-0.07
0.039
0.36
0.044
Malaysia
0.03
0.043
0.10
0.036
a
0.29
0.035
Paraguay
0.10
0.035
0.12
0.035
-0.13
0.037
0.28
0.033
Peru
0.17
0.035
0.04
0.037
-0.05
0.038
0.27
0.032
Philippines
0.12
0.039
0.13
0.038
0.01
0.035
0.28
0.037
Sri Lanka
0.13
0.053
0.07
0.047
-0.07
0.049
0.25
0.046
Tunisia
0.08
0.041
0.13
0.033
0.04
0.038
0.24
0.039
Uruguay
0.07
0.034
0.17
0.029
-0.20
0.031
0.24
0.029
Note: Correlations that are significant at P <0.5 appear in bold characters.
Source: WEI-SPS database.
In order to estimate the impact of this potential bias,
literature about teachers’ expectations. It has often been
an indicator of Social desirability of the respondent’s
described as a case of reciprocal relationship: on the one
answers was created.1 The correlation of this indicator
hand, teachers develop higher expectations when they
with School emphasis on academic achievement was 0.46,
teach a class that they perceive as motivated and well-
confirming that this set of questions was probably
performing. On the other hand, other things being equal,
affected to a significant extent by compliance bias.
students learn better and develop more motivation when
taught by a teacher who has high expectations.
For this reason, the differences in School emphasis on
academic achievement scale scores observed across
Some differences were also observed in relation to school
the WEI-SPS countries could not be considered as
location and school type, and have been presented in
interpretable. It was hard to tell whether theses
Figure 8.2. The first panel of Figure 8.2 is devoted to the
differences were due to higher levels of compliance
standardized differences in mean index scores of pupils
among the respondents in certain countries or to
attending village schools compared to those attending
authentic differences in the respondents’ perceptions.
city/town schools. In the second panel, differences in
mean index scores of pupils attending public schools,
however, the interpretation was slightly easier at the
compared to those in private schools have been shown.
national level. despite the weakness of the indicator
In both cases, the differences have been expressed as
(and the reduced discrimination power that resulted
fractions of the standard deviation of the national scores,
from it), the scale had interesting correlations with
i.e. as effect sizes (see the explanation in Box 3.1).
some characteristics of the pupils taught by the
respondent (see Table 8.1).
Only very minor differences were observed in the
mean values of the index of Emphasis on academic
It can be seen from Table 8.1 that in almost all countries,
achievement between village and urban schools,
the emphasis placed by the school staff on academic
although in India, Chile, Peru and the Philippines,
achievement tended to be somewhat higher for classes
attended by pupils perceived as ‘motivated’ by their
teacher, and, to a lesser extent, for classes with high
1. This indicator was computed by averaging the proportion
proportions of advantaged pupils and better educational
of items where the teacher tended to select the most
‘desirable’ answer to three other questions in the Teacher
resources. Conversely, the indicator had lower values
Questionnaire (TQ20 and TQ21 on teaching practices and
for classes with high proportions of pupils repeating a
TQ24 on satisfaction with various aspects of the school and
grade. This pattern of results is quite common in the
teaching profession).
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
157
ChAPTER 8: TEAChER ATTITUdES, PERCEPTIONS ANd SATISFACTION
FiGUre 8.2
differences in mean values of the index of Emphasis on academic achievement,
by school location and type
Higher index values
Higher index values
Higher index values
Higher index values
in village schools
in city/town schools
in public schools
in private schools
Argentina
-0.04
0.18
Argentina
Brazil
-0.01
0.21
Brazil
Chile
0.16
-0.07
Chile
India
0.20
0.36
India
-0.11
Malaysia
Malaysia
Paraguay
0.10
0.20
Paraguay
Peru
0.16
0.44
Peru
Philippines
0.14
0.24
Philippines
Sri Lanka
-0.05
Sri Lanka
Tunisia
0.03
Tunisia
-0.06
Uruguay
0.23
Uruguay
-1.0 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 -1.0 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Notes: Response categories were ‘strongly disagree’, ‘disagree’, ‘agree’ and ‘strongly agree’.
A bar in dark shade means the difference is statistically different from zero.
Sources: WEI-SPS database; Table A8.6.
there was a slight trend towards higher emphasis in
i) Role of school heads in implementing a shared
urban schools. by contrast, in countries where private
vision of school objectives among staff
schools existed2, the difference between public and
Educational environments that are unpredictable or
private schools was generally significant (in favour
ridden with conflicts are known to be unsuitable for
of private schools). The largest effect size was found
young children. Negative effects on pupils’ development
in Peru, where the mean level of emphasis reported
by teachers in private schools outscored the level
2. In Malaysia, private schools were included in the sample, but
reported in public schools by nearly half of a standard
the school type variable was not included in the database.
deviation.
Therefore, no effect size could be computed for private/public
schools in Malaysia.
Teachers’ positive or negative perceptions
3. The factor structure that emerged from a Principal
Component Analysis (PCA) analysis of this set of items was
of selected aspects of their professional
somewhat unstable across the participating countries, partly
life
due to a few items that appeared to have a relatively low
communality and moderate loadings on more than one factor
Teachers responded to 17 items aimed at collecting
(item14: I make a conscious effort to coordinate the content of
my courses with that of other teachers; item 16: I sometimes feel
information about their satisfaction with various
it is a waste of time to try to do my best as a teacher; and item
aspects of professional life. Three indicators were
17: I would recommend other teachers to come and teach in this
school). These 3 items appeared to be flawed in a number
derived from this set of items:3 Role of principals
of countries, and were deleted from further analyses. The
in implementing a shared vision of school objectives;
remaining 14 items tended to cluster into three reasonably
Teacher complaints about problems hindering instruction;
consistent factors. Separate PCAs on each of these groups of
items confirmed that, in all three cases, single factors could
and Teacher professional satisfaction.
be extracted in all or almost all countries.
158
© UNESCO-UIS 2008
A VIEW INSIdE PRIMARy SChOOLS
have been observed in schools where there is
• My school head knows what kind of school he/she wants
significant inconsistency in teachers’ educational
and has communicated it to the staff.
values, instructional practices or disciplinary methods.
• There is a great deal of cooperation among staff members.
One of the important roles of the school head is to
help create a consensus among the school staff about
The percentage of Grade 4 pupils in schools where the
their common mission and the practices to fulfil it. To
teacher ticked the various answer categories for each of
measure this dimension, six items were included in the
these items have been presented in Table A8.2. The rate
Teacher questionnaire:
of positive answers (‘agree’ or ‘strongly agree’) appeared
• My school head lets staff members know what is
to be over 90 percent for almost all items in all
expected of them.
participating countries, suggesting that, again, this set of
• My school head is supportive and encouraging towards
items may have suffered from social compliance biases.
the staff.
In Figure 8.3, only the percentage of Grade 4 pupils in
• My school head enforces school rules for student conduct.
schools where the teacher ticked the highest answer
• Most of my colleagues share my beliefs about what the
category (‘strongly agree’) have been presented for
central mission of the school should be.
each of the items.
FiGUre 8.3
Teacher satisfact
